NDT ASSIGNMENT

Submitted by

V.Satyam

M.Tech -1st year

Materials science and engineering

212219019

__________________________________________________________________

Q.1. Compare the methods of producing radiations in radiography?

Answer.

Radiographic testing is a Non-destructive testing method that utilizes X-rays or

gamma radiations to detect discontinuities in materials and to present their images
on the recording medium.

The radiation used in radiographic testing is a high energy (short wavelength)

version of the electromagnetic waves. X rays and gamma rays both come under the
family of visible light.

Figure.1 Image showing electromagnetic radiation spectrum

X rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nano meters, corresponding to
frequencies in the range 3x1016 Hz to 3x1019 Hz and energies in the range 100 eV
to 100 KeV.

Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 1019 Hz and therefore have
energies above 100KeV and wavelengths less than 10-11 m which is less than the
diameter of an atom

Industrial radiography is often sub divided into “X-ray Radiography” or “Gamma

radiography” depending on the source of radiation used. The key difference
between gamma rays and x rays is based on the method of production, Gamma
rays originate from the settling process of an excited nucleus of a radionuclide after
it undergoes radioactive decay whereas x-rays produced when a electron strike a
target or when electrons rearrange with in an atom.

Production of X-ray radiation:

There are two atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons, they are

1. Bremsstrahlung radiation, 2. K-shell emission.

1. Bremsstrahlung radiation:

For producing X-ray radiations three basics requirements must be met namely
1. A source of electrons that is a heated filament
2. A means of directing and accelerating the electrons i.e. a high voltage supply
3. A target for electrons to bombard i.e. a heavy metal (ex: Tungsten,
molybdenum.)
These requirements are fulfilled in an X-ray tube which consists of a glass
envelope in which two electrodes are fitted: cathode and anode. Vacuum is
maintained inside the glass envelope to prevent arcing. The cathode serves as a
source of electrons. The electrons are first accelerated by applying a high voltage
across cathode and anode and then stopped suddenly by a solid target fitted in the
anode. The sudden stoppage of fast-moving electrons results in the production of
bremsstrahlung photons. X ray radiation with continuous spectrum of energy is
produced.
Figure.2 Image showing x ray tube equipment

2. K-Shell emission radiation:

Atoms have their electrons in closed “shells” of different energies. The K-shell is
the lowest energy state of the atom. An incoming electron can give a K-shell
electron enough energy to knock it out of its energy state. About 0.1% of electrons
create K-shell vacancies producing heat energy. Then a tungsten electron of higher
energy from the outer shell can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by falling
electron shows up an emission of X-ray photon. Generally,K-shell radiations
produce higher intensity than the bremsstrahlung radiation and the X ray photons
of the K-shell mission comes out as a single wavelength.

Gamma ray radiography sources:

As already mentioned, Gamma rays are produced from the radioactive decay of
atomic nuclei, so the source of these rays are radioactive isotopes. A radio isotope
has an unstable nucleus that does not have enough binding energy to hold the
nucleus together; the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in
release of energy is known as radioactive decay. The great penetrating power of
gamma rays from most of the radioactive sources make them valuable specially
when large thicknesses or high-density specimens, beyond the range of generally
available X-ray equipment, are involved. They most frequently used gamma ray
sources are Cobalt-60, iridium-192. The energy of the radioactive isotope is the
characteristic of atomic structure of the material. The isotopes emit radiation in two
or three discrete wavelengths. Cobolt-60 will emit 1.17 and 1.33 MeV gamma
rays, iridium-192 will emit 0.31,0.47, 0.60 MeV gamma rays. It can be seen from
these values that the energy of radiation coming from cobolt-60 is twice the energy
of radiation coming from iridium-192. Therefore Cobalt-60 has more material
penetrating power.

Now when X- ray radiography and gamma radiography are compared both the
methods can detect the surface and internal flaws. Permanent test record can be
obtained in both the methods. Part preparation is also minimum. Coming to cost
the gamma ray radiography is less expensive and also it is portable unlike x-ray
radiography equipment.

Q.2 Compare the advantages and limitations of UT and radiography as NDT

methods?

