Ancient Rome Lecture Notes The Land and the People The people of Roman managed to do what no others

before them had been able to do: they ruled the entire known world under a single administration for an extended period of time. They brought their concepts of law and ustice to the rest of the world. Rome was a military state that maintained a strong military presence in the lands they con!uered. They de"oted a great deal of thought to military strategy# technology# administration and law in order to sustain the empire they built. Romans had a slight inferiority complex where the $reeks were concerned. They borrowed much of their culture from the $reeks and modified it to suit their own needs. This is especially true in the areas of art# architecture# philosophy and religion. %n short# %taly was a multicultural landscape that came to be dominated by the small "illage of Rome. %taly is a peninsula that uts out into the &editerranean ust west of $reece. %taly has few mineral resources and e"en fewer usable harbors# but it does ha"e a lot of fertile land. The Romans were essentially an agrarian people. %taly is also easily accessible to 'urope from the north. There were no buffer ci"ili(ations to help protect the Romans from in"aders# so conflict was fairly constant for them. )e know "ery little about the early people of %taly. )e do know that they were nomadic herdsmen and that they were technologically superior# ha"ing full use of bron(e# horses and wheeled carts. They were warlike and included a "ariety of ethnic groups including the *abines# the +mbrians and the Latins. ,etween -.. and /.. ,0# the $reeks and 'truscans began to mo"e into %taly. The 'truscans The origin of the 'truscans is a mystery# though archaeologists suspect that they come from the eastern &editerranean# possibly Asia &inor. They brought ci"ili(ation and urbani(ation to %taly. They settled in the area between the Appenine mountain range and the Tyrrhenian *ea# and their ci"ili(ation stretched from the Arno Ri"er in the north to the Tiber Ri"er in the center of the %talian peninsula.

The Latins# who later became the Romans# li"ed in a small "illage on the Tiber Ri"er# so they had lots of contact with the neighboring 'truscans. 'truscan language# ideas# religion and ci"ili(ation had a huge impact on the de"elopment of Roman ci"ili(ation and culture. The 'truscans li"ed in fortified city1states that formed small confederacies. They were ruled by a monarch# but later oligarchies took o"er. They were largely agrarian but had a strong military that they used to dominate those peoples that surrounded them. These people were used for labor in 'truscan agrarian enterprises. %n the 2 th and /th centuries# the 'truscan military dominated most of %taly# including Rome and the island of 0orsica. The Legend of Remus and Romulus According to Roman legend# Rome was founded by Romulus. 3ing Numitor of Alba Longa was deposed by his brother Amulius. Numitor4s daughter# Rhea *il"ia# was a 5estal 5irgin# that is# a priestess of the goddess 5esta. Although she was forbidden to marry# she fell in lo"e with &ars and had twin sons. Amulius was afraid that the boys would grow up and o"erthrow him# so he had the infants placed in a trough and set adrift in the Tiber Ri"er. The trough washed ashore and the boys were rescued by a she1wolf who fed them with her own milk. They were found by 6austulus# a shepherd# who adopted and raised them. The boys were named Remus and Romulus. As teens# the boys became in"ol"ed in a group of warlike shepherds. )hen Remus was captured and brought before Numitor for udgment# he was recogni(ed. The two boys o"erthrew Amulius and restored their grandfather to power. The pair decided to build their own town on the site where the she1wolf had nursed them# and Romulus began to build the walls. Remus made fun of the walls and said they weren4t tall enough# so Romulus killed him and went on building the city by himself. 7e named it Rome after his own name. %ts first citi(ens were outlaws and fugiti"es. The Roman 3ingdom Rome was settled by agrarian people. They were tribal and the tribal social logic dominated the Roman ci"ili(ation for a long time. The founding date of Rome is not clear# though it is suspected that it originated around /89 ,0. %t probably existed as a small "illage before then. The Romans based their ci"ili(ation on that of the 'truscans. 'arly Rome was go"erned by a monarch# who had absolute control o"er the people. The Romans called this power imperium. %t was similar to the power a father would ha"e o"er his household. Roman monarchy was patrilineal. Roman fathers were all powerful. They could sell their children into sla"ery or kill them if he so desired. 7owe"er he was re!uired to

consult with the family and with the public. &en were not allowed to sell or kill their wi"es# but they could di"orce them in extreme circumstances. The father ser"ed as the family priest. Roman monarchy followed this model# as well. The monarch had absolute power but was limited by the people# their welfare and tradition. 7e ser"ed as legislator# head of the military# head of the udiciary and chief priest. 7is authority was limited and controlled by a constitution. )ith the monarch there ruled a *enate and an assembly. The Senate was a weak oligarchy# a council of elders# composed of the heads of "arious clans. %t was a kind of clan confederacy. The *enate could appro"e or "eto the appointment of the king# as well as make sure his actions fit within constitutional constraints. Although the *enate appears to ha"e ratified almost e"erything the king wanted to do# they did ha"e a check on his power. %n fact# they pro"ided almost the same ser"ice that the *upreme 0ourt does in the +nited *tates. The assembly was composed of all male citi(ens# and to be a citi(en# you had to be able to pro"e that both of your parents were nati"e Romans. The assembly4s primary function was to grant imperium to the monarch that the senate had ratified. *o there was limited democracy in Rome e"en in the era of monarchy. The assembly was organi(ed into 9. groups based on lines of kinship. 'ach group got a single "ote# for a total of 9. "otes in the assembly. As Rome grew# the wealth was accumulated by only a few. The society was di"ided into two groups# the patricians and the plebians. The patricians were the wealthy. They controlled most of the power# wealth# trade and military. :nly they could ser"e as clan leaders# sit on the *enate and hold public or elected offices. The plebians were the ma ority of the population# the small farmers# laborers and craftspeople. The assembly represented them in go"ernment. Rome expanded its control o"er the territories surrounding it. Romans weren4t particularly greedy for land or wealth# they appear to ha"e been moti"ated by percei"ed threats to the security of their ci"ili(ation. 6or a while# the Roman monarchs were 'truscans# but the Romans rose up in re"olt and e ected the 'truscans from power in 8.; ,0. The Romans# whose monarchs had ruled through consent of the people# dismantled the monarch once they had dri"en out the 'truscans. The Roman Republic The era of the Roman Republic was one of great expansion. %t is a time of continuous warfare and the time from which the historical stories of Rome originate.

,efore the time of the republic# the Roman constitution was not a written or formal document# but a series of unwritten laws and traditions. The consuls were at the top of the go"ernmental structure. They were patricians who were elected to office for one year terms. They initiated legislation# ser"ed as the head of the udiciary and military and were the head priests of the nation. They had imperium# but their powers were "ery limited# largely due to the fact that they were only elected for one year# but also because there were two of them. $o"ernment under the consuls was "ery conser"ati"e and cautious. %n 9<8 ,0# Romans began to elect proconsuls# whose terms were often extended due to military campaigns. ,eneath the consuls were two quaestors# or financial officers. A later official called a praetor was added as a udicial=military office. They were the central generals of Rome. %t# too# was a one year term# but it could be extended in times of military campaigns. Censors were added to classify citi(ens according to wealth and tax status. This office was corrupt almost from the beginning. %mperium was concentrated in the hands of the wealthy. )hen the plebians made a play for more power# the patricians found that they were unable to function without the plebians. %n >;> ,0# the plebians officially withdrew from Rome and declared an alternati"e go"ernment. %n >8. ,0# the Law of the Twel"e Tables was produced. %t formali(ed and codified Roman law and its constitution. %n >>8 ,0# plebians gained the right to marry patricians# and in 92/ ,0# they gained the right to be elected consul. The Licinian1*extian laws later declared that at least one consul had to be a plebian. )hen the consul4s term was up# he would become a member of the *enate. This broke patrician hold on the *enate# as well. The final "ictory came in <-/,0# when the decisions of the plebian assembly became binding on all of Rome4s citi(ens. The 0on!uest of %taly The Romans first rid themsel"es of the Tar!uins in 8.;,0 and then the 'truscans. 7owe"er# their progress was hampered by the $auls# a 0eltic warlike# nomadic group. They burned Rome to the ground# but it regained its dominance by 98. ,0. Rome went to war with the *amnites in <;8 ,0 and defeated them# gi"ing Rome control of all of central %taly. Then it took o"er the $reek cities to the south. ,y the middle of the 9 rd century# Rome controlled all of the %talian peninsula. %n order to insure that they continued to hold %taly# the Romans ga"e the peoples of the con!uered territories certain rights. All were re!uired to send taxes and troops to Rome and Rome settled soldiers on the capti"e lands in permanent settlements. The Romans began a road building pro ect to connect all the territories to Rome

The Punic )ars 0arthage# which was the greatest na"al power of the &editerranean in the 9 rd century ,0# was located in north Africa. 0arthage was originally Phoenicia. )hile Rome was taking o"er most of %taly# 0arthage was taking o"er most of north Africa. %t also controlled most of the commercial trade in the &editerranean. %n the 9rd century ,0# these two great powers came into conflict o"er *icily. The wars were called the Punic )ars because the Latin word for Phoenicia is Poeni# and the Romans still called the 0arthaginians Phoenicians. %n the first Punic )ar# Rome destroyed the 0arthaginian na"y. %t was the first time the na"y had lost at battle. %n <>? ,0# the war ended with a treaty. Rome got *icily and a payment from 0arthage to co"er the cost of the war. %n the second Punic )ar# 0arthage had begun to expand its territory into *pain. Rome imposed a treaty on 0arthage in which they could not expand their territory past the 'bro Ri"er. Then the 0arthaginian force in *pain was taken o"er by 7annibal# who attacked and con!uered *aguntum. The Romans attempted to sol"e the problem diplomatically# but the 0arthaginians refused. %n *eptember of <?- ,0# 7annibal marched his army across the mountains to in"ade and con!uer much of northern %taly. The $auls oined him. Rome4s allies remained faithful. @uintus 6abius &aximus agreed to become absolute dictator of Rome. 7owe"er# when Philip of &acedonia allied with 7annibal# the Romans lost a great battle in 0annae. The Romans appointed Publius 0ornelius *cipio imperium o"er *pain. 7e con!uered all of *pain and turned it into Roman pro"inces. This left 7annibal high and dry in Rome. Then *cipio took the war to the walls of 0arthage. The 0arthaginians sued Rome for peace# but had to gi"e up the %talian peninsula. 0arthage was reduced to a dependent state and Rome had control of the whole )estern &editerranean# including north Africa. %n the third Punic )ar# Rome wanted the 0arthaginians to abandon 0arthage and mo"e inland to make the Romans feel more secure. They refused and the Roman *enate declared war. 0arthage was destroyed. The 0risis of the Republic 'conomic ine!uities brought great strife within Rome. *ulla had been appointed dictator to deal with the issues. 7e restored the *enate and intended to restore the Roman go"ernment to its original form. The reactions to his reforms were "iolent. The *enate was facing armed rebellion. 0rassus and Pompey took o"er the roles of consuls. Pompey became the single most popular leader in Rome# and 0rassus was ealous and intimidated. 0rassus allied himself with Aulius 0aesar. 7e con"inced 0rassus and Pompey to oin him in the first trium"irate.

