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Selecting a Nondestructive Testing Method, Part IV: Radiography A Brief Introduction to Precious Metals

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Brett J. Ingold AMMTIAC Rome, NY

This edition of TechSolutions is the fourth installment in a series dedicated to the subject of nondestructive testing. TechSolutions 1, published in Vol. 1, No. 2 of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, introduced the concept of nondestructive testing and provided brief descriptions of the various techniques currently available. TechSolutions 2 and 3, published in subsequent issues of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, focused on visual inspection and eddy current testing. The current article continues the series and provides a general and informative overview of the radiography nondestructive testing method. In addition, this article will highlight some of the physical principles, inspection requirements, and implementation considerations involved in an effective radiographic inspection process.1 Once the series on nondestructive testing methods is complete, we will combine all of the articles into a valuable desk reference on nondestructive testing and place it on our website. Editor
INTRODUCTION After visual and optical testing (VT), the next method of nondestructive testing (NDT) most commonly employed in industry is radiographic testing. Also simply referred to as radiography, it is perhaps the most versatile of the nondestructive testing methods.[1] The basic radiographic process in use today is in large part still the same as it was when it was introduced in the late 1800s. Radiography uses radiation energy to penetrate solid objects in order to assess variations in thickness or density. The second part of the process involves capturing a shadow image of the component being inspected on film using procedures similar to those that technicians used when the technology was first developed. Identifying density differences on an X-ray, which indicate flaws or cracks, is still the Beam foundation of radiographic analysis. PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES Radiography basically involves the projection and penetration of radiation energy through the sample being inspected. The radiation energy is absorbed uniformly by the material or component being inspected except where variations in thickness or density occur. The energy not absorbed is passed through to a sensing medium that captures an image of the radiation pattern. The uniform absorption and any deviations in uniformity are subsequently captured on the sensing material and indicate the potential presence of a discontinuity. a developing solution. The degree of darkening that occurs during this process depends on the amount of exposure that occurred. The next step is to place the film into a special bath and rinse it to stop the development process. Lastly, the film is put into a fixing bath and then washed to remove the fixer solution. At this point the film is fully developed, the process is complete and the radiograph is ready to be handled and analyzed.[1] As the digital world has evolved, a quicker and much more efficient alternative to the meticulous film development process has also emerged to benefit the radiography NDT community. Computed radiography, which is described in the related article entitled Computed Radiography in the Pacific Northwest: Benefits, DrawRadiation Source backs and Requirements, makes use of an alternative image capturing media and development process. Test Piece
(Object)

Electromagnetic Radiation Two types of electromagnetic radiation are used to perform radiographic inspection: X-rays and Medium for gamma rays (see Figure 2). The primary distinConverting the Radiation guishing characteristic between these two types of radiation is the different wavelengths of the electromagnetic energy. Compared to other types of radiation both X-rays and gamma rays Image of Flaw have relatively short wavelengths which allows Figure 1. Diagram of Typical them to penetrate opaque materials. This Radiography Test Setup.[2] inherent capability is what enables their use for nondestructive testing, as they can reveal Image Capturing Media flaws embedded in visually non-transparent materials. The advent In simple terms, a radiograph is a photographic record produced by of radiography came quickly after the discovery of X-rays because the passage of X-rays or gamma rays through an object onto a film of the penetration properties of this electromagnetic energy.[3] or other recording medium (see Figure 1). The developing, fixing and washing of the film after exposure can be performed manualTypes of Discontinuities ly or by automated processing equipment. The development A number of different types of discontinuities can be detected process begins after the film is exposed to the radiation and an with radiographic NDT. Table 1 lists the suitability of traditional invisible change called a latent image develops on the film emulradiographic NDT methods for identifying various types of sion. These exposed areas become dark when the film is placed in discontinuities in several applications.
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X-Rays Visible 10-2 Gamma Rays 100 102 Ultraviolet 104 Wavelengths in angstrom units (A), where 1 A = 10-8 cm = 3.937x10 -9 in.