ANSWER:

Advantages of Ultrasonic testing:

The advantages of ultrasonic testing when compared to other methods for non-
destructive testing of metals are follows:

1. Superior penetrating power which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
Ultrasonic inspection is done routinely to depths of about 20ft in axial
inspection of parts such as long steel shafts and rotor forgings.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. Greater accuracy than other NDT methods in determining the position of
internal flaws, estimating their size, and characterizing their orientation, shape,
and nature.
4. Only one surface needs to be accessible.
5. Operation is electronic, which provides almost instantaneous indication of
flaws. This makes the method suitable for immediate interpretation, automation,
rapid scanning, online production monitoring and process control. With most
systems a permanent record of the inspection results can be made for future
reference.
6. Volumetric scanning ability, enabling inspection of a volume of metal
extending from the font surface to the back surface of the part.
7. This method is nor hazardous to operators or nearby personnel and has no
effects on equipment and material in the vicinity.
8. Portability.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic testing:

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians.

2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts those are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
4. Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer immediately
beneath the surface may not be detectable.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy
between transducers and parts being inspected.
6. Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment and for
characterizing flaws.
Advantages of radiographic testing:

1. Ability to inspect many types of materials with varied densities.

2. Detects surface and internal flaws, can inspect hidden areas.
3. Minimum part preparation is required.
4. Permanent test record can be obtained.
Disadvantages of radiographic testing:

1. It is a slow process.
2. Highly directional, access to both sides of structure is usually required.
3. Sensitive to flaw orientation, high degree of skill and experience required for
exposure and interpretation
4. Depth of discontinuity is not indicated in this method
5. Not a safety method, possible radiation hazard for the personnel.
6. Relatively expensive equipment and high investment cost when compared to
other NDT methods.
Q.3 Discuss types and uses of IQI in radiography?

Answer:
 The term IQI refers to Image Quality Indicator. Image Quality indicators are
used in radiography to determine the radiographic sensitivity. The sensitivity of a
radiograph is an indirect indication of its ability to reveal flaws or thickness
changes in the specimen being examined, and it is, therefore, a measure of
radiographic quality. The sensitivity is expressed numerically in terms of smallest
detectable variation in specimen thickness as a percentage of total thickness.

Radiographic sensitivity is usually measured in terms of some artificial element

which doesn’t necessarily bear much resemblance to a flaw in the specimen. Thus,
the two most widely used methods are:

1. To specify sensitivity in terms of the ability to detect a wire of the same

material as the specimen examined when the wire is laid on the surface of
the specimen remote from the film. The diameter of the thinnest detectable
wire is used as a criterion of sensitivity.
2. To use series of drilled holes in a plate of the same material as the specimen,
which is laid on the specimen, and to specify sensitivity in terms of the
smallest hole which can be detected on the radiograph.
These devices - sets of wires of different diameters, or step wedges with drilled
holes – are called Image Quality Indicators (IQI).

It is necessary to have some technique to check whether the given radiograph has
obtained satisfactory qualities. This is done by placing some object of known form
and size on the specimen so that its image appears on the film. These are called as
pentameter or image quality instruments. They are used to check the quality and
validity of the radiographic image. They are placed on the source side of the part
where the matter of interest is other than that position.

There are two types of IQI which are generally used. They are the hole type and
wire type. The material for the IQI should be the same as the material for a sample
which has to be tested as the absorption coefficient should be the same.
Types of IQI:

Hole- type IQI or ASTM –placard type:

ASTM Standard E1025 gives information about the hole type IQI’s. Hole type
IQI’s are classified into eight types based on the radiation absorption
characteristics.

A notching system is used to indicate the IQI material. The numbers on the IQI
indicate the sample thickness that IQI should be placed on. Holes of different sizes
are present. The bigger hole indicates a diameter of 4T, a medium-sized hole
indicates the diameter of the 2T and a small one indicates a diameter of 1T.If the
shadow of 2T remains on the radiograph and if the IQI is 2% of sample thickness
then it will be called a 2-2T image quality which shows a 2% equivalent
sensitivity. A 2% material loss can be visible on the image with the given
parameters.

