Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

Student teachers eliciting mentors practical knowledge and comparing it to their own beliefs
Anneke Zantinga,*, Nico Verloopa, Jan D. Vermuntb
a

ICLON, Graduate School of Education, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands b Department of Educational Development and Research, Maastricht University, The Netherlands Received 13 July 2000; received in revised form 9 February 2001; accepted 6 March 2001

Abstract Student teachers have at their disposal various information sources concerning teaching: their own beliefs, their mentors practical knowledge, and theory. Because practical knowledge often remains implicit, the aim of the present study was to explore the appropriateness of two techniques for its articulation: concept mapping and completing sentences. The criterion used was that these should not only elicit descriptions of how to teach, but also the cognitions underlying teaching, i.e., practical knowledge. Thirty-ve student teachers and their mentors at a postgraduate teachertraining institute in the Netherlands used both techniques, concerning the subject of order. Subsequently, the students summarized their own beliefs, their mentors practical knowledge, and theory and compared these to each other. The student teachers reports showed that they, in general, had been able to elicit partially their mentors practical knowledge. It was concluded that the use of the techniques involved seemed valuable for student teachers learning processes. r 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Student teachers; Beliefs; Practical knowledge; Concept mapping; Sentence completion

1. Introduction Student teachers attending a teacher-training course come into contact with various information sources. At the teacher-training institute, they are informed about educational theories and teaching methods. At the practice schools, mentors supervise them. These mentors have developed their own teaching knowledge and beliefs, derived from or accommodated by teaching practice. This is
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-71-527-71-74/70; fax: +31-71-527-71-81. E-mail address: zanting@iclon.leidenuniv.nl (A. Zanting).

often called practical knowledge (Eraut, 1994). Student teachers also possess themselves various beliefs about teaching based on their own experiences as pupils (Richardson, 1996). The knowledge and beliefs of the three information sources, teacher training, mentors, and student teachers do not always correspond to each other. Well-known is the gap between theory and practice reported by student teachers. They frequently experience diculties in relating theories acquired at the teacher training institute to their teaching experiences and their mentors feedback (Elliott & Calderhead, 1994). Furthermore, student teachers own beliefs about teaching

0742-051X/01/$ - see front matter r 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. PII: S 0 7 4 2 - 0 5 1 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 2 6 - 9

726

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

may dier from the assumptions of teacher trainers or mentors. Student teachers beliefs inuence the way they approach university and mentor teachers, interpret the information given, and what they learn from this (Oosterheert & Vermunt, 2001; Richardson, 1996; Tillema, 1994). Beliefs are, actually, the lters through which new knowledge, ideas, and experiences are perceived. Meeting a teaching situation in which student teachers cannot hold on to these beliefs is a starting-point for possible change and professional development. An essential aspect of teacher training, therefore, is thinking critically or reecting about current beliefs of ones own (Kagan, 1992). Before being able to reect on their beliefs about teaching, student teachers must become aware of these. These beliefs are often implicit and not articulated, just like the practical knowledge of their mentors (Carter, 1990; Francis, 1995). Therefore, the main question of the study was how student and mentor teachers beliefs could be made explicit. 1.1. Student teachers beliefs and mentors practical knowledge Student teachers beliefs may include several teaching aspects, e.g., what learning is, what a teachers tasks are, how a teacher can manage a class, etc. These beliefs are personal and based on ones own experiences, for example, as a pupil, as a beginning teacher, or as a listener to friends or relatives who teach (Richardson, 1996). Experienced teachers, like mentors, possess practical knowledge (Carter, 1990; Fenstermacher, 1994; Meijer, 1999). This knowledge is personal and has been developed during or accommodated by lengthy teaching experience. We dened practical knowledge as an amalgam of all teachers cognitions, such as declarative and procedural knowledge, beliefs, and values, which inuences their preactive, interactive, and postactive teaching activities. This means that it also includes reasons underlying teaching, considerations, arguments, personal motives, and zeal. Because knowledge and beliefs are often hard to separate (Pajares, 1992) both are indicated as parts of practical knowledge and are not distinguished.

It is assumed that mentors should articulate their practical knowledge in the presence of their student teachers (Brown & McIntyre, 1995). The reasons for this are described in the next section. 1.2. The value of explicated mentors practical knowledge Why should mentors explicate their practical knowledge and student teachers access it? It is commonly accepted that beginners can learn from members of their own profession, like, in this case, from experienced mentor teachers (see Wilson & Pirrie, 1999). Having access to the practical knowledge of mentors can fulll various functions in learning to teach. Firstly, practical knowledge contains experiential knowledge that is mostly undocumented, but of immediate importance for student teachers teaching practice. Originating from or adjusted by experience, it reects the complexity of teaching, its contextual character, and meets the need for immediate action (Carter, 1990; Olson & Carter, 1989). When this knowledge is not articulated, the wheels of teaching have to be reinvented by each new generation (Brown & McIntyre, 1995, p. 14). Secondly, articulated practical knowledge makes the mentors lessons more understandable. If only observing them, student teachers do not nd out about the mentors knowledge, beliefs, and reasons that may clarify their actions and decisions. Gonzalez and Carter (1996), for example, found that student teachers, in some cases, interpret classroom situations totally dierently from their mentors. The explication of the cognitions underlying a mentors lesson can, then, be clarifying. Furthermore, student teachers can better understand their mentors feedback on their lessons when they are aware of the mentors knowledge, beliefs, and values (Edwards & Collison, 1995; Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1987). These inuence a mentors interpretation of good teaching and, consequently, a mentors evaluation of a student teachers lessons. