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Organizational Mindfulness
Organizational Mindfulness
Under Review: Journal of Management Inquiry; do not quote or cite without permission
The Buddhist literature is voluminous, dating back to the early Pali canon3 (the Pli Tipitaka) purportedly as early as the first century B.C. In addition, the spread of Buddhism both geographically and
Critics of the human relations movement labeled it as cow psychology because of its emphasis on making employees more happy and docile while existing conditions in the workplace remained unchanged, hence, the phrase contented cows give more milk. 3 The Pli word, Tipitaka, literally means the three baskets, reflecting that the canon is divided into three divisions. The first part is known as the Vinaya Pitaka, and contains all the rules that the Buddha laid down for
monks and nuns; the second part is called the Suttatta Pitaka, and contains the Discourses, which are the teachings proper of the Buddha; the third part is known as the Abhidhamma Pitaka, a scholarly reorganization of the teachings presented in the previous two works, which deals mainly with presenting and commenting on Buddhist theory of ethics and mind. The Abhidhamma texts are also referred to commonly to as Buddhist psychology. 4 The Satipatthna sutta is arguably one of the most important suttas of the Theravda tradition, and is found in both the Dghanikya and Majjhimanikya. It outlines the Buddhist meditation of mindfulness that will lead to nirvna
Mindfulness of the body (kynupassan) comprises fourteen subjects of meditation, with mindfulness of the breath (anapanasati) being the most popular. Mindfulness of feeling (vedannupssan) is of three types, pleasant, painful, and neutral, referring to both material and spiritual feelings. Mindfulness of mind (cittnupassan) is differentiated into contrasting states of mind, namely, with and without lust, hatred, delusion, a mind contracted or distracted, exalted or unexalted, surpassable or unsurpassable, concentrated or unconcentrated. Finally, mindfulness of mental objects or phenomena (dhammnupassan) consists of five categories: the five hindrances, the six internal and external senses, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the four noble truths .
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Sampajaa is usually translated from the Pli as clear comprehension, or alertness, which has a reflexive monitoring quality. In this sense it is fair to translate sampajaa as introspection, which should be done with clear comprehension. Sati (mindfulness) and sampajaa (clear comprehension) are the tools not only for training the mind, but proper investigation of it as well. Mindfulness is supported by the mental factor of sampajaa, through the latters ability to be aware of whether the mind is focused on the intended object, or whether it has lost the object (Lutz, Dunne, & Davidson, 2007). Sampajaa can also be understood as a faculty of mind that is able to fully grasp and comprehend what is actually taking place in ones own mind and experience (Anlayo, 2010:40). The degree and level of sampajaa can range from basic forms of knowing to discriminative understanding, the latter of which
Based on the Buddhist canonical literature, four key elements are associated with sati, as Gethin (2001:44) summarizes below: (i) Sati remembers or does not lose what is before the mind; (ii) sati is, as it were, a natural presence of mind; it stands near and hence serves to guard the mind; (iii) sati calls to mind, that is, it remembers things in relationship to things and thus tends to know their value and widen the view; (iv) sati is thus closely related to wisdom; it naturally tends to see things as they truly are.
Right Mindfulness It is important to clarify not only the meaning of sati as described in both the Abhidhamma and the early sutta literatures, but also the role and function it plays in larger scheme of the Buddhist path of liberation. Buddhist spiritual development can be categorized into three progressive and interrelated stages: (1) the development of ethical discipline, integrity and virtues (sla); (2) the development of concentration (samdhi); and (3) the attainment of wisdom (pa) leading to liberation (nirvana). These stages of development are inextricably bound together, and cannot be separated from each other (Gethin, 2001:209). In this respect, ethical judgment is intimately tied to the practice of right mindfulness (Kang & Whittingham, 2010). Most importantly, organizational scholars should be cognizant of the fact that Buddhist mindfulness serves as a key function within what is known as the noble eightfold path.6 Integrated within an eight-factored path, right mindfulness (samm sati) is the seventh path factor, informed and developed in conjunction with the prior path factors, most of which require the exercise of mental restraint and behavioral ethical disciplines (sla). These path factors not only serve as a necessary
Right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
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Because the eight path factors are interpenetrating and mutually reinforcing, right mindfulness is elevated to a form of ethics-based mind training. While much is made of the attentional enhancement benefits of mindfulness in the organizational literature, the path factors of right speech, right action and right livelihood have received little or no attention, yet they are also influential in establishing right mindfulness. Indeed, this trio of path factors has to do with the quality of behavior enacted, or the ethical discipline segment of the path (sila), which makes them relevant to expanding our notions of mindfulness as applied to organizations. Unskillful behaviorssuch as hurtful speech, lying, bullying, violence, and deceptive business practicesfall under this triadic rubric. Harmful behaviors, if ignored, forgotten or denied--creates a barrier or block in memorywhich weakens the depth and strength of mindfulness.
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We have not mentioned the last of the eight path factors, right concentration, as this will be addressed later in the article.
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The first path factor, right view, figures prominently as the ethical foundation within this theoretical framework. There are three dimensions of right view: 1) establishing the motivation for a desire for liberation and freedom from suffering; 2) a framework for viewing experiences in terms of the existence and causes of suffering and stress, and abandonment of such causes; and 3) discernment as to what should be done in light of the framework (Thanissaro, 2012:17). The recollective function of right mindfulness keeps right view in mind, remembering and applying these dimensions to the present experience. In turn, right mindfulness directs right effort as guided and informed by right view. As right mindfulness becomes stabilized, right effort is applied to prevent the arising of unskillful qualities, abandoning those which have already arisen, and directing effort towards the development of skillful mental states. Right view serves as the foundation or support for the remaining path factors. The importance of establishing right view is key, for without an ethical compass to discern right from wrong, as well as the presence of suffering in all its manifestations, mindfulness becomes nothing more than an instrumental tool: a heightened, value neutral form of concentrated attention. The model also suggests that as right view is cultivated and maintained, it also influences all of the prior path factors. With right view
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Much is made of the connection between mindfulness and concentration, though this connection is murky at best. Again, the Pali Canon goes to great lengths to clarify this connection. In the Dvedhavitakka Sutta (Two kinds of thinking) (MN 19), it states that when mindfulness is established the mind becomes concentrated. Mindfulness, in tandem with effort and correct views, leads to concentration, but it is also an integral part of concentration itself (Thanissaro, 2012). In the Angutarra Nikaya (8. 63), establishing mindfulness is actually described as a type of concentration. Nonetheless, right concentration (samm-samdhi) in the Pli Canon is always regarding the jhnas8. The jhnas are only developed in meditation and are meant to lead to nirvna. While this is an important matter for one on the path to liberation according to Buddhism, in organizations samm-samdhi8 does not play a role. Instead, the practices of mindfulness, both in meditation and daily activities, does increase the power of attention (manasikra), which, as this paper will show, has been mistaken for mindfulness itself, as well as its main benefit, within neuroscience, psychology and organizational studies.
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While the experiential flavor of mindfulness is often communicated by comparing it to bare attention (Bodhi, 2011), equating mindfulness as preconceptual awareness is not only misleading but
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This modern variant of mindfulness apparently relies upon a non-interfering, passive, nonjudgmental receptive awareness which makes no mention of discerning skillful from unskillful actions, nor any type of striving or effort to either abandon unwholesome states or cultivate wholesome ones. Rather, this form of mindfulness presumably involves a passive observation of present moment experience and an acceptance of what is. A neutral, nonreactive stance suggests that mindfulness produces a nonconceptual, unfabricated experienceor clear awareness, free of any judgment. The issue
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Gethin (1992, pp.38-40) notes that modern scholars have misread or misinterpreted the meaning of the Pali term apilapetiwhich should not be read as plunging into the object but as calling to mind or reminding one of something.