Wire type:

ASTM Standard E747 indicates the specifications and design for the wire type
IQI’s. The wire type consists of wires with different diameters in increasing order
encapsulated within a thin plastic sheet on both sides. Wire IQI’s have four sets
which are having a different set of diameters. The sets like A, B, C, D. The number
on the left corner indicates the material group. The wire with the diameter which
can be visible on the film is considered and that indicates the sensitivity.
4. EXPLAIN THE METHODS OF INSPECTING CIRCUMFERENTIAL
WELDS BY RADIOGRAPHY?

ANSWER.

A circumferential weld is a type of weld that is used to join two round objects
around their circumferences. It can be carried out by many different types of
welding processes and a variety of material diameters and material types can be
joined together.

A circumferential weld consists of joining two round objects together by

butting them up along their circumferences and coalescing the material at their
faying surfaces. This is a quite bit difference from another type of round object
welding, known as longitudinal welding. Longitudinal welding is when a plate or
sheet of metal is formed into a circle and the faying surfaces are coalesced so that
the plate is converted into tubing. A longitudinally welded tube may be
subsequently joined with another longitudinally welded tube by butting their
circumferences up to one another and performing a circumferential weld.

This weld can be subjected to corrosion. The inside of the tubing or pipe can
collect debris around the weld area which increases the risk of corrosion.
Furthermore, the material properties of the tubing or pipe near the circumferential
weld area could be altered during the weld process, allowing different types of
corrosion to occur around the weld on both the sides of diameter. Coating is
necessary to apply on circumferential weld to protect after welding has been
performed.

The methods of inspecting circumferential welds by radiography are

Location of source and film

Circumferential welds occur in pipes as well as in spherical specimens. The
following techniques are used to take radiographs of circumferential welds in
pipe:-

a. Film inside, source outside

This technique (Figure 1) can only be used when the pipe is large enough to
make access to the weld possible.

Figure 1 film inside and source outside

b. Film outsider source inside

This technique with the source at the centre, Figure 2.a. allows the complete
weld to be examined in a single shot thereby saving a considerable amount of time.
However, the size of the source to be used is determined by the radius of the pipe
and the thickness of the weld.
Sometimes the smallest available source placed at the centre may not satisfy
the penumbral conditions. Off centring it , Figure 2.b., may allow this technique to
be used, but a number of shots would be required for complete examination of the
weld.
 Figure 2 film outside, source inside

c. Film outside, source outside

This technique may be applied in two ways. One is the double wall single
image method (Figure 3.a) where the source to film distance is kept short so as to
diffuse the image of the upper part of the weld and give a radiograph of the part
closest to the film. The second is the double wall double image method (Figure 3b)
where the sfd is kept long giving an elliptical image of the weld.

Figure 3 film outside, source inside

method
Number of radiographs in a weld seam
a. Double wall single image technique
In a double wall single image technique for circumferential welds of pipe, the
outside diameter of the pipe is denoted by G, as shown in Figure 4,tbe wall
thickness by t, the focus-film distance by L, and the film-specimen surface distance
by Lf , the specimen surface being on the film side. If the maximum specified value
of the angle of radiation with the transverse crack is denoted by φ (degree), the
range of the test portion that meets the specified angle (hereinafter called the
effective range of the test portion) is the batched portion in Figure 4 and the centre
angle ,2α(degrees) is given by the following equation:

Formula

____(1)

Equation (1) is written as Equation (2) when considering a case where the effective
range of the test portion is maximum, that is , a case where the outside diameter of
the pipe ,G, is equal to L – Lf and the wall thickness is sufficiently small as
compared to the outside diameter.

(2 α)max = 4 (2)

Equation (1) is written as Equation (3) regardless of the wall thickness when the
effective area of the test portion is maximum, that is , when the focus to film
distance is infinite.

(2 α )min = 2φ (3)

The number of radiographs is given by the following equation when the film is
wound round the pipe in the double wall single image technique:

N = 3600 /2α (4)

Therefore when the results of Equations (2) and ( 3) are expressed in other words,
the maximum number of radiographs, N max , in the double wall single image
technique is given by the following equation regardless of the shape of the pipe:

N max = 3600 /2φ = 1800/ φ (5)

The minimum number of radiographs, N min, is given by the following equation. N
min cannot be smaller than 1/2 of N max

N min = 3600/4φ = 900/φ (6)

b. Internal-film technique
As shown in Figure 5 , if the hatched portion is the effective range of the test
portion in one radiograph in the internal film technique for circumferential welds
of pipe, the angle, 2α, with the effective range of the lest portion is given by the
following equation:

__________(7)
where g is the inside diameter of the pipe . Equation (7) is rewritten as Equation (8)
regardless of the wall thickness when the effective range of the test portion is
maximum, that is when the focus-film distance is infinite.

(2 α ) min = 2φ (8)

The number of radiographs is given by the following equation in the internal-film

technique:

N = 3600 /2α (9)

Therefore when the results of Equation 8.8 are expressed in words the minimum
number of radiographs, N min in the internal film technique is given by the
following equation.
However .since the focus-film distance is finite, the number of radiographs must be
larger than that obtained by this equation.
N min = 3600 /2φ = 1800/ φ (10)
Figure 4 double wall single image
technique

Figure 5 internal film

technique
Number of radiographs when the radiographic technique and the angle of
radiation with cracks is considered

When the angle of radiation with a crack exceeds 15 degrees, the crack cannot
often be detected with increase in the angle of radiation and the degree of crack
detection decreases remarkably.
If the specified maximum angle of radiation with a transverse crack in a
circumferential weld in a pipe is 15 degrees (corresponding to the common class
specified in JIS Z 3104), the number of radiographs by each technique is as
follows:

(a) Double wall single image technique and double wall double image technique

The number of radiographs in the double wall single image technique and double
wall double image technique varies a little depending on the outside diameter and
wall thickness of the pipe and radiographic arrangement. As is apparent from
Equation (6), at least six or more radiographs must be taken. However, it is
unnecessary to take radiographs exceeding 12 in number if there is no change in
the arrangement of the source film and specimen during radiography.

(b) Internal source technique

In the internal source technique, it is general practice to lake a radiograph by

setting the focus at the centre of the pipe. In this case, the effective range of the test
portion relative to a transverse crack in the thickness direction is the full
circumference of the pipe.

(c) Internal film technique

As is apparent from Equation (10) at least 12 or more radiographs must be taken in

the internal film technique.

5) Discuss the principles and applications of thermography?

Answer:
 Introduction:

Ail objects that have surface temperatures above absolute zero emit
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be characterized by two features; its
wavelength () and intensity (0).It is therefore possible to use the intensity and
wavelength of radiation emitted by an object to measure its surface temperature,
without the need for physical contact.

Both the intensity of emitted radiation, and the wavelength at which it is most
intense, vary with the surface temperature of the emitting body. Objects at a
particular temperature emit radiation over a range of wavelengths. The intensity of
radiation emitted by an object, as a function of wavelength and surface
temperature, can be described by: Q). = A I (A5(e (BO.T) - 1)]

where Q,. is the intensity of emitted radiation (W) at any particular wavelength,
is the wavelength (rn), T is the surface temperature (K) and A and 8 are constants:
3.742 x 108 W . IJm4 • m-2 and 1.439 x 104 IJm . K respectively

The wavelength at which the maximal intensity of radiation is emitted

depends on the surface temperature: the higher the temperature, the shorter the
wavelength at which most of the radiation is emitted. This relationship is

λ (max) = 2.9/T ……………. (3)

The sun, for example, has a surface temperature of around 5800 K. The peak
wavelength of radiation which it emits is therefore approximately 0.0005 mm (=
500 nm). The visual system of humans and many other animals is maximally
receptive in the region around the peak wavelength emitted by the sun (400 to 700
nm, Figure 2). Electromagnetic radiation between these wavelengths is known as
the visible spectrum. The intensity of radiation produced in the visible spectrum
(400-700 nm) is below the threshold that can be detected by our eyes.

Principle of thermography:

To measure the temperatures of objects on the surface of the earth in the range
from -10 to 50 °C (263-323 K) the most appropriate wavelengths are around 9-11
um, because (from equation 3) this is the region of peak spectral emission

Emissivity:
 Emissivity represents a material's ability to emit thermal radiation and is
an optical property of matter. Each material has a different emissivity, which may
vary by temperature and infrared wavelength.[6] For example, clean metal surfaces
have emissivity that decreases at longer wavelengths; many dielectric materials,
such as quartz (SiO2), sapphire (Al2O3), calcium fluoride (CaF2), etc. have
emissivity that increases at longer wavelength; simple oxides, such as Iron Oxide
(Fe2O3) display relatively flat emissivity in the infrared spectrum.

A material's emissivity can range from a theoretical 0.00 (completely not-

emitting) to an equally theoretical 1.00 (completely emitting). An example of a
substance with low emissivity would be silver, with an emissivity coefficient of .
02. An example of a substance with high emissivity would be asphalt, with an
emissivity coefficient of 0.98.

An object which is a perfect emitter at all wavelengths is known as a black

body. Imperfect emitters by definition emit less radiation than a black body at the
same temperature. In order to make a temperature measurement of an object using
an infrared imager, it is necessary to estimate or determine the object's emissivity.
Thermograph may refer to an emissivity table for a given type of object, and enter
that value into the imager. The imager would then calculate the object's contact
temperature based on the value entered from the table and the object's emission of
infrared radiation as detected by the imager.

Thermogram of a snake held by a human

Thermal energy:

Thermal images, or thermo grams, are actually visual displays of the amount of
infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are
multiple sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature
of an object using this method. A thermal imaging camera is capable of performing
algorithms to interpret that data and build an image. Although the image shows the
viewer an approximation of the temperature at which the object is operating, the
camera is actually using multiple sources of data based on the areas surrounding
the object to determine that value rather than detecting the actual temperature.

A comparison of a thermal image (top) and an ordinary photograph (bottom). The

plastic bag is mostly transparent to long-wavelength infrared, but the man's glasses
are opaque

Important factors to consider

1) The intensity of emitted radiation received from an object is affected by the

angle at which the object is viewed because electromagnetic radiation travels
in straight lines. If an object is viewed at a very shallow angle to the emitting
surface then there is a reduction in the intensity of thermal radiation received
and the object will appear cooler than it actually is.
2) The distance between an emitting object and the sensing device also affects
the absolute amount of radiation detected. Gasses may absorb certain
wavelengths of radiation and may scatter it, reducing the amount which
passes directly from the object to the sensor.
Ozone for example absorbs radiation in the 170 to 210 nm range and
water vapor absorbs in several regions of the spectrum above 1100 nm. Even
in a cloudless sky the radiation from the sun at 500 nm wavelength is
attenuated by approximately 25% by the time it reaches the earth's surface.
Applications:

1. Condition monitoring:
Condition monitoring is the process of monitoring a parameter of
condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a
significant change which is indicative of a developing fault. Condition
monitoring has a unique benefit in that conditions that would shorten
normal lifespan can be addressed before they develop into a major
failure. 

2. INFRARED ROOF INSPECTION

I nfrared scans on Low Slope Roofing can provide valuable information

as to the health of your roof concerning moisture intrusion and possible heat
loss/gain issues. 

A leak in a low sloped flat roof can impact insulation between the roof deck and
the flat roof covering as it absorbs much of the moisture.  When moisture and
water enters a commercial flat roof system, it can become trapped, causing the roof
materials (including decking, insulation, and covering) to degrade rapidly and fail
prematurely. Thermal imaging can assist in determining the extent of
affected/damaged materials, and help to identify the source of leaks.

3. Thermal Mapping 

Thermal Mapping is a process by which the spatial variation of minimum

night-time road surface temperature is measured, using a high resolution infrared
thermometer. Vaisala Thermal Mapping is the only proven and established
technique to determine surface temperature relationships likely to occur across an
entire road or runway network. It is a technique, which has been utilized
worldwide, to enhance the information available to both highway authorities and
supporting forecast providers.

4. Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care

Thermography is used to determine areas of the body that have
irregular blood flow. It is approved for the detection of breast cancer only
as an adjunct modality

5. Medical imaging
 Medical imaging seeks to reveal internal structures hidden by the skin
and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat disease.
6. Night vision
Night vision is the ability to see in low-light conditions.

Two American soldiers pictured during the 2003 Iraq War seen through

an image intensifier.
7. Infrared homing is a passive weapon guidance system which uses
the infrared (IR) light emission from a target to track and follow it. Missiles
which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since
infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people,
vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat, and as such, are
especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in
the background.

A modern German Air Force IRIS-T infrared homing air-to-air missile

6.CASE STUDY