The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Nationalism
I. Subjective Transylvania A. Mungiu-Pippidi The chapter in discussion focuses on the most influential theories regarding the ob ect of the entire !or", trying to enunciate a typology of nationalism that conforms to these theories# In order to ha$e a complete image of !hat nationalism is, one needs to ta"e it into a broader conte%t, and ma"e a !hole from the theories that comes from different fields &such as anthropology, psychology, philosophy, and political science'# According to (ieb"ind, ho!e$er, the "ey discipline to understanding ethnic identity# Nation and nationalism the "ey concepts of social theory, !hile et nic!national identity represents the "ey concept of social psychology# In Smith and )utchinson*s anthology, the sub ecti$e elements of ethnicity are the most emphasi+ed# Therefore, ethnicity is defined by, 1# a common proper name, as representing the so-called essence of a community. /# a myth of common ancestry &rather than facts', pro$iding the community !ith the strong feeling of a common origin in both time and place a *super-family*, as )oro!it+ put it. 0# shared memories of a common past or pasts &!e include here any sort of heroes, e$ents or their commemorations'. 1# a common culture &usually including religion, customs or language'. 2# a &home'land 3 if not both symbolic and physical e%istence in that community4s life, then, at least its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as !ell as to the peoples in diaspora. 5# a sense of solidarity, for at least some of the constituents of the ethnic group# nation $ersus ethnic group 3 *fragile* difference, consisting, mainly, in sub ecti$e

elements# Authorities, in e%change, ha$e seldom agreed to ta"e into account only the "inship side of the problem, but rather to that the concept of *nation* has to do, mostly, !ith genetic constraints# nationalism 3 interpreted in t!o ma or !ays, no!adays, 1# in 6ellner and 7edourie*s $ie! 3 as the political principle !hich states that the national and political units must be congruent &both historical and contemporary nationalism' 1

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

/# in Brian Barry*s &Blac"!ell' $ie! 3 as a representation of the members of nationality, in the light of both the material and cultural interest they share# 3 a nearly-psychological interpretation of nationalism is one*s relation to one*s culture# Therefore, !e cannot help understanding the !orld through our o!n perspecti$e &gi$en, in its turn by our o!n culture'# 8ippidi, on the other hand, sees nationalism as a uni9ue phenomenon &either positi$e and negati$e', ta"ing $arious forms, depending on the society, or on its stage of de$elopment# 6eert+ 3 *a country*s politics reflect the design of its culture* Culture, he argues, is not about cults and customs &only', but it is rather defined as the structure of meaning, gi$ing sense to people*s li$es and their e%periences, !hile politics is not about *coups and constitutions*, but rather the place !here these are made public# &p#10' Primordialism, the argument !hich states that nations are ancient, natural phenomena1, !as first re ected and attac"ed for its understanding of culture as a *gi$en thing* &*primordial attachment*'# The author suggests to see these *gi$ens* not as ha$ing some *metaphysical* roots, but rather as *psychological gi$ens*# - national identity *gi$en* or *in$ented*: It has been generally agreed that it is something learned. ;liade goes further, suggesting that it is definitely a *gi$en*# Turner social identities as *cogniti$e groupings of oneself and some class of stimuli as the same###in contrast to some other class of stimuli*# Ta fel social identification seen as a source *self esteem*, therefore### desirable# "t nic identity a form of social identity# As a self-definition, it re9uires a sense of belonging and pride in one*s ethnic group# An ethnic group, some argue, is also related to the cultural bac"ground# <ne cannot be bound to an ethnic group, unless they share a common ## (anguage is the main connection $ehicle bet!een personal and collecti$e identity, connection promoted by 2 conditions# =einrich obser$ed that only>especially !hen e%posed to another language, people*s feelings of identity and the loyalty to!ards their ethnic group or language are strengthened# "astern vs. $estern "uropean Nationalism There are 0 main theories discussing the differences bet!een the =estern and ;astern $ariants of nationalism,
1 Introduction to the article on 8rimordialism, http,>>en#!i"ipedia#org>!i"i>8rimordialism#

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

1# )ans 7ohn*s theory, in !hich the focus is on the relationship bet!een state and nation. /# ;rnest 6ellner*s theory !ho re$eals a difference in structure bet!een the ;ast and the =est. 0# The theory supported by students of political de$elopment# ;lie 7edourie emphasi+es the uni9ueness of the principle of interest in the matter different results according to the society !here it !as applied# ;astern ;urope copied the =est, especially since 1?1?# Ideology mattered only as a means to attract the masses to!ards the massi$e desire for independence and prosperity, at a national le$el# @nder the concept of *nationalist ideology* there !as actually hidden a propaganda for self-determination# Aree institutions the boundaries of go$ernment ha$e to be the same !ith those of nationality# 7ohn argues that the nation precedes the state in the =est & nationalism here !as a R;A(ITB', !hile in the ;ast it is precedent & here, it !as based on myths and fairy tales'# 6ellner depending on the time +one, there are different categories of nationalism# Therefore, there is a similar one in the follo!ing areas, 1# Britain, Arance, and Spain &Ireland 3 a political no$elty'. /# 6ermany and Italy. 0# ;astern ;urope. 1# Russia# 8eter Sugar distinguishes bet!een ;ast and =est ;urope*s nationalism only on the basis of an anticlerical, egalitarian and constitutional approach# 6eorge Schopflin Ce$elopment in the =estern !ay 3 autonomy and the separation of spheres, !hile that in the ;astern !ay 3 supreme po!er of the state o$er the society# Ce$elopment of the society, its political institutions, and its economy# The =est rule of the la! and separation of po!ers &conflicts bet!een the secular and the religious rulers'. the ;ast the Church !as subordinated to the state# %omanian vs. &ungarian nationalism - monopoly of the )ungarian aristocracy o$er )ungarian nationalism - )ungarian nationalism, in 6eorge Baranyi*s $ie! *the more it changes, the more it remains the same*# - Romanians 3 negati$ely affected by the e%clusion from *The pact of three nations* &)ungarians, S+e"elys and Sa%ons', regarding Transyl$ania# &110?'

