PANEL DISCUSSION ON POWER

SUBMITTED TO. Prof.Ponnamma .K.M Professor Govt.College Of Nursing Thiruvananthapuram

SUBMITTED BY, Anu.A Ananya.G.R Anu Antony.M Praveen .K.P Sheeja.L Second year MSc Nursing Govt.College Of Nursing Thiruvananthapuram

CENTRAL OBJECTIVE On completion of the panel discussion group acquires knowledge regarding power, appreciate its use and apply it with a positive attitude while performing different administrative roles. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES On completion of the panel discussion group will Define power Explain the principles of power Describe the characteristics of power Analyse various types of power Identify the sources of power Discuss the basic methods for acquiring and maintaining power Enlist uses of power Describe basic methods for using power to influence others Analyse situational differences in acquiring and using power Discuss the misuse of power Explain the career recommendations Discuss power in nursing

POWER IN NURSING INTRODUCTION: Nursing is a fast developing professional field. One of the characteristics of a profession is that professionals have power over the practice of their discipline which is often referred to as professional autonomy. In earlier period nurses are unaware of the term power. Autonomy represents one kind of power that nurses need, and has been defined as "the freedom to act on what one knows". ". Therefore power is a key element of empowerment is nurses control over their practice. HISTORY OF POWER IN NURSING: Power was considered as a taboo in nursing. Any one nurse who excised power were not appreciated; it was looked upon as inappropriate, unlady like, and out of nursing profession. Major decisions about nursing education and practice were taken by persons out of nursing. Slowly and gradually nurses began to exercise their collective power, as there was a rise of nursing leaders like Lillian Wald, Isabel Stewart, Auvie Goodrish, Lavinia Dock, M. A Delaide Nutting and Isabel Hamptal Robb. Also there was development of organizations and associations at national level for nurses. Over the last century, many social, technological, scientific, and economic trends have shaped nursing and nurses, and their ability to exercise power towards the development of the profession. However, even these days we the nurses behave like oppressed group and get involved in intra and intergroup conflicts and dont feel the need to join professional organizations/associations. DEFINITIONS: Power may be defined as the capacity to produce or prevent change .A leaders use of power alters attributes and behavior by addressing individual needs and motivation. There are seven general accepted types of interpersonal power used in organization to influence others(French & Raven,1956). Power: the ability of a person or a group to influence the beliefs and actions of other people. It is the ability to influence events. Power can be personal power. A person gets his personal power from his personality or from his expert knowledge. Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers, Programmers, etc. get their power from their expertise and professional knowledge. Power can also be legitimate or official power. This power comes from a higher authority. Power - ability to influence behavior. Power can be defined as the capacity to produce or prevent changes. Sullivan and Decker 1997.

Power is the .force of energy to accomplish a task, meet a goal, promote changes or influence others. Power is the capacity to control behaviours surrounding life events, the freedom to make choices and decisions, the capacity to create order and sustain influence. Power is a means of protecting ourselves against the cruelty, indifference or ruthlessness of other people. - Korda 1975 Henin (1998) state that to process power implies the ability to change the attitude and behaviors of individual people and groups. Power can be defined as the capacity to act or the strength and potency to accomplish something. CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER: . Power is fleeting, never permanent. . Power is a neutral concept, neither good nor bad in itself. . Power can be constructive and useful / it can be destructive and harmful. . Power controls, corrects and corrupts. . Power is reciprocal ie, when one person answers control other person gives it up.

POWER PRINCIPLES:
There are principles to guide a nurse manager in obtaining power

1. Power is dynamic and elusive and must be continuously replenished. 2. Power can be obtained only through active means; that is, it must be expressed against resistance and wrested from opponents. 3. A power oriented manager uses any means of control that will manipulate circumstances in her/his favour. 4. To win in the game of organizational politics requires a persons total commitment to goals. 5. Restraint is needed to use power appropriate. A person should use only as much force as needed to achieve desired objectives.