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106 Infrared

Figure 2. Electromagnetic Spectrum Showing X-ray and Gamma Ray Regions.[1]

INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS Several critical elements are required to successfully analyze the results of radiographic testing. Because of differences in density and variations in composition, different test pieces can absorb varying amounts of radiation and therefore present a range of results. Technicians and radiologists each require several years of training to properly set up and administer tests and inspections and to learn how to evaluate and interpret the results. Also, as the industry continues to develop, some forecasts suggest that in the future X-rays will be read almost exclusively by computers. This specific advancement, however, would not A non-destructive inspection technician necessarily eliminate the (NDI) evaluates an X-ray image of high costs associated with an A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft nose set up tasks, which conlanding gear door for cracks. NDI sumes a significant portion technicians are tasked with finding of the total radiographic and confirming discontinuities on the airframe and its parts using methods inspection time.
such as Eddy Current, Fluorescent Penetrant, Magnetic Particles, Ultra Sound and X-ray. (Photo taken by Airman 1st Class Alesia Goosic and provided courtesy of US Air Force)

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS There are several factors to take into account when considering the implementation of a radiographic inspection program. Some of the most important factors include: cost, density, facility size and logistics. Compared to other nondestructive testing methods, radiography is expensive. Relatively large costs can be reduced considerably when portable X-ray or gamma-ray sources are used in film radiography because this setup only requires space for film processing and analysis. With real-time radiography, operating costs are usually much lower, because setup times are shorter and there are no extra costs for processing or interpretation of film. Advantages and Disadvantages Like all other NDT methods, there are several advantages and disadvantages that factor into deciding where and when radiography is typically applied. In relation to other commonly used NDT methods, the well-proven method of radiography has three main advantages: the ability to detect internal flaws, the ability to detect significant variations in composition, and the ability to establish a permanent record of raw inspection data. Radiography also presents test results pictorially which can be much more readily interpreted than numerical data. A review of radiographs from an F-15 Eagle to In addition, real- check for foreign object debris and cracks time radiography in the aircraft's structure. (Photo taken by Staff Sgt. Shelley Gill and provided courtesy offers the ability of US Air Force) to rotate a test object during inspection, which improves detection of both internal and external flaws due to the ability to find the optimum orientation. On the negative side, orientation of the sample to be inspected is a key to successful radiographic inspection and therefore can pose difficulties if the proper orientation is not found. For example, radiography is not as effective at detecting flaws that are oriented in a planar direction with respect to the radiation source. Thick inspection samples are also problemat-

Safety Safety is an important issue to consider when evaluating a new process for implementation, especially one such as radiography that requires the use of radiation. Several governing bodies, including local and state governments, work together to closely monitor anyone who works with radiography equipment to ensure that the highest levels of safety are consistently met. The licensing and certification process for individuals working with radiography equipment, which emits radiation, requires both a written examination and an assessment of specific skills while using the equipment. The primary governing body that administers the written examination is the American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). The practical skills evaluation can be conducted by a variety of institutions that have approval from ASNT. With successful completion of these safety requirements, the applicant will be certified as an Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) member. ASNT offers more detailed information on the entire certification process, including a more specific list of requirements.[4]

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A D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S , M A N U FA C T U R I N G
AND

TESTING

A MMTIAC

Table 1. Suitability of Traditional Radiographic NDT Methods for Various Types of Discontinuities in Light and Heavy Metals.[3] Inspection Application General Film with X-rays Suitability for Light Metals Real-Time Radiography Film with -rays Film with X-rays Suitability for Heavy Metals Real-Time Film Radiography with -rays

Surface cracks* Internal cracks Voids Thickness Metallurgical variations Sheet and plate Thickness Laminations Voids Bars and tubes Seams Pipe Cupping Inclusions Castings Cold shuts Surface cracks Internal shrinkage Voids, pores Core shift Forgings Laps Inclusions Internal bursts Internal flakes Cracks and tears Welds Shrinkage cracks Slag inclusions Incomplete fusion Pores Incomplete penetration Processing Heat-treat cracks Grinding cracks Service Fatigue and heat cracks Stress corrosion Blistering Thinning Corrosion pits
4 - Good, 3 - Average, 2 - Fair, 1 - Poor

3 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 3 3 2 3 3

3 3 4 4 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 3 3 2 3 3

3 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 4 1 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 2 2 2 3 2

3 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 2 3 2 3 4

3 3 4 4 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 2 3 2 3 4

3 3 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 1 1 4 1 3 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 2 2 2 3 2

ic for radiography methods. Radiation sources can pose health and safety risks which is another disadvantage of the method. The tedious film processing requirement of radiography and associated special facility requirements have traditionally been a distinct disadvantage; however, with the advent of digital imaging and computed radiography many of these limitations have been overcome.
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CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE ADVANCEMENTS In order to meet the constantly changing demands of industry, various new sources of radiation, such as neutron generators and radioactive isotopes, are continually being developed. Other ongoing advances also include improved X-ray films and automatic film processors, as well as improved or specialized radiographic techniques.
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However, with todays technology it is now possible to generate images of higher quality and sensitivity. The higher quality of radiographic images is primarily due to improved films that have a wider variety of available grain sizes. Also, with the addition of computers and other advanced electronic systems to the process, the advent of digital radiography has proved to be a large advancement within the industry. With the use of digital radiography, a radiographic image captured today can theoretically be preserved forever and sent anywhere in the world almost instantly. In earlier cases, there had to be concerns with deterioration of the image that no longer have to be taken into account today. This ability to continually improve the process has led to growth of radiography into numerous industries. Radiography has seen expanded use in industry to inspect welds and castings, airbags and canned foods, to name a few. The area of metallurgical material identification and security systems has also employed radiography NDT at airports and other facilities with security needs.[1, 5] CONCLUSION Radiography is a mature NDT method that can be used to effectively detect several types of discontinuities embedded within a variety of types of materials and components. Since the method
Table 1. Radiography Summary

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has been in use for many years, the drawbacks and shortcomings are well-known. Some of these limitations have been overcome with the rapid advancement of digital technology. Radiography has continued to evolve by embracing certain aspects of the digital era, and consequently it has become a more flexible and viable method for nondestructive evaluation. REFERENCES
[1] Radiography in Modern Industry, 4th Edition, R.A. Quinn and C.C. Sigl, Editors, Eastman Kodak Company, 1980, http:// www.kodak.com/eknec/documents/87/0900688a802b3c87/Radiogra phy-in-Modern-Industry.pdf [2] Radiography Testing, Engineers Handbook, http://www.engi neershandbook.com/MfgMethods/ndtrt.htm [3] Radiographic Inspection, ASM Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, ASM International Metals Park, OH, pp. 296-357. [4] Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel, ASNT Practice No. ASNT-CP-IRRSP-1A, 2001 Edition, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, http://www.asnt.org/certification/irrsp/ cp-irrsp-1a.pdf. [5] Introduction to Radiographic Testing, NDT Resource Center, http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radio graphy/Introduction/presentstate.htm.

Discontinuity types (e.g. what types the method can detect)

Size of discontinuities Limitations

Advantages

Inspector training (level and/or availability) Inspector certification required Equipment Relative cost of inspection

Voids Inclusions Cracks Non-uniformity of material Density changes Weld defects Discontinuities that exhibit 1% or more absorption difference relative to surrounding region Advanced systems can detect flaws as small as 0.001 inches Orientation of inspection sample Not suitable for surface defects As thickness increases, detection effectiveness decreases Large amounts of equipment required for non-portable setup Film limitations Manual image interpretation Can be used to detect defects in a variety of materials Can detect internal defects Permanent inspection record Objects radiographed range in size from micro-miniature electronic parts to large missile components Makes it easier to maintain a defect-free and uniform product line Variety of programs available nationally to study the science of radiology Radiation safety training is critically important ASNT offers certification for radiography safety Portable or fixed setups depending on industry/company requirements and desired function Traditional radiography requires film development facilities and equipment Depends on setup, but cost can be greatly reduced with the use of portable equipment that requires less space

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