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Mindfulness Is Not a Psychological Trait According to Dane (2011), the outpouring of empirical work by Western scholars is leading to a convergent and collective understanding of mindfulness (p.998). However, we argue that this is a premature and false sense of convergence for a number of reasons. First, the majority of such empirical work which Dane is referring to is based on psychological questionnaires which purport to measure mindfulness (Baer, 2011; Baer, Samuel, & Lykins, 2011; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Lau, Bishop, Segal, Buis, Anderson, Carlson, Shapiro, Carmody, Abbey, & Devins, 2006; Walach,
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Contrary to Danes claim, there is actually a high degree of divergence in how mindfulness is conceptualized, defined and operationalized between various questionnaires (Grossman, 2008). For example, Brown and Ryans (2011) Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), relies heavily upon the notion that mindfulness can be measured by how individuals think they experience lapses of
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EXPANDING THE SCOPE OF MINDFULNESS IN ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY Our paper thus far has drawn from classic Buddhist texts and contemporary Buddhist scholars in order to clarify what mindfulness actually is and how it is situated and embedded within a Buddhist context where it operates in unison with other essential path factors for freeing the mind of unskillful mental states and behaviors. We have also shown that recent scholarship that has attempted to import Buddhist notions of mindfulness into organizational theory have done so by isolating and extracting the essence of mindfulness from these integrated path factors and its original religio-cultural roots, in effect, distorting and limiting the emancipatory purpose of mindfulness (sati) (Christopher, Christopher, & Charoensuk, 2009). As we pointed earlier, theorizing on organizational mindfulness among organizational scholars has been based on a particular interpretation and operationalization of individuallevel mindfulness, drawing from a synthesis of Langers content-oriented, novel distinction making definition (Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000), Brown and Ryans (2003) clinical skills concept, and more recently, Jon Kabat-Zinns (1994) standard operational definition used in MBSR which emphasizes bare attention. While there is considerable variance in descriptions of mindfulness in the organizational theory literature, Weick, Sutcliffe and Obstfelds (1999, p.90) characterization of Western mindfulness has long been the mainstay: an enriched awareness[through] active differentiation and refinement of
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High Wisdom Organizations We propose that Buddhist-inspired mindful processes are associated with organizing for high wisdom organizations (HWOs). This is not necessarily a negation of Weicks HROs theory, but rather an ethical expansion of the concept. In addition, HWOs are not limited to cases where reliability is crucial for continuous operation. Mindfulness in HWOs is focused on clear comprehension of the sources of
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These are also referred to in Buddhist texts as the three marks of existence. Maex (2011, pp.168-169) notes that the Sanskrit term for right (samm) was originally derived from music theory and denoted a harmonious relationship in the sense that the path factors were attuned to each other as in chordal harmonies.
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CONCLUSION We have described the purpose and function of mindfulness within the Buddhist tradition, stressing how its emancipatory and ethical efficacy is derived from being integrated holistically with other complementary path factors, particularly right view and right effort. As we pointed out earlier, Jon KabatZinns pioneering work extracted mindfulness from its Buddhist context, revising and simplifying its operational mode of application for the purpose of stress reduction and pain management. This was necessary in order to make MBSR both accessible and acceptable to the medical and therapeutic community. Clearly, MBSR along with other recent variants, have helped countless people in suffering from chronic pain, stress and depression in clinical settings. Our concern lies with the booming popularity of mindfulness training as it moves into corporate and other institutional settings (Carroll, 2007; Cloke & Goldsmith, 2003; Tan, 2012; Timm, April 26th 2010; Yeganeh, 2012), particularly with how it is being defined, presented and utilized in ways that are increasingly suspect. David Forbes, in his eloquent essay, Occupy Mindfulness, puts the matter this way: My concern is that mindfulness may fall victim to its own success. Mindfulness is not about stress reduction, maintaining a steady state of bliss, helping an individual act with more control or an organization run more smoothly and efficiently. Even after we're de-stressed and feeling great, we still need to ask: how do we live now? We're in control and are more efficient, but toward what end? (Forbes, 2012).