6. Power relations in an organization are situational, that is, a persons ability to apply force to another is contingent on specific circumstances that would not exist at another place or time. For example, a subordinates power over a superior may result from the subordinates having held a leadership position in the past; having publicly defended the superior against attack; or having knowledge of the superiors unwise or unsafe behaviour in a situation that is unknown to others. A superiors power over a subordinate may result less from their respective positions in the official table of organization than from the superiors membership on the subordinates thesis committee or office in a professional organization that the subordinate has recently joined. 7. Power has spatial dimensions. That is, the amount of a persons power is relative to other powers extant in the situation. A nurse manager who attempts to wield power forcefully will encounter strong resistance from peers and subordinates, because excessive force engenders counterforce as employees struggle for personal control and control over work life. This counterforce limits the direction and distance through which the managers power attempts are effective. 8. All agency employees desire clear definitions of power and control relationships among staff members but are reluctant to discuss power and control issues publicly; especially in the presence of persons with high authority. Consequently, health workers are unlikely to ventilate dissatisfaction about power distribution and use during regular staff meetings. Resentments concerning power abuse are likely to accumulate, fester, and explode unexpectedly

TYPES OF POWER: Power is to influence ,and the most important ingredient of a leader or manager in an organization. Reward Power Reward Power is obtained by the ability to grant favors or reward others with whatever they value. The arsenal of Reward that a manager can dispense to get employees to work toward meeting organization goals is very broad a great deal of loyalty towards leader.

Punishment Power The Punishment Power is opposite of Reward power is based on fear of punishment if the expectation are not met. The manager may obtain compliance through Threat of Transfer, demotion, or dismissal Legitimate Power It is the position power. Authority also is called legitimate power. It is the power gained by a title or official position with in an organization. The socialization and culture of sub ordinate employees will influence to some degree how much power a manager has due to his or her position. Expert power It is gained through knowledge, expertise or experience having critical knowledge allows a manager to gain power over others who needs that knowledge. This type of power is limited to a specialized area. For e.g. Some one with vast expertise in music would only be powerful in that area, not in another specialization. Special ability, skill and knowledge by virtue of education and experience. >Avoid careless decisions, rash statements. >remain calm in crisis and act confidently. >respect staff ideas and include them >keep abreast with current development >do not threaten staff self esteem Referent power. Referent power is power a person has because others identify with that leader. Referent power is given to others through association with the powerful. People also may develop referent power because others perceive them a powerful it is based on respect .Admiration and respect the staff feels towards a leader. Characteristics of leader with referent power >treat them fairly >avoid hostility and indifference >make requests reasonable. >be a good role model.

Personal power It is the drive within a person to overcome both internal and external resistance to reaching ones goal; not to exercise control over others, but to have control within one self. Shared power It is the interdepence in relationships and human interaction as source of power. Research indicates that women tend to prefer shared power more than personal power. Political power It is associated with governmental control of people, using the prestige of office and the coercive power of the state. Collective power / associative power It is the power of a group of members which raises from sheer weight of numbers of people, uniting their collective energy to achieve a goal. When a professional group exersices such power, it is called Professional Power.eg: Nurses Professional Power, alumni of great universities and friends Position power It is the power as being a dean, vice principal or chief executive. Knowledge based power It is the power used by an expert in any field to affect an outcome. Latent power power hidden within an individual. Recently more nurses are using their expertise to participate in the development of health policy, her knowledge with legislature and serve in community organization to develop health services. Charismatic power It arises from a personal sense of selfcare and ability to communicate personal attributes so that other admire, identify and get motivated to follow the person.eg: natural leaders, respected teachers. Informational power-. Heineken and McCloskey (1985) This source of power is obtained when individuals have information that others must have in order to accomplish their goals. Feminist power - Barwick (1977) describes this power as personal power that comes from maturity, ego integration, security in relationships, and confidence in one's impulse.

SOURCES OF POWER
A managers power may be measured in terms of his ability to (a)Give rewards(b)Punish individuals (c)Withdraw rewards etc. Thus reward, coercion, dominating personality , expertise etc. are the main sources of power . Power come from many different sources. Here are just a few of the most common:

1. Legitimate authority. One of the most common sources of power is a position that gives one the right to give orders and expect them to be carried out. Legitimate authority is found in virtually every sphere of life, although in the family it is currently the subject of considerable debate.