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

6etting bac" to reality, ho!e$er, )ungarian nationalists s!itched to a more attainable goal, that of creating a net!or" of self-go$erned )ungarian minorities in the bordering countries, aiming to bring all the )ungarians again together !ithout going against )elsin"i and re9uiring a modification of the borders# In e%change, in Romania, the main ideal !as to build the state and the nation and integrate those Romanians !ho had belonged to different states and political traditions for so long a period ho!e$er, it !as a bit fu++y for the Transyl$anian Romanians and Bessarabian Romanians, treated as second-ran"ed Romanians# =hile the )ungarian nationalism changed only the surface, "eeping its *old* essence, the Romanian one changed completely, being redefined and rein$ented# Minorities also recei$ed less than they had been promised in terms of selfgo$ernment, but they "ept their cultural autonomy intact# II. Nationalism '. &utc inson
T e Nation as Po(er-Container

A nation !hen a state has a unified administrati$e reach o$er the territory it occupies# There are four aspects of the transformation of frontiers into borders, allocation, delimitation, demarcation, and administration# a nation-state a bordered po!er-container, the pre-eminent po!er container of the modern era. a set of institutional forms of go$ernance, maintaining an administrati$e monopoly o$er territory, !ith demarcated borders, its rule being sanctioned by (A= and CIR;CT C<NTR<( of means of internal and e%ternal $iolence# The state represents the ma or political subdi$ision of the globe# The essence of a nation is intangible hard to define or conceptuali+e# )o!e$er, a nation is also Da social group, sharing a common ideology, common institutions and customs, and a sense of homogeneity#E ethnicity &ethnos, gr# 3 DnationE'# The original meaning of *ethnic group* a basic Anthropologists, ethnologists, and scholars concerned !ith global comparisons used *ethnicity* and *ethnic group* in$ol$ing a sense of common ancestry. 4 human category &not a subgroup'# American sociologists misused the !ord#

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

7;C<@RI; $ie!ed nationalism as a ne! tribalism it sometimes e%cludes and is

intolerant of outsiders, he argues# <ther features, 3 nationalists ma"e use of the past, in order to sub$ert the present 3 a *nation* the minimal political unit in the modern !orld An educational system must operate in some medium, some language &literally spea"ing', and the language employed !ill stamp its products# Men become nationalists, through genuine, ob ecti$e, practical necessity, ho!e$er obscurely recognised#
Nationalism a phenomenon connected not so much !ith industriali+ation or

moderni+ation, but rather !ith its une$en diffusion & a sharp social stratification'# it Din$ents nations !here they do not e%istE it is N<T the a!a"ening of nations to self-consciousness# Aor 6;((N;R, nationalism engenders nations, and not the other !ay round# Ma or deception, nationalism, generally, represents the imposition of a high-culture on society, !here pre$iously lo!-cultures had ta"en up the li$es of the ma ority &totality' of the population# )<BSBA=N modern nations, in general, claim that they are the opposite of no$el, namely rooted in the remotest anti9uity, and the opposite of constructed, namely human communities so *natural* as to re9uire no definition other than self-assertion# The constituents of the *modern nation* are generally associated !ith recent symbols or suitably-tailored discourse &*national history*', this being not enough reason to consider that the national phenomenon cannot be ade9uately in$estigated !ithout careful attention to the *in$ention of tradition*# The ma or inno$ations of the in$ention of tradition, the de$elopment of a secular e9ui$alent of the Church primary education public ceremonies &Bastille Cay 3 1??F' the mass production of public monuments Arench and 6erman inno$ations both stress the founding acts of the ne! regime# The Re$olution established the fact, the nature, and the boundaries of the Arench nation and its patriotism# The 6erman people had no political definition of unity before its @nification, in 1?G1#

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

)e*ining Nationalism
I. Imagined Communities
+enedict Anderson

The possibility of imagining the nation arose !hen three fundamental cultural conceptions lost their a%iomatic understanding, 1# a particular script-language, !hich offered a pri$ileged access to ontological truth, /# society !as naturally organi+ed around and under high centres &monarchies', and 0# a conception of temporality in !hich cosmology and history !ere both indistinguishable# The decline of those interlin"ed certainties and the de$elopment of an increasingly rapid communication, both led to a harsh !edge bet!een cosmology and history# the search for a ne! !ay of lin"ing fraternity, po!er, and time, meaningfully, together# the *choice* of language appears as a gradual, unselfconscious, pragmatic, not to say hapha+ard de$elopment different from the self-conscious language policies pursued by 1Hth-century dynasties confronted !ith the rise of hostile, popular linguistic-nationalism#
,an den +erg e

y are animals socials- $ y do t ey cooperate-

they are social to the e%tent that they are genetically related# There are t!o broad types of human collecti$ities, I# ascripti$e. defined by common descent, generally hereditary, and often endogenous & racial, caste, and ethnic groups' II# oined in defence of common interests & $aried associations, political parties, professional bodies, sports clubs etc#' ;thnocentrism e$ol$ed during a $ast period of time &thousands of years' as an e%tension of "in selection# There !ere t!o ideologies in support of coercion, 1# see"s to disguise coercion as "in selection /# attempts to present coercion as reciprocity and e%change
Smit

Rationalism and the scientific temper emerged !ithin the matri% of societies still dominated by religious assumptions and traditions, and usually by ecclesiastical authority# ;ducated people began to doubt the omnipresence and so$ereignty of 6od an 6

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

intellectual and emotional re$olution, in the centre of !hich lay a crisis of authority# a traditionalist a self-conscious ideologue, !ho "no!s perfectly !ell that he is manipulating scientific techni9ues, in order to defend traditional $alues and dogma# cultural $s# political nationalism political nationalism 3 the ideal is a ci$ic polity of educated citi+ens &common la!s and mores 3 *polis*' 3 the re ection of e%isting political and traditional allegiances 3 re-traditionali+ed cultural nationalism 3 the state is percei$ed as *accidental* 3 nations 3 primordial e%pressions of the spirit &of indi$iduality' 3 natural solidarities 3 informal and decentrali+ed clusters of cultural societies and ournals The artist the paradigmatic figure of the national community#
T e .rigins o* National Consciousness