Aulius 0aesar 7a"ing formed the 6irst Trium"irate with 0rassus and Pompey# 0aesar was elected consul. 7e became go"ernor of %llycrium and $aul and began a brilliant war of con!uest. 7e added northern 6rance# ,elgium and southern $reat ,ritain to Rome4s holdings. 0rassus died in war and Pompey turned on 0aesar and had him declared an enemy of the state. 0aesar# howe"er# mo"ed his troops across the Rubicon Ri"er and began a ci"il war. 0aesar was "ictorious# and in >2 ,0 he was declared dictator of Rome. Two years later# he was declared dictator for life. 7e reformed the go"ernment# but retained supreme power for himself. 6or all practical purposes# he was a monarch. The Romans resented his power and in >> ,0 he was assassinated. This began a brutal ci"il war that lasted for ?9 years. Augustus Augustus called himself princeps# which means BfirstC because he considered himself first among e!uals. 7e was on a mission to restore e!uity and order to the empire. 7e reformed the go"ernment and extended citi(enship to all %talians. Although he allowed elections for public offices# he rigged them so that his choices would win. 7e settled his soldiers on farmland. 7e turned the military from a "oluntary army into a standing# professional army. The pro"inces became like police states. Augustus began a "ast pro ect of building and patronage to the arts. Roman culture flourished. %t was known as the $olden Age of Roman Literature. %n it flourished 5ergil# 7orace and :"id. %mperial Rome The first emperors of Rome were all from the Aulian line: Tiberius# $aius D0aligulaE# 0laudius and Nero. Tiberius and 0aligula demonstrated how emperors could wield power as they liked. 0aligula had a ner"ous breakdown following the death of his sister and was famous for his cruelty. 7e was assassinated. %t became ob"ious that military power alone determined and legitimated an emperor4s rule. Nero began as a brilliant and highly moral leader# but it was under his rule that the Romans began to "igorously persecute 0hristians. Among those he executed was *aul of Tarsus# or Paul. The Roman $eneral 5espian sei(ed power following the o"erthrow of Nero and the dissipation of four emperors in one year. 7e founded the 6la"ian dynasty. 7e was an effecti"e leader and was succeeded by his son Titus and then Fomitian# who began a second wa"e of persecuting the 0hristians. Fomitian was assinated and the *enate elected Ner"a# who began

a period of what is know as The 6i"e $ood 'mperors: Ner"a# Tra an# 7adrian# Antonius Pius# and &arcus Aurelius. 'ach was elected from within the *enate. This time period saw great exportation of Roman culture# go"ernment and law. Roman pro"inces were granted the right of citi(enship and the empire became a single state. Furing this period li"ed the philosopher *eneca. Au"enal and Persius wrote dramatically creati"e pieces during this time and epic poetry was wildly popular. Lucan wrote Pharsalia D0i"il )arE. Tacitus became the foremost Roman historian with his Annals# a huge work. The Romans undertook huge building pro ects during the %mperial Age# including the Pantheon# the 0olosseum# and a!ueducts. The physician $alen made the disco"ery that blood circulated in the "eins. %n ?-. AF# the emperor 0ommodus threw Rome into a period of chaos. 'arly 0hristianity 0hristianity was introduced into 'urope and the Roman 'mpire. Paul de"oted his life into translating 0hristianity to a form that would be accepted by the $reeks and Romans. :ther than Nero and Fomitian# the Romans largely left the 0hristians alone. %n the 9 rd and >th centuries# 0hristianity grew dramatically in the Roman 'mpire and was finally declared the state religion by emperor 0onstantine. The 0alamitious 0entury )hen &arcus Aurelius died in ?-.# his son 0ommodus assumed the imperiate. 7e was unbalanced# brutal# incompetent and cruel. 7e was murdered by his own palace guards. The Roman 'mpire was in crisis. The $oths# a $ermanic tribe# had taken the territory from Rome that is now ,osnia. The internal politics were in chaos. *eptimius *e"erus had sei(ed power after two imperiates had failed in one year. 7e ruled as an absolute dictator# dramatically increasing taxes# attacking senators and decimating the economy. 7e established a rigid class system. Alexander *e"erus was next in line. 7e ruled by merely ha"ing the military at his beck and call# as did the two following Bbarracks emperorsC# so called because they were generals who had control due to their relationships with the military. These were times of immense social crisis and fear for the Romans. Religious and philosophical changes took place in Rome. 0hristianity took hold# offering explanations for