2. Control of rewards. This is perhaps the second most pervasive source of power. The kinds of rewards which can be a source of power or influence vary widely. Money is fairly obvious, largely though not exclusively confined to the sphere of paid employment. In a church, a person who is known to give large sums of money can exercise considerable influence, especially when he or she makes it known that they either support or oppose certain courses of action. Another type of reward is position, and the power of patronage or appointment is considerable. Exercised well, it can be a means of enabling and encouraging people to grow and develop. Then there is affirmation. Parents exercise power over their children by the giving or withholding of affirmation and so do congregations over their vicars or ministers. Fourthly, pastoral care. Those with the skills and position to provide pastoral care thereby exercise power over those receiving it. These skills provide power to help others and enable them to grow. But the activity of counseling is also hedged about with ethical guidelines to prevent the abuse of power. 3. Expertise. A person with a specialist skill, especially one in short supply, is in a position to exercise considerable power. Persuasive ability of person is also considered as a key factor .The ability to see the issues, a gift for the right words, wisdom to know the right time to speak and when to remain silent all help to decide who has greater influence than others. 4. Stronger will. Some people have greater confidence in decisionmaking and perhaps greater experience in making decisions and carrying them through. Others, perhaps influenced by their own past history, lack this confidence. 5. Reputation. Wellknown Christian speakers and leaders exercise far greater influence than others less wellknown. It has been known for people to share with their vicars as a wonderful insight

from the ministry of a visiting preacher the very thing he or she has been patiently teaching for years. The sources of power not derived from a position are many. A list of some of those sources is offered below. Each one of them can be a strong source of power for a nurse: The power of purpose The power to invoke fear The ability to grant favors Knowledge and skill Confidence, poise and maturity The ability to speak the truth The ability o set a standard that influences others The ability to choose how to react in a situation The ability to choose follow or not follow Relationships and associations with others The ability to withdraw support The power to control time and resources

Individual skills and attributes as sources of power:

The study conducted by Peffeffers in 1992 emphasize the following characteristics as being especially important for acquiring and maintaining strategic power bases: High energy and physical endurance is the ability and motivation to work long. Absent this attribute other skills and characteristics may not be of much value.

 Directing energy is the ability and skill to focus on a clear objective and to subordinate other interests to that objective. Attention to small details embedded in the objective is critical for getting things done. Successfully reading the behavior of others is the ability and skill to understand who are the key players, their positions and what strategy to follow in communicating with and influencing them. Equally essential in using this skill is correctly assessing their willingness or resistance to following the Strategic Leader's direction. Adaptability and flexibility is the ability and skill to modify one's behavior. This skill requires the capacity to re-direct energy, abandon a course of action that is not working, and manage emotional or ego concerns in the situation. Motivation to engage and confront conflict is the ability and skill to deal with conflict in order to get done what you want accomplished. The willingness to take on the tough issues and challenges and execute a successful strategic decision is a source of power in any organization. Subordinating one's ego is the ability and skill to submerge one's ego for the collective good of the team or organization. Possessing this attribute is related to the characteristics of adaptability and flexibility. Depending on the situation and players, by exercising discipline and restraint an opportunity may be present to generate greater power and resources in a future scenario. The skills and attributes are relevant not only to the work of strategic leaders but may contribute to the overall capacity to acquire and use power effectively. These skills and attributes are grouped as conceptual skills and attributes and positive attributes. Professional Competence is one of the many ways leaders "add value" by grasping the essential nature of work to be done and providing the organizing guidance so it can be done quickly, efficiently, and well. Conceptual Flexibility is the capacity to see problems from multiple perspectives. It includes rapid grasp of complex and difficult situations as they unfold, and the ability to understand complex and perhaps unstructured problems quickly. It also includes tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. Future Vision reflects strategic vision, appreciation of long-range planning, and a good sense of the broad span of time over which strategic cause and effect play out.

 Conceptual Competence relates to conceptual flexibility in that both are essential for strategic vision. It has to do with the scope of a person's vision and the power of a person's logic in thinking through complex situations. Political Sensitivity is being skilled in assessing political issues and interests beyond narrow organizational interests. It means possessing the ability to compete in an arena immersed in the political frame to ensure that your organization is adequately resourced to support your stated organization interests and those of the nation.