There can be made a strong case for the primacy of capitalism, mechanical reproduction, and boo" publishing# The impact of the Reformation, Martin (uther, translations of the Bible, all these led to a truly mass readership, for the first time in history# The coalition bet!een 8rotestantism and print-capitalism, e%ploiting cheap popular editions, 9uic"ly created a large ne! public, and also mobili+ed them for politico-religious purposes# This had a great impact, and shoo" the Church, primarily, but also important dynastic, non-city states in the Cutch Republic and the Common!ealth of 8uritans# The birth of administrati$e $ernaculars print and the religious uphea$al of the 15th century an independent factor in the erosion of the sacred imagined community# The ele$ation of these $ernaculars to the status of *languages of po!er* contributed to the decline of the imagined community of Christendom# Capitalism &through the interaction bet!een a system of production and producti$e relations', print &as a technology of communication', and the *fatality* of human linguistic di$ersity helped the ne! communities become imaginable and accessible# The interchange bet!een fatality, technology, and capitalism &as an assembling process' !as facilitated by the arbitrariness if any system of sounds# These print-languages lay the basis of national consciousness in three different 7

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

!ays,

they created unified fields of e%change and communication belo! (atin and abo$e print-capitalism offered stability>fi%ity to the language. the fi%ing of printing-languages and the differentiation of status bet!een them

the spo"en $ernaculars.

largely unselfconscious processes, resulting from e%plosi$e interaction bet!een capitalism, technology, and human linguistic di$ersity# )o!e$er, print-languages alone did not ma"e nations print-language !as necessary, but not sufficient condition for NATI<NA(ISM# The con$ergence of capitalism and print technology on the fatal di$ersity of human language created the possibility of a ne! form of imagined community &!hich, in its basic morphology, set the stage for the modern nation'#

II. %omanticism +et(een /orma Mentis And &istorical Pro*ile

Instruments o* "pistemological Investigation

I ;pistemology 3 the branch of philosophy !hich studies the nature of 7N<=(;C6;, its presuppositions and foundations, and its e%tent and $alidity# &epistemological 3 concerned !ith, or arising from epistemology' 8rinciples, 1# the *complementarity principle* &Niels Bohr' the complete "no!ledge of atomic phenomena or atomic dimensions re9uires a description of both !a$e and particle properties &!hich are mutually e%clusi$e features'# it led to the first methodological element. generally applicable# /# the *uncertainty principle* &)eisenberg' dependent on Bohr*s complementarity there is a fundamental limit to the precision !ith !hich certain pairs of complementarity $ariables &such as position and momentum' can be "no!n simultaneously# The ob ect of these in$estigations has an antinomic nature, therefore, the only tenable strategy of interpretation is to accept the co-validity of mutually-e%clusi$e descriptions of reality# Ca$id =ic" disappro$es of, 1# this generalisation of the complementarity principle &Bohr'# )e e$en claims that Bohr borro!ed the $ery concept of *complementarity* from 8

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

=illiam James, thus accusing him of### plagiarism: /# of Bohr*s *suggestion* that physicists should adopt a theoretical frame!or" and ha$ing a *philosophical agenda*# But, the trans-disciplinary application of methodologies and interpreti$e frame!or"s occurred in most of the historical epistemes ordinary. romanticism the co-occurence in the same author>te%t of strange elements la!-cluster K concepts are constituted by a cluster of la!s &as opposed to a bundle &unfamiliar' triggers a difficulty in deciding !here they actually belong# of properties, such as the typical names *man* or *cro!*', !hich determine the identity of the concept# Le#g#, *energy* a la!-cluster concept, as it enters into many la!s, it plays many roles, and they constitute its meaning collecti$ely, not indi$idually'# romanticism as a concept, it may be deri$ed from a cluster of e%ceptionable and re$isable artistic principles &therefore, an aesthetic concept' a composite concept &none of its facets is compulsory', therefore, a !or" needs not to possess all these facets, but only a large part of them, in order to be considered a romantic !or"# )o!e$er, there are t!o complications, 1# real situations 3 often not deterministic, so they cannot be described precisely /# the complete description of a real system re9uires a far more detailed data, than one cold e$er recognise simultaneously, process, and understand# /u00y logic it o$ercomes the rigidity of traditional logic, based on the binary opposition of *true $s# false* $alues, as it is a multivalued system of analysing real situations# Complementarity and Multi-layered )e*initions Marious critical assumptions ha$e been made, from multiple perspecti$es a multilayered definition of Romanticism# &each le$el grants access to one side of the phenomenon' the *la!-cluster term* model pro$ided by this multi-layered definition types of features deri$ed from the $arious critical agendas#

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Nationalism as )iscourse1
% etorical %epresentations o* National Identity
I. Meta istory. T e &istorical Imagination in 23t -century "urope &ayden $ ite
T e Poetics o* &istory

3 a history of historical consciousness in the 1Hth-century ;urope, also dealing !ith the problem of historical "no!ledge# In the 1Hth century, history represented a specific mode of e%istence, historical consciousness a distincti$e mode of thought, historical "no!ledge an autonomous domain in the spectrum of the human and physical sciences# In the /Fth century, ;uropean thin"ers and Anglo-American philosophers $ie!ed istorical consciousness as a specifically =estern pre udice by !hich the presumed superiority of the modern, industrial society can be substantiated# There are 2 le$els of conceptuali+ation in the historical !or", 1# chronicle & relation bet!een te%t and reality' /# story &the story itself' 0# mode of emplotment & te%tual archetypes' 1# mode of argument &philosophy - !ays of loo"ing at the !orld' 2# mode of ideological implication &politics' The first t!o &chronicle and history' refer to 4primitive elements4 in the historical account, but represent processes of selection and arrangement of data from the *unprocessed historical record*, intending to ma"e that record more accessible for a particular audience# N C ronicle the story is told through means of characteri+ation of some e$ents, in terms of *inaugural motifs*, *terminating motifs*, or *transitional motifs*# N ;%planation by emplotment pro$iding the meaning of a story, by identifying the 5ind o* story that has been told# Northrop Arye indicates for identifiable modes of emplotment, romance, tragedy, comedy, and satire# %omance 3 a drama of self-identification, symboli+ed by the hero*s transcendence of the !orld of e%perience, his $ictory, and his final liberation from it. drama of redemption, the triumph of good o$er e$il, of $irtue o$er $ice, the ultimate transcendence of man o$er the !orld in !hich he has been imprisoned since the Aall# 10

