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Sampling definitions
Sampling universe Sampling frame Sampling unit Basic sampling unit or elementary unit Sampling fraction Respondent Survey subject Unit of analysis
Sampling types
Two basic categories of sampling Probability sampling Also called formal sampling or random sampling Non-probability sampling Also called informal sampling
Probability sampling
Simple random sampling (SRS) Systematic random sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling Multi-stage sampling
Presampling choices What is the nature of the study: exploratory, descriptive, analytical? What are the outcomes of interest? What are the target populations? Do you want estimates for subpopulations or just for the entire population? How will the data be collected? Is sampling necessary and appropriate?
Sampling choices What listing will be used as the sampling frame? What is the desired precision? What type of samping will be done? Will the probability of selection be equal or unequal? What is the sample size?
Postsampling choices How can the effect of nonresponse be assessed? Is weighted analysis necessary? What are the confidence limits for the major estimates?
But
Result from survey is never exactly the same as the actual value in the population
WHY?
Total error
Prevalence
0% 100%
Nonsampling bias
Sampling bias
Sampling error
Nonsampling bias
Is
present even if sampling and analysis done correctly Would still be present if survey measured outcome in ENTIRE sampling frame In sum, you have either sampled the wrong people or screwed up your measurements!
Nonsampling bias
Types: Sampling frame is not equal to population to which you want to generalize (sampling universe)
Sampling frame out of date Non-response among sampling units in sampling frame Tape incorrectly fixed to height board Scale consistently reads low by 0.5 kg Failure to remove heavy clothing before weighing Misleading questions Recall bias
Measurement error
Nonsampling bias
Source of bias Sampling frame out of date Prevention or cure Use current sampling frame Limit generalizations
Non-response
Minimize non-response Use various statistical methods to weight data Standardize instruments Write clear & simple questions Train survey workers Supervise survey workers
Measurement error
Sampling bias
Selection of nonrepresentative sample, i.e., the likelihood of selection not equal for each sampling unit Failure to weight analysis of unequal probability sample In sum, you have not sampled people with equal probability and you have not accounted for this in your analysis!
Sampling bias
Sampling bias
Source of bias Nonrepresentative sampling Prevention or cure ALWAYS ask yourself "Will this choice enhance representativeness or reduce it"? Calculate the probabilities of selection
Failure to do weighting
Sampling error
Difference between survey result and population value due to random selection of sample Influenced by: Sample size Sampling scheme Unlike nonsampling bias and sampling bias, it can be predicted, calculated, and accounted for.
Sampling error
Measures of sampling error: Confidence limits Standard error Coefficient of variance P values Others Use these measures to: Calculate sample size prior to sampling Determine how sure we are of result after analysis
Sampling bias
Sampling error
Sampling error
In sum
Bias Includes nonsampling bias and sampling bias Is due to mistakes which can be avoided Cannot be precisely measured Control and prevention requires careful attention Sampling error Is unavoidable if sampling < 100% of population Can be controlled by selecting appropriate sample size and sampling method Can be precisely calculated after-the-fact
Essential concepts
Accuracy
What is accuracy?
The degree to which a measurement, or an estimate based on measurements, represents the true value of the attribute that is being measured.
Last. A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 1988
Accuracy
Associated terms: Validity
Precision
What is precision?
Precision in epidemiologic measurements corresponds to the reduction of random error.
Rothman. Modern Epidemiology. 1986.
Precision
Associated terms: Reliability Reproducability
Survey 2
Survey 3
In sum
Sampling error
Difference between survey result and population value due to random selection of sample Greater with smaller sample sizes Induces lack of precision Difference between survey result and population value due to error in measurement, selection of non-representative sample or other factors Due to factors other than sample size Therefore, a large sample size cannot guarantee absence of bias Induces lack of accuracy, even with good precision
Bias