Positive attributes
Interpersonal Competence Interpersonal Competence is essential for effectiveness in influencing others outside your chain of command, or negotiating across agency lines. It suggests high confidence in the worth of other people, which is reflected in openness and trust in others. Empowering Subordinates goes beyond simple delegation of tasks and is crucial for creating and leading high performing organizations. It involves the personal capacity to develop meaningful roles for subordinates and then to encourage initiative in the execution of these roles. Team Performance Facilitation includes selecting good people in assembling a team, getting team members the resources to do a job, providing coordination to get tasks done and moving quickly to confront problem individuals. Objectivity Objectivity is the ability to keep the presence of mind and maintain composure under conditions that might otherwise be personally threatening. Initiative/Commitment It is the ability to stay involved and committed to one's work, get things done, be part of a team effort and take charge in situations as required. Leading power Understanding the character of strategic leader power and the requisite personal attributes and skills sets the stage for employing power effectively. We need to know more than the

conceptual elements that constitute power in organizations at the strategic level. But, we need to know the strategies of how to use power effectively and to get things done. Building Power Base Building a power base requires a plan, focus and hard work; however, the benefits to patients, the work unit and job satisfaction are significant. Consider engaging in the following: Develop self-management and self-care practices that allow to maintain clear thinking, articulate expression and poised demeanor. Actively participate in activities that contribute to the organization beyond basic expectations. Identify who are powerful in your organization, both in the formal and informal power structures, and strive to understand their resources, needs and priorities. Create and strengthen relationships Learn the culture of the organization and its priorities Keep the professional skills and knowledge current, as well as the communication skills, particularly those of negotiation and persuasion. Strengthen and demonstrate confidence in expertise and bring the skill to the situation. Maintain a broad vision and a sense of humor. And most importantly, empower others. There are different ways of obtaining power, but choosing the best one is crucial. There is three different activities that may lead to power. Extraordinary Visible and Relevant Activities.

Extraordinary Activities: In order to obtain the power you want one must provide excellent performance, in both unusual and non-routine activities. For example try this strategy: Try to become the smartest person in the organization. See the organization as a whole, and learn how each department contributes to other departments and to the whole. Then, look externally for emerging trends that may affect the industry or the general business climate, and determine how they can affect the organization. Suggestions can be create programming that effectively presents these emerging issues to the right people in the organization and apply that knowledge to the meetings coordinated. Visible Activities: In order to notice the work,it m ust be visible. It will help to get promotions and the power you have longed for. If higher management doesnt notice the extra effort put in, it will not be of any use . Relevant Activities: Extraordinary, visible work may fail to generate power if no one cares. If nobody sees the work as relevant to the solution of important organizational problems, it will not add to ones influence. Cultivating the Right People As the old saying goes, "Its not what you know, its who you know." Meaning, in order for individuals to advance in society they must be able to have connections out there. Networking is the best way to do this. Networking can be done in different ways. As a college student joining clubs, fraternities, or sororities is the best way of networking. In fraternities and sororities students are able to network through their fellow alumni and friends of those alumni. Get to know different people, you never know when they may become handy.

Outsiders: Establish good relationships with key people outside ones organization can lead to increased power within the organization.

Subordinates: Cultivate relationships with subordinates. An individual can gain influence if she is closely identified with certain up-and-coming subordinates. "I taught her everything she know" is a famous quote that people use in this case.

Peers: Cultivating good relationships with peers is mainly a means of ensuring that nothing gets in the way of ones future acquisition of power. Superiors: Liaisons with key superiors probably represents the best way of obtaining power through cultivating others.

TECHNIQUES FOR BUILDING POWER A beginning manager or even a newly graduated nurse can begin to build a power base in many ways. Habitual behaviors resulting from early lessons, passivity, and focusing on wrong targets can be replaced with new power-gaining behaviors. Marquis and Huston (1987) suggest the following for enhancing power. 1.Expand personal resources : Individuals can increase their personal power through various means that is through (a) self awareness, (b) vitality, (c) resilience, (d) mental and emotional strength, and (e) the ability to take risks are all characteristics of the powerful person. Therefore, building resources in any of these areas will increase personal power. 2.Present a powerful picture to others : How individuals look, act, and talk influence whether others view them as powerful or powerless. The nurse who stands tall and is poised, assertive, articulate, and well-groomed presents a picture of personal control and power. 3.Pay the entry fee Newcomers The newcomers who stand out and appear powerful are those who do more, work harder, and contribute to the organization. They are not clock watchers or nine-to-fivers. They attend meetings and inservices, do committee work, and take their share of night shifts and weekend

and holiday assignments without complaining. A power base is not achieved by slick, easy, or quick maneuvers but through hard work. 4.Determine the powerful in the organization. Understanding and working within both the formal and informal power structure is necessary. Individuals must be cognizant of their limitations and seek counsel appropriately. One should know the names and faces of those with both formal and informal power. The powerful individuals in the informal structure are often more difficult to identify than those in the formal. When working with powerful people, look for similarities and shared values rather than focusing on differences. 5.Learn the language and symbols of the organization. Each organization has its own culture and value system. New members must understand this culture and be socialized into the organization if they are to build a power base. Being unaware of institutional taboos and sacred cows often results in embarrassment for the newcomer. 6.Learn how to use the organization's priorities. Every group has its own goals and priorities for achieving those goals. Those seeking to build a power base must be cognizant of organizational goals and use those priorities and goals to meet management needs. For example, a need for a new manager in a community health service might be to develop educational programs on chemotherapy because some of the new patient caseload includes this nursing function. If fiscal management is a high priority, the manager needs to show superiors how the cost of these educational programs will be offset by additional revenues. If public relations with physicians and clients is a priority, the manager would justify the same request in terms of additional services to clients and physicians. 7.Increase professional skills and knowledge. Because employees are expected to perform their jobs well, one's performance must be extraordinary to enhance power. One method of being extraordinary is to increase profes sional skills and knowledge until reaching an expertise level. Having knowledge and skill that others lack greatly augments one s power base. Excellence that reflects knowledge and demonstrates skill enhances a nurse's credibility and determines how they are viewed by others.

8.Maintain a broad vision. Because individuals are assigned to a unit or department, they often develop a narrow view of the total organization. Power successful manager not only recognizes how the individual unit fits within the larger organization but also how the institution as a whole fits into the scheme of the total community. People without vision rarely become very powerful. 9.Use experts and seek counsel. Newcomers should seek out role models. By looking to others for advice and counsel, people demonstrate that they are willing to be team players, that they are cautious and want expert opinion before proceeding, and that they are not rash newcomers who think they have all the answers. Aligning oneself with appropriate veterans in the organization is excellent for building power. 10.Be flexible. Anyone wishing to acquire power should develop a reputation as someone who can compromise. The rigid, uncompromising newcomer is viewed as insensitive to the organization's needs. 11.Develop visibility and a voice in the organization. Newcomers must become active in committees or groups that are recognized by the organization as having clout. When working in groups it is important that the newcomer not monopolize committee time. Novice leaders and managers must develop observational and listening skills as well as verbal skills. Their spoken contributions to the committee should be valuable and articulated well. 12.Learn to toot your own horn. Accepting compliments is an art. One should be gracious but certainly not passive when praised for extraordinary effort. Additionally, individuals should let others know when some special professional recognition has been achieved. This should be done in a manner that is not bragging but reflects upon the self-respect of one who is talented and unique. 13.Maintain a sense of humor. Appropriate humor is very effective. The ability to laugh at oneself and not take oneself too seriously is a most important power builder.

14.Empower others. Leaders need to empower others and followers must empower their leaders. When nurses empower each other they gain referent power. Huston and Marquis (1988) maintain that both individual nurses and the profession as a whole do not gain their share of power because they allow others to divide them and weaken their base. Nurses can empower other nurses by sharing-knowledge, maintaining cohesiveness, valuing the profession, and supporting each other.

Techniques for maintaining power

Having power does not guarantee it will be used effectively. Techniques for the effective use of power can be negative or positive. Negative techniques include inciting fear and making threats. While these techniques can lead to a desired result, they generally also lead to unintended consequences that can erode the culture and productivity of the unit over time. When possible, it is preferable to employ a positive technique such as: Use facts, evidence and persuasion. Recognize and respect the situation/circumstances of others. Design a win-win for all parties involved.