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Satire 3 $ie!s the hopes, possibilities, and truths re$ealed in Romance, Comedy, and Tragedy, in an ironical !ay# It presupposes the ultimate inade9uacy of the $isions of the !orld, dramatically represented in the other three genres, the apprehension that man is ultimately a capti$e in this !orld, and human consciousness needed to defeat death, man*s ultimate foe# Comedy and Tragedy 3 both suggest the possibility of at least partial liberation from the condition of the Aall# In tragedy the epiphany of the la! go$erning human e%istence, !hile in comedy occasional reconciliation bet!een the forces at !or" in both the social and natural !orld# N ;%planation by *ormal argument Stephen C# 8epper &World Hypothesis) argues that there are four forms that can be ta"en by a historical e%planation,
2.

formist, an e%planation is complete only !hen a gi$en set of ob ects has been

identified, and all its properties "no!n. it is dispersi$e &as it focuses on the uni9ueness of a certain ob ect'
6.

organicist, it is integrati$e. it depicts the particulars from the historical field, as mechanistic, it searches for the casual la!s that determine the outcomes of conte%tualist, e$ents can be e%plained by being set !ithin the conte%t of their N ;%planation by ideological implication There are four basic ideological positions anarchism, conser$atism, radicalism,

components of synthetic processes

7.

processes disco$ered in the historical field

8.

occurrence#

and liberalism# Traditional poetics and modern language critics identified four main troupes for the analysis of the poetic or figurati$e language, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony#

Metaphor phenomena can be characteri+ed in terms of similarity Metonymy the name of a part of a thing can be substituted by the name of the !hole

representational, ust li"e *ormism#

reducti$e, in a mec anistic manner#

Synecdoche a part is used to symboli+e a 9uality 11

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

integrati$e, in the same !ay as organicism#

Irony negation, on the figurati$e le$el, of !hat is affirmati$e on the lateral le$el# The first phase of the 1Hth-century historical consciousness crisis in the

;nlightenment historical thin"ing &dispute bet!een Ironists and pre-Romantics'# Curing the same period, ;nlightenment rationalism !as being re$ised by Arench positi$ists 0 schools of historical thought, Romantic, Idealist, and 8ositi$ist#
II. .n T e )iscrimination o* Nationalisms1 T e % etoric o* Identity in

%omanian Culture Nationalism 3 rather a form of self-consciousness, concei$ing one*s identity &inly' in relation to collecti$ities# It is, therefore, a critical act &a self- refle%i$e interpretation of collecti$e life'# Nationalism is about coherence, being also a reaction against e%ternal constraints and po!er# It insists on unity, commonality &of territory, blood, history, language, customs, or institutions'# Tropology. There are some primary !ays in !hich identity can be constructed# If tropos O manner, !ay of life !e can define &national' identity in DtropologicalE terms# )ayden =hite there are four essential tropes &metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony' !hich represent the hidden mechanisms of four main ideologies &Anarchism, Radicalism, (iberalism, and Conser$atism'# In )ayden*s $ie!, ho!e$er, these are not the historical periods, or mo$ements, nor the political parties or their platforms, but, names gi$en to a set of *general ideological preferences*# 9iberalism and Conservatism continuity, slo! change# Conser$atism irrational, based on intuition, rather than on proper "no!ledge (iberalism rational, political structures and legislation# Anarchism &P Conser$atism' irrational belief in the natural sense of humanity Radicalism &P (iberalism' rational, scientific approach of the concrete

Anarc ism and %adicalism discontinuity, rapid P complete change# of the indi$iduals &empathy' conditions of progress !ithin society#

12

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Anarc ist Nationalism - irrational &empathy', discontinuous &the uni9ueness of a nation' Rousseau the spontaneous and internal construction of a nation through the indi$iduals* feeling of affinity, and also through their common representation of simple destiny and responsibilities# Michelet *the ne! principle* &patriotism' $s# *the old principle* &institutions of authority'. sociability T e metap or the indi$idual and the collecti$e, concrete and abstract, perception and conception, the practical and the contemplati$e, all Dat peaceE# Anarchist nationalism 3 both in earlier and later Romanian culture# Romanians* ethnic conscience !as mainly due to the language and the la! that they shared# Anarchist Nationalism is not only about the communist ideology, nor only about a DsymptomE of right-!ing Romantic ideology# It is a far more comple% issue# %adical Nationalism (i"e anarchism, it is strongly defined by discontinuity, radical change, uni9ueness of the nation# @nli"e it, it is characteri+ed by concreteness# @nli"e anarchism, radical nationalism see"s gi$e a ne! form and meaning to social life and Qreconstitute society on ne! bases# The anarchist beha$es rationally, analysing, udging, see"ing to attain control o$er e$ents in their immediate, particular conte%t# Radicalism*s principal trope and its interpretation of Nationalism is Antithesis, defining identity through opposition, difference and contrast# It introduces another form of discontinuity, different from the autonomy of Anarchism# 9iberal Nationalism (i"e Rationalism, it has rational and materialistic inclinations# It encourages the e$olutionary &rather than re$olutionary' change. not indi$idualist, but rather pursuing the indi$idual*s fulfilment through social interaction and coherence &as opposed to the e%istentialist reaction against social order'# The fundamental trope of (iberal Nationalism the Simile# (o$inescu 3 the formation of the nation as an DinfusionE of =estern liberal ideology, beginning !ith 1?2Fs# 13