suffering and hopes for eternal life. &ithraism# which held "irtually the same appeal# was also popular. The two religions were "ery similar. Philosophically# the Romans reoriented themsel"es. Neo1Platonism was a pre"alent philosophy. %t espoused that the uni"erse preceded from a single thing# a single being# and that human life should be spent in spiritual and intellectual contemplation in order to free the soul from matter. &any neo1platonist ideas were incorporated into 0hristian theology. The Late 'mpire Fiocletian came to the throne after a century of disorgani(ation# internal dissent# economic collapse and foreign in"asions. 7e was a former soldier with one goal: to retire from the imperiate ali"e. 7e di"ided the empire into two hal"es and stabili(ed the empire. 7e shifted the center of power to the east. 7e was worshipped by his sub ects. 0onstantine ruled the western half of the empire. 7e shifted the seat of the empire to 0onstantinople and ruled as a monarch. 7e was the first emperor to con"ert to 0hristianity. At his death# 0onstantine di"ided his empire among his three sons. Theodosius reassembled the rule to one person G himself# and declared 0hristianity the state religion of Rome. Rome was sacked by the 5isigoths and later defeated by others such as Attila the 7un and the 5andals. This began the &iddle Ages. The Roman Army The Roman army was based on legions of >12#... men each. They were subdi"ided into ten cohorts# lead by a legatus. *taff officers were called tribuni and senior non1commissioned officers were centurions. A legion was made up of hea"ily armoured infantry foot soldiers. 0a"alry was supplied by the auxilaries and organi(ed into 8.. man units. *oldier were expected to carry weapons# camp tools and pro"isions for two weeks. The Roman army was so successful because of discipline# hard and efficient training and the speed at which they were able to learn new tasks.

The Roman ,aths The Romans "isited the baths for entertainment# to get clean and for healing. They were huge buildings built at public expense. &ost were free# but some had a fee that was implemented to keep out certain groups# such as sla"es and the poor. )ater was supplied by springs or a!ueducts. *ome rich men bathed in wine and the women in milk. ,aths were luxurious. &irrors co"ered the walls and ceilings. &arble and mosaics co"ered the floors. There were areas for exercise# wrestling# gambling# and other sports. There were libraries# snack bars# shops and e"en theatres in some of the baths. 0lothing )omen wore a tunica that was knee1length and co"ered it with a stola# which was full length and fastened at the shoulder. A shawl# called a palla# was wrapped around the shoulders occasionally and cloaks were worn for warmth. &en wore knee length tunics and a toga o"er it. Roman dress differed by class# especially in the material it was made from. 'ntertainment: Amphitheatres and Plays The amphitheatre was the center of entertainment. The largest was the 0olosseum# which could seat up to 8.#.... People went to the amphitheatres to see fights. *chools were set up to train gladiators. The fights were used as a way to keep the people happy. The fights were often bloody. *ometimes the floor was flooded and na"al battles were fought. Animals# sla"es# capti"es and gladiators died by the thousands. +nder the floor of the amphitheatres were cages# holding cells and gladiator barracks. Romans also en oyed plays. They work masks# and all parts were played by males as women were not allowed to act.

Roman &ythology Roman mythology borrowed a great deal from $reek mythology. *ome of the important gods were: Apollo 0upid Auno Aupiter &ars &iner"a Neptune Pluto Proserpine *aturn 5enus 5esta 5ulcan $od of the sun and music $od of lo"e @ueen of the gods 3ing of the gods $od of war $oddess of wisdom $od of the sea 3ing of the underworld @ueen of the underworld $od of agriculture $oddess of lo"e $oddess of hearth $od of smithing