USES OF POWER:
1. WITH THE SELF: To use power for yourself and you must take control of your life; ie self-aware. Assess your physical, emotional and intellectual capacities, values, beliefs, talents etc. Package yourself to fit your objectives.eg: If you want to be a peofessor go for higher studies and if you want friends, be a friend. Be adaptive and flexible. Practice assertive communication.eg: say what you see (objectively), say how you feel (honesty). 2.WITH PEERS:

 To use power with peers you must demonstrate respect, collegiality, accountability and professionalism. Too often interpersonal powers have been found to be destructive. 3. WITH SUBORDINATES: . Accepting responsibility, communicating clearly, delegating duties, fair competence, using assertive communication and being flexible and willing to compromise. 4. WITH THE PUBLIC: Nursing is one of the professional field most frequently focused by media. Nurse can change this state of affairs and use power with the public like; Support health and human welfare legislation. Submit stories of courage, achievement. Communicate the objections through media. Characteristics perceived to be important for gaining and using power:

Articulate Sensitive Competent Popular Extroverted Self Confident Aggressive Ambitious

BASIC METHODS FOR ACQUIRING AND MAINTAINING POWER [1] Gaining control over tangible resources Acquiring power means acquiring "potential"influence, which is the potential for getting others to do what you want or for preventing them from forcing you to do something.

[2] Obtaining information and control of information channels

[3] Establishing favorable relationships a)Creating a sense of obligation b)Building a good professional reputation c)Encouraging identification d)Creating perceived dependence

[4] Keys to success at acquiring power (a) They tend to be very sensitive to where power exists in their organizations

(b) To some degree, they use all the methods to develop power

(c) They take calculated risks in which they "invest" some of their power in the hopes of gaining it back with interest

(d) They recognize that all of their actions can affect their power and they avoid actions that will accidentally decrease it

(e) In their career development they try to move both up the hierarchy and toward positions where they can control some strategic contingency for their organization Powerful managers gain and maintain really sizable amounts of power by moving into positions that control key contingencies for their organizations. They do so because they recognize that as long as their organization has to compete with others to get support from its environment, those who can manage the most problematic environmental contingencies are really the most important people in the organization. Everyone in an organization, must depend on a powerful manager, and that situation gives him or her a great deal of power!

A summary of the "acquisition of power" by a manager: The manager's power comes from the combination of (1) interpersonal and analytical skills, knowledge, and energy level (2) the degree to which the manager controls important resources, such as [a] tangible resources, information and information channels; [b] favorable relationships based on a sense of obligation, a strong professional reputation, identification of others with the manager, and his or her perceived dependence. BASIC METHODS FOR USING POWER TO INFLUENCE OTHERS The focus is on how influential managers actually do behave, not on how we think they should behave [1] Direct influence [2] Indirect influence [3] Using influence methods successfully (a) They are sensitive to what others consider to be legitimate behavior in using power (b) They have a good intuitive understanding of the various ways to use power (c) They tend to use all the legitimate influence methods presented earlier

(d) They use all these methods to help them manage upward, downward, and laterally. The complex situation managers often find themselves in includes not only relationships with subordinates but dependent relations with superiors and peers --- both inside and outside the organization. Effective managers use their power to manage all these relationships. They do not just manage their subordinates .They manage their bosses, their organizational peers, and outsiders too. Effective managers seem to recognize the importance of using power to manage upward and laterally as well as the traditional downward relationship.

SITUATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN ACQUIRING AND USING POWER 1] Power-oriented behavior and job-related dependence - two major patterns or principles: (1) The greater the amount of job-related dependence, the more time and energy the manager tends to put into power-oriented behaviour in order to cope with that dependence!

(2) As job-related dependence increases, the relative frequency with which managers engage in the more "negative" and riskier forms of power-oriented behavior tends to increase as well!

In response to job-related dependence, managers tend to rely on the more "positive" and less risky methods of gaining power as much as possible, while relying on the other methods only when necessary. When job-related dependence is reasonably low, a manager can successfully cope with that dependence without having to resort very much to coercion, manipulation, and the like. But as job-related dependence increases, the more acceptable methods seem generally to be less able by themselves to cope with what can be a terribly complex, demanding, and difficult situation.

The relationship of power-oriented behavior to job-related dependence is terribly important because many managers do not seem to be aware of how much the amount and type of poweroriented behavior need to vary in different settings. And that lack of understanding can create serious career problems for them, especially when they accept a new job or a promotion into a position that seems similar to previous jobs but that has significantly more job-related dependence! 2] Variation in job-related dependence -Variation is the critical situational variable that links power-oriented behavior and managerial career success The pattern of dependence inherent in managerial jobs varies within an organization and across organizations in reasonably predictable ways. Many

factors seem to be closely related to that variation:

(1) Within an organization - The amount of dependence in jobs tends to be related closely to four factors: 1. Job responsibilities - The more responsibilities inherent in the job, the more the incumbent is forced to rely on others to perform tasks and cooperate, and thus the greater the dependence.