Buddhist mindfulness is not merely a technique for reducing stress, improving the quality of attention, mental focus or concentrationyet these tangible human performance benefits are heralded as the sine qua non of mindfulness and major reasons for adoption by modern corporations. In their branding efforts, proponents of mindfulness training usually preface their program offerings as being Buddhistinspired, but are quick to dismiss any ties or allegiances to Buddhism itself. For example, in a widely read news article, The Mind Business, (Gelles, 2012) Janice Marturano who leads one of most
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Of course, advocates of the corporate mindfulness movement do claim that engaging in mindfulness training will lead greater awareness of interdependence and a kinder, gentler and more compassionate organization. According to George (2010),Mindful leadership will help the new generation of authentic leaders to restore trust in their leadership and to build sustainable organizations known for their harmony. Its ultimate goal is to create a more harmonious and peaceful world for all to live in. Maturano echoes something similar, Its about training our minds to be more focused, to see with clarity, to have spaciousness for creativity and to feel connected, and That compassion to ourselves, to everyone around us our colleagues, customers thats what the training of mindfulness is really about (Gelles, 2012). Even lawyers and investment managers on Wall Street are now supposedly gaining an appreciation for interdependence and the laws of cause and effect through mindfulness training, according to Robert Chender, who has been offering training attorneys for the New York Bar Association (Hunter, 2013). Even if the ultimate goal is not world peace and boundless compassion, the basic premise among mindfulness training advocates is, as Gelles (2012) explains, The idea is that calmer workers will be less stressed, more productive and even become better leaders, thereby benefiting the entire organization
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One of the authors of this article attempted to start a dialogue on a Facebook mindfulness group regarding these controversial appropriations of mindfulness and was admonished by the moderator. The moderator stated, I think I'd like to curb the political conversations about how mindfulness is applied and whether it is bad or good. .Such posts risk distracting us away from mindfulness and toward social identities... Shortly thereafter the links to the Forbes Occupy Mindfulness blog post were deleted by the moderator.
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Figure 1. Central features and characteristics of satipahnna; adapted from Anlayo 2010, p.268
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Right View
Framework for discerning the presence and causes of suffering Motivation for adopting the framework towards liberation Knowledge to eradicate causes of suffering
Right Effort
Prevention of unskillful qualities Abandonment of unskillful qualities Development of skillful qualities Keeping mindfulness established
Right Mindfulness
Remembers framework for discerning skillful from unskillful qualities Remembers motivation provided by Right View Remembers the object and purpose of concentration
Outcomes
Skillful mental and emotional states Skillful verbal behaviors Skillful physical behaviors (Roots in non-greed, non-aversion, nondelusion) Figure 2. The Triadic Model of Buddhist Mindfulness
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Western Mindfulness Untrained mind (Dane, 2011) Bare attention (manasikara), nonjudgmental, present moment awareness Ethically neutral wholesome or unwholesome Mindfulness-as-content (Langer, 1989b) Content-specific learning Skill development Attention enhancement Cognitive control (self regulation) Stress reduction High Reliability Organizations (HROs) -preoccupation with failure -reluctance to simplify -sensitivity to operations -a commitment to resilience -deference to expertise
Buddhist Mindfulness Systematic mind training Sati combined with sampajjna Right mindfulness, supported by right view and right effort Increasingly wholesome and skillful Mindfulness-as-process (Weick & Putnam, 2006) Process-specific learning Ethical development and maturation of wisdom Liberation from the causes of suffering and distress (non-greed, non-hatred, non-delusion) High Wisdom Organizations (HWOs) -preoccupation with moral hazards -reluctance towards delusional activity -sensitivity to conative imbalances -a commitment to reperceiving -deference to skillful means
Application
Table 1. Comparison of Buddhist mindfulness, HWOs with Western mindfulness and HROs
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