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

3 a soul*s formation is rather e$olutionist than re$olutionary# )is most endeared theory is that of DsynchronismE, being an elaboration on the mechanics of Simile, according to !hich mere imitation of =estern society brings uniformity and creates a $iable society in Romania# Conservative Nationalism (i"e (iberalism, it is another form of gradual continuity, but it is not based on the material aspects of reality# In e%change, its focus is on the organic !ay in !hich the nation, concei$ed as a spiritual !hole, de$elops# The e$olution of the nation as a natural rhythm# The fundamental trope of Conser$atism is Irony# Cealing !ith opposites &one against the other', it teases their parado%ical identity# It is also a superior form of self-"no!ledge# There has al!ays been a conser$ati$e sense in the Romanian !ay of percei$ing nationhood# The desire for national self-preser$ation, as a reaction to the numerous empires, led to a series of parado%ical strategies, ironic sho!-ups into their opposites# Mlad 6eorgescu mentions a theory, according to !hich, Romania could be both $assal and autonomous, by a simple capitulation, already usual among the Romanian princes# Romanians made 9uite a strategy out of spotting the enemy*s !ea" moments, only to fight more ardently# After that, they !ould normally offer a conditional capitulation to an opponent & ust relie$ed', so that they could preser$e their social, political, economic and cultural freedom# In recent years, the first ma or defeat of communism !as performed through culture by Romania*s greatest philosopher after =orld =ar II, Constantin Noica# Noica resisted communism through an entirely cultural strategy# In spite of his being charged !ith se$eral accusations, he !as still allocated the role of Qthe main e$idence of a nucleus of li$e thought in the ocean of deadQ Mar%ism-(eninism# A typology of cultural styles, named QSpiritual MaladiesQ, is also attributed to Noica# )o!e$er, Noica brings a ne! light upon Conser$ati$e Nationalism 3 that of an ironically irrational ideology#

14

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

%adicalism +lac5(ell "ncyclopaedia o* Political T oug t

N Radicalism a disposition to sub ect e%isting arrangements to critical 9uestioning, and to ad$ocate the reform or abolition of those !hich cannot be gi$en a principled ustification# a stance, rather than a *fully-fledged* creed &politically spea"ing' its practical content !ill $ary according to the political circumstances in !hich radicals &most of them 3 liberals or socialists' find themsel$es# a possibility to imagine a critical opposition to!ards institutions that are already liberal or socialist, in character creeds such as fascism may be described as ideologies of the radical right# Radicalism*s contro$ersy conservatism &the $ie! that political action can impro$e the human condition only in minor respects'# N Radicals &British Radicals' 1G?H-1H12 in Britain, in the 1GHFs, the principles of politics !ere sub ects for debate &pamphlet literature, demanding $arious forms of political reform' the debate !as furthered through the meetings of a number if radical political associations !hich sprang up to organi0e the distribution of this type of literature and to campaign for parliamentary an electoral reform the American Re$olution a good deal of criticism of the administration, coming from the side of the =hig opposition it !as considered to ha$e announced a ne! era &adapting a republican and democratic order, instead of the monarchical system' metropolitan and political associations !ere formed petitions for parliamentary reform. the printing and circulation of their traditions* canonical te%ts &1G?Fs' 3 still, a $aluable model for their successors, in the 1GHFs# )o!e$er, 1G?H*s e$ents in Arance re$i$ed these earlier traditions# Cr# Richard 8rice &the *Debate on France*' restated the principles of 15?? &the 6lorious Re$olution'# the right to liberty of conscience the right to resist po!er !hen abused the right to choose Lone*s o!nR go$ernors and to frame a go$ernment Lof one*s selfR# This particular right !as the initial focus of Bur"e*s Reflections on the Revolution in France 15

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

&1GHF', !hich generated debates on the fundamentals of politics in Arance# Thomas 8aine &Rights of Man' e%posed a radical republican ideology, based on the American e%perience# Ne$ertheless, his political principles !ere not characteristic of the pamphlet debate# James Mac"intosh & indiciae !allicae' proposed a philosophically-sophisticated defence of 15?? and 1G?H !hich pro$ided a clearly-argued ustification for rights# After 1GH/, the debate became a more direct struggle to capture the allegiance of metropolitan and pro$incial artisans# Spence a doctrine of rights to e9ual property, to be managed collecti$ely by the community, !hich influenced 1Hth-century radicals &1GHFs'# for Spence, a right in land represented an essential prere9uisite for important political rights and proper representation# The radical societies !ere increasingly harassed by go$ernment spies, propaganda, prosecutions, and arrests, Although 8aine*s !or"s !ere still circulated, and Spence continued to turn out demands for common o!nership, political debate !as dominated by !riters from the 1G?Fs, rather than 1GHFs more moderate in its debates and e%pectations#

N 8hilosophic Radicalism a doctrine of British origin, associated !ith the disciples of Jeremy Bentham and James Mill &most notably, John "tuart Mill' it combined Bentham*s utilitarianism, classical political economy, !ith a jurisprudence &Bentham and John Austin', as !ell as !ith a rationale *or democracy &Bentham and James Mill' concerned !ith practice its main thrust !as the acceleration of the transformation of the traditional aristocratic regime, into a modern, secular, democratic mar"et, liberal society &against the landed aristocracy, economic monopoly, and the established church' @tilitarianism the most important component of philosophic radicalism 16

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

the indi$iduals sought to ma%imi+e their Lo!nR happiness and the purpose of go$ernment !as to promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number# Bentham*s urisprudence critical of common la! for being traditional, self-

contradictory, arbitrary, and hard to understand he boasted of rationality and clarity, both achie$ed through codification Blac"stone !as attac"ed for being the most prominent defender of common la! political economy affinities !ith utilitarianism

its principles !ere incompatible !ith monopoly and protectionism rationale for democracy the goal of politics 3 to establish an identity of interests

bet!een rulers and ruled# <bstacle, indi$idual>separate interests in the community# the concept of *philosophic radicals* !as adopted by John Stuart Mill and his associates# It had a specific meaning, different from !hat it later represented &it referred to a small group of radical ournalists and politicians !ho, !hile accepting utilitarianism, !ere distinguished through their commitment to the belief that should and could be reformed !ith the primary goal of see"ing constitutional re*orm along democratic lines philosophic radicals !ere most notably critici+ed for their doctrinairism by centrists affiliated !ith the =hig party# A# Jeffrey thought they encouraged ci$il conflict, ma"ing reconciliation of classes>parties difficult to achie$e# Macaulay they &philosophic radicals' used deducti$e reasoning, !hich !as inappropriate in politics they resembled 1Gth-century 8uritans and Jacobins their support lent ridicule to good causes they !ere arrogant and ignorant they made the reform mo$ement too re$olutionary Carlyle critici+ed its indi$idualism, its insensiti$ity to spiritual needs, and its support for a mar"et economy# Mar% regarded philosophic radicalism as a burgeois ideology. 17