2. Direct and indirect reports - The more people who report directly and indirectly to a managerial positioin, and the greater the difficulty of replacing those people or doing their jobs, the greater the position-related dependence. 3. Self-containment - The less a managerial job is designed to focus on self-contained tasks, the more the job is interdependent with other jobs and departments, and thus the greater the job-related dependence.

4. Bosses - The more higher-level positions that have some authority over a managerial job, the greater the dependence in that job. Line managerial jobs tend to have more dependence associated with them than staff jobs. Unlike a staff manager, a line manager often has bottom-line responsibilities which make him dependent on many others. (2) Across organizations - Job-related dependence can also vary a great deal between similar positions in different organizations. The following factors relate to the average amount of dependence in all managerial jobs in an organization: 1. Organizational size 2. Environmental dependences 3. Environmental uncertainty 4. Organizational goals

5.Resource scarcity 6. Technology 7. Physical proximity of operations 8. Formal structure 9. Performance measure --- The more an organization 's measurement systems clearly and unquestionably measure the individual performance of managers, the less those managers will be dependent on others for their pay and promotions. 10. Reward systems --- The more the formal reward system rewards group rather than individual effort, the more dependence will surface in managerial jobs! Managers in public organizations tend to be more dependent than managers in private organizations. Managers in more complex industries tend to be in a more dependent position than managers in less complex industries. These factors provide an important understanding of job-related dependence. This new understanding helps one to predict, without having to do a detailed analysis of specific jobs, how much power-oriented behavior managers in different settings will probably engage in. In addition, an understanding of these factors can help you see why two seemingly identical jobs can be very different. (3) Other contingencies -the most important factor associated with situational differences in how managers acquire and use power is job-related dependence! But it is not the only contingency, since a number of other factors are also relevant, such as the manager's style, the type of people upon whom the manager is dependent, the kind of resources available in the organization, and the climate or tone set by top management. The way in which these additional factors affect power-oreinted behavior is fairly obvious. For example, if a manager is surrounded by highly educated people who respect knowledge and expertise, he or she will probably rely heavily on his or her professional reputation and on persuasion.

Perhaps the most important of these other factors is the manager's bosses. They can directly influence power-oriented behavior by rewarding or punishing certain actions. They can indirectly affect such behavior by manipulating factors that shape job-related dependence. Their actions in this regard can help managers and their organizations be more effective, or their actions can create serious problems. THE MISUSE OF POWER [1] Personal integrity [2] Mismatch between job dependence and power skills [3] The critical impact of top management [4] Impossible situations --- Some organizations score highly on all the factors associated with a high level of dependence in managerial jobs. In these organizations, the dependence in the top jobs can be extremely high --- quite possibly too large for any individual to handle without esorting to power misuse. In these situations, one typically finds a top manager who is not really in control of the organization. Political behavior and power misuse occur throughout the organization. Little coordinated planning is done. As a result of all these factors, the organization performs poorly. Integrity is an important factor that links power-oriented behavior and organizational effectiveness. But two other factors are equally important. The first factor is job-related dependence and the second is power skills and abilities.

Whenever a significant gap exists between the dependence inherent in a managerial job and the power skills of the job incumbent, some organizational ineffectiveness seems to be inevitable. In some instances, the ineffectiveness seems to be inevitable. In some instances, the ineffectiveness results without power misuse. The incumbent is simply not able to manage the job dependence, and therefore does not accomplish his job-related objectives and is not effective in his job. Thus the manager does not contribute to organizational effectiveness.

A number of factors often help create situations in which a significant gap develops between a manager's power skills and his or her dependence.

The negative consequences of a large gap between job dependence and power skills usually become more significant as one goes up the hierarchy in an organization. Such a gap typically creates similar gaps in lower-level jobs in the same reporting hierarchy. Thus the burden for creating organizational effectiveness and minimizing power misuse falls heavily on top managers --- perhaps too heavily at times for even the most talented people.

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