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

9iberalism
Political Ideologies Andre( &ey(ood .rigins and development. )a$ing been used since the 11th century, the term has been employed to ma"e reference to $arious concepts# )o!e$er, although as a political ideology it has not e%isted before the 1Hth century, its "ey ideas, theories, and principles !ere first $aguely defined 0FF years before# The disintegration of feudalism, on one hand, and the de$elopment of capitalism, on the other, ha$e both led to the birth of the first liberal ideas# In the political area, the term has only began being used in the early 1Hth century, in Spain &1?1/', ha$ing spread throughout ;urope only a !hile after that &1?1F', !hile in @7, it came to use only in late 1?5Fs# )o!e$er, although as a political ideology it has not e%isted before the 1Hth century, its "ey ideas, theories, and principles !ere first $aguely defined 0FF years before# The disintegration of feudalism, on one hand, and the de$elopment of capitalism, on the other, ha$e both led to the birth of the first liberal ideas# The 1Hth century, unarguably, has been !idely considered as the century of liberalism# The industriali+ation led to the triumph of liberal creeds# The @7 !as the first to embrace the industrial capitalism, beginning !ith mid 1? th century, this ideology being first spread to North America, =estern ;urope, ;astern ;urope# In the /F th century, there emerged this desire of de$eloping other areas, such as Africa, Asia, and (atin America# =estern political systems usually seen as liberal democracies, mostly due to the liberal ideas and $alues found at its core# It has gradually become the dominant ideology of the industriali+ed =est# Ne$ertheless, historical de$elopments since the nineteenth century ha$e clearly influenced the nature and substance of liberal ideology# The character of liberalism changed as the Srising middle classes4 succeeded in establishing their economic and political dominance# The radical, e$en re$olutionary edge of liberalism faded !ith each liberal success# (iberalism thus became increasingly conser$ati$e, standing less for change and reform, and more for the maintenance of e%isting 3 largely liberal 3 institutions# The main moral and ideological statement of liberalism is embodied in a commitment to a distincti$e set of $alues and beliefs# The most important of these are, T The indi$idual &Indi$idualism' T Areedom 18

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

T Reason &Rationalism' T Justice T Toleration and di$ersity# Individualism# A belief in the primacy of the indi$idual is the characteristic theme of liberal ideology, but it has influenced liberal thought in different !ays# Indi$idualism is, therefore, that belief in the supremacy of the indi$idual o$er any social group or collecti$e body# Methodological indi$idualism suggests that the indi$idual is central to any political theory or social e%planation 3 all statements about society should be made in terms of the indi$iduals !ho compose it# /reedom. &or indi$idual liberty'# (iberals understand it as the supreme political $alue, and in many !ays the principle that "ept the liberal ideology as a !hole# Aor early liberals, liberty !as a natural right, an essential re9uirement for leading a truly human e%istence# (ater liberals ha$e seen liberty as the only condition in !hich people are able to de$elop their s"ills and talents and fulfil their potential# )o!e$er, liberals do not agree !ith the idea that indi$iduals ha$e an absolute right to freedom# Although liberals agree about the $alue of liberty, they ha$e not al!ays agreed about !hat it means for an indi$idual to be Sfree4#
Perspectives1

(iberals gi$e priority to freedom as the supreme indi$idualist $alue# Conser$ati$es ha$e traditionally endorsed a !ea" $ie! of freedom as the !illing recognition of duties and responsibilities, negati$e freedom posing a threat to the fabric of society# Socialists ha$e generally understood freedom in positi$e terms to refer to selffulfilment achie$ed through either free creati$e labour or cooperati$e social interaction# Anarchists regard freedom as an absolute $alue, belie$ing it to be irreconcilable !ith any form of political authority# the achie$ement of personal autonomy# Aascists re ect any form of indi$idual liberty as a nonsense# ;cologists, particularly deep ecologists, treat freedom as the achie$ement of oneness, self-reali+ation through the absorption of the personal ego into the ecosphere or uni$erse# Religious fundamentalists see freedom as essentially an inner or spiritual 9uality# Areedom means conformity to the re$ealed !ill of 6od, spiritual fulfilment being 19

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

associated !ith submission to religious authority# %eason. (iberalism is, and remains, $ery much part of the ;nlightenment pro ect# The central theme of the ;nlightenment !as the desire to release human"ind from its bondage to superstition and ignorance, and unleash an Sage of reason4# "nlig tenment rationalism influenced liberalism in a number of !ays# In the first place, it strengthened its faith in both the indi$idual and in liberty# To the e%tent that human beings are rational, thin"ing creatures, they are capable of defining and pursuing their o!n best interests# Rationalism is the belief that the !orld has a rational structure# As a philosophical theory, rationalism is the belief that "no!ledge flo!s from reason rather than e%perience, and thus contrasts !ith empiricism# As a general principle, ho!e$er, rationalism places a hea$y emphasis on the capacity of human beings to understand and e%plain their !orld, and to find solutions to problems# Reason, moreo$er, is significant in highlighting the importance of discussion, debate and argument# =hile liberals are generally optimistic about human nature, seeing people as reason-guided creatures, they ha$e seldom subscribed to the utopian creed of human perfectibility because they recogni+e the po!er of self-interest and egoism# The ine$itable result of this is ri$alry and conflict# (iberals may belie$e that the use of force is ustified either on the grounds of selfdefence or as a means of countering oppression, but al!ays and only after reason and argument ha$e failed# 'ustice. In short ustice is about gi$ing each person !hat he or she is Sdue4# The liberal theory of ustice is based upon a belief in e9uality of $arious "inds# In the first place, indi$idualism implies a commitment to foundational e9uality# Second, foundational e9uality implies a belief in formal e9uality, the idea that indi$iduals should en oy the same formal status in society# Third, liberals subscribe to a belief in e9uality of opportunity# Classical liberals ha$e endorsed strict meritocracy &literally, rule by the talented or able' on both economic and moral grounds# Modern liberals, in contrast, belie$e that 20

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

unrestrained capitalism has led to ne! forms of social in ustice that pri$ileged some and disad$antage others# Toleration and diversity. Toleration means forbearance, a !illingness to allo! people to thin", spea" and act in !ays of !hich !e disappro$e &Moltaire'# It is both an ethical ideal and a social principle# Sympathy for toleration and di$ersity is also lin"ed to the liberal belief in a balanced society, one not dri$en by fundamental conflict# :niversalist vs. pluralist liberalism =hile uni$ersalist liberalism functions according to principles such as uni$ersal reason, search for truth, fundamental $alues, liberal toleration, human rights, liberaldemocratic culture, and liberal triumphism, pluralist liberalism is based on scepticism, the pursuit of order, it $alues pluralism, politics of difference, cultural rights, multiculturalism, and plural political forms# )emocracy As a model of democracy, liberal democracy has three central features,
T (iberal democracy is an indirect and representati$e form of democracy# 8olitical office is

gained through success in regular elections, conducted on the basis of formal political e9uality 3 Sone person, one $ote. one $ote, one $alue4#
T It is based upon competition and electoral choice# This is ensured by political pluralism, a

tolerance of a !ide range of contending beliefs, conflicting social philosophies and ri$al political mo$ements and parties#
T It is characteri+ed by a clear distinction bet!een the state and ci$il society# This is

maintained both by internal and e%ternal chec"s on go$ernment po!er and the e%istence of autonomous groups and interests, and by the mar"et or capitalist organi+ation of economic life# Perspectives1 (iberals understand democracy in indi$idualist terms as consent e%pressed through the ballot bo%, democracy being e9uated !ith regular and competiti$e elections# =hilst democracy constrains abuses of po!er, it must al!ays be conducted !ithin a constitutional frame!or" in order to pre$ent ma oritarian tyranny# Conser$ati$es endorse liberal-democratic rule but !ith 9ualifications about the need to protect property and traditional institutions from the untutored !ill of Sthe many4# 21

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

The ne! right, ho!e$er, has lin"ed electoral democracy to the problems of o$ergo$ernment and economic stagnation# Socialists traditionally endorsed a form of radical democracy based on popular participation and the desire to bring economic life under public control, dismissing liberal democracy as simply capitalist democracy# Ne$ertheless modern social democrats are no! firmly committed to liberal-democratic structures# Anarchists endorse direct democracy and call for continuous popular participation and radical decentrali+ation# ;lectoral or representati$e democracy is merely a faUade that attempts to conceal elite domination and reconcile the masses to their oppression# Aascists embrace the ideas of totalitarian democracy, holding that a genuine democracy is an absolute dictatorship as the leader monopolises ideological !isdom and is alone able to articulate the true interests of the people# 8arty and electoral competition are thus corrupt and degenerate# ;cologists ha$e often supported radical or participatory democracy# SCar"4 greens ha$e de$eloped a particular criti9ue of electoral democracy that portrays it as a means of imposing the interests of the present generation of humans on &unenfranchised' later generations, other species and nature as a !hole# Classical liberalism Classical liberal ideas ha$e ta"en a $ariety of forms but they ha$e a number of common characteristics# Airst, classical liberals subscribe to egoistical indi$idualism# Second, classical liberals belie$e in negati$e freedom# The indi$idual is free insofar as he or she is left alone, not interfered !ith or coerced by others# Third, the state is regarded at best as, in Thomas 8aine*s !ords, a Snecessary e$il4# It is necessary in that, at the $ery least, it lays do!n the conditions for orderly e%istence. and it is e$il in that it imposes a collecti$e !ill upon society, thereby limiting the freedom and responsibilities of the indi$idual# )octrines
T Natural rights T @tilitarianism T ;conomic liberalism T Social Car!inism

theory

22

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1 T Neoliberalism

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Modern liberalism )o!e$er, modern liberalism has been $ie!ed in t!o, 9uite different, !ays# Classical liberals in particular ha$e argued that it effecti$ely bro"e !ith the principles and doctrines that had pre$iously defined liberalism, notably that it abandoned indi$idualism and embraced collecti$ism# Modern liberals, ho!e$er, ha$e been at pains to point out that they built on, rather than betrayed, classical liberalism# In this $ie!, !hereas classical liberalism is characteri+ed by clear theoretically consistency, modern liberalism represents a marriage bet!een ne! and old liberalism, and thus embodies ideological and theoretical tensions# The distincti$e ideas of modern liberalism include the follo!ing,
T Indi$iduality T 8ositi$e freedom T Social liberalism T ;conomic management

23

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Anarc ism
Andre( &ey(ood
Anarc ism t e against-t e-state movement The main features attributed to this mo$ement are, unarguably, those of opposing the state, therefore rebellion against the go$ernment and la!# Bet, there can be identified a parado% here, as *anarchism* stands for both rebellion, as !ell as for morality, freedom, and autonomy, this moral part being actually its principal focus, rather than that of $isibly e%pressing one*s discontent regarding the state and go$ernment# )ey!ood further argues that anarchism should rather be percei$ed as the point !here both liberalist and socialist ideologies o$erlap and, at the same time, become anti-statist# Thus, anarchism can be interpreted as a form of either ultraliberalism &e%treme liberal indi$idualism' or ultrasocialism &e%treme socialist collecti$ism'# 7ey anarchist principles, 1# anti-statism 3 the state is $ie!ed as completely against indi$idual freedom and e9uality, for !hich anarchism is militating# Therefore, the state is considered to stand for oppression, sla$ery, and ine9uality, !hile at the same time inducing the need for po!er and control the psychology of po!er# Anarchists argue, )ey!ood claims, that the t!o means through !hich indi$iduals can become sub ects to political authority are either by birth, or through con9uest, rather than accepting the notion of a political authority !hich comes through $oluntary agreement# In anarchists* $ie!, indi$iduals can be *good* or *e$il* depending on their political and social bac"ground# That is, people could change from one state of being to another, by simply being gi$en authority and means of control# Should !e apply this theory to no!adays* reality, I belie$e it to be a contro$ersial statement 3 a purely "ind, lo$ing, pleasant human being cannot ust turn into an e$il tyrant, only because they ha$e been gi$en the DgiftE of po!er# /# natural order 3 the core of anarchists* principles is the belief in an utopian natural "indness of the human beings# Therefore, the social order is and should come naturally, and not by means of po!er and authority, as the state and la! impose# Jean-Jac9ues Rousseau perfectly put it, by saying that, although !e are born free LnaturallyR, !e are chained Lby the social orderR# Bet, anarchists, themsel$es, accept the idea that !ithin the human nature, there are actually t!o poles 3 therefore, one could be "ind and lo$ing, and 24

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

at the same time mean and selfish# 0# anti-clericalism 3 the adepts of the anarchist political $ie! re$olted not only against the state*s authority, but they also opposed other forms of po!er and control, such as the Church# They had to re ect the idea of an e%isting 6od &!ho could and !ould control their li$es and acti$ities', as )e L6odR !ould ha$e other!ise been the one standing bet!een them and the long-dreamed-of freedom and independence# Aor Ba"unin, eliminating the influence of both the State and the Church, !as crucial, in order to obtain the freedom of the indi$iduals, as !ell as that of the entire society# 1# economic freedom 3 the competiti$e capitalism emphasi+es the e%istence of t!o opposite anarchist traditions# =hile, collectivist anarchism preaches a society functioning through collaboration, the individualist anarchism pleads for pri$ate property, and mar"et# Cespite the differences bet!een the t!o branches, all anarchists fight against the capitalism of the /Fth century, especially after ==II# )o!e$er, the re$olution against capitalism !as not enough# The abolition of the state !as a necessary anarchist measure# Mutualism 3 the belief in unity LanarchismR !as in a sense associated !ith the principles of communism# A conse9uence !as the birth of a ne! current, the mutualist belief being associated !ith 8roudhon and his ideas# It mainly stands for fair mar"et, this economic e%change e%cluding the idea of profit &in a negati$e sense' or e%ploitation# Anarc o-syndicalism in the late 1Hth century and early /Fth,, anarchism de$eloped into one single direction, that of anarcho-syndicalism# The main features of syndicalism that matched the anarchists* beliefs !ere that syndicalists $ie!ed con$entional politics as corrupted and !ithout a clear purpose, and the anarchists considered the syndicates to be the perfect pattern for a utopian, decentrali+ed future society# Anarc o-communism 3 although the foundation of this !a$e is unarguably a good one, that of solidarity, pushed to its e%tremes it cannot but turn into a most radical form of communism# 8roudhon, on one hand, and 7ropot"in and Malatesta, on the other, argued !hether communism necessarily implied the e%istence of an authoritarian state, or it actually re9uired the abolition of the latter#

25

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

9ibertarianism spread among the indi$idualist anarchists, the mo$ement is best described by Thoreau*s adapted form of Jefferson*s motto, saying that DThat go$ernment is best, !hich go$erns not at all#E &It*s initial form being DThat go$ernment is best !hich go$erns least#E'# Anarc o-capitalism Anarcho-capitalists de$elop the idea of a free-mar"et liberal society# =hile liberals accept it as a good mechanism, but admit that it still has its limits, the anarcho-capitalists state that it !or"s perfectly, and pro$ide each human being !ith the ma%imum satisfaction# Rothbard argues that, !hile the indi$iduals see" protection &from one another', that !ould naturally lead to competition# Therefore, that could not but bring the best for the indi$iduals, as they !ould ha$e more choices# Anarc ism in t e 6;t century 3 Anarchists ha$e managed to ma"e a point, by pro$ing the state*s coerci$e po!er, and the destructi$e nature of political one Lpo!erR# The influence of anarchism increased throughout the past decades, o$er the modern political thought# The ne! ideologies adopted a more libertarian $ie!, a series of libertarian mo$ements ha$ing flourished in after the 1H5Fs, such as acti$ism, anti-colonialism, and feminism#

26

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

Nationalism and t e Politics o* Postmodernity

+eyond NationalismThe possibility of li$ing in a !orld !ithout the concepts of nation>nationalism and the globali+ation of the concept of *national identity, both issues ha$e been strongly debated recently# 8ost-industrialism ne! bases for ethnic mo$ements and cultures# The concept of national identity has been closely analysed both from !ithin and outsiders# It is also changed and transformed by e%ternal pressures# )utchinson argues that here is a close relationship bet!een economic and political po!er, as !ell as bet!een Church and state, the clergy also e%ercising direct political po!er# The 7ing rules by the principles of *di$ine right* and autocracy, !hile the Church controls effecti$ely both the udicial and the educational systems# The post-industrial de$elopments and the emergence of a global economy seemed threatening for the $iability of the traditional nation-state# The military alliances that transcend the nation-states* boundaries the ultimate coerci$e po!er# The post-industrial era has been caused by the technological re$olution, !hich !as most $isible in the fields of communication, computers, and automation# The military-industrial comple% has become the main instrument used by the supranational state in the pursuit of ideological fights bet!een the t!o superpo!ers &capitalism and communism'# The ci$il !ars !ithin e%isting nation-states rather ideological !ars, then political ones# The post-industrialist mo$ement, once ha$ing emerged, made some significant changes, regarding the future of ethnic consciousness, K organi+ations, and K nationalist mo$ements# There could be no religious tolerance, anymore# suppression of religious minorities, on one hand, and of secular political philosophies, on the other# The theocratic structure of po!er gradually lost ground, !hile ma"ing !ay for industriali+ation# the secular state# The *Blac" 8o!er* mo$ement in the @S encouraged ethnic groups to as" for public recognition# ;thnic minorities mostly associated !ith independence mo$ements# The transition from nationalism to multiculturalism>multinationalism cannot be made !ithout a struggle bet!een po!er elites &competition', the result of !hich, ho!e$er, 27

The Rhetorical Construction of National Identity, MA1

Constantinescu Patricia, BCS

!ould be a ne! era of both cultural and ethnic di$ersity# 6ood or bad: Narrating t e Nation *Nation* and the idea of it managed to spread in the !est as a po!erful historical idea deri$ing from the traditions of political thought and literary language# Nationalism should be analysed and discussed in the light of the cultural systems that preceded it# =e should also focus on its representation of an ambi$alence of the modern society# 7eeping this in mind !hat is its effect on the narrati$es and discourses !hich stand for a *sense of nationness*: Nation as the ideological apparatus of state po!er, or as the incipient e%pression of the *national-popular* sentiment preser$ed in a radical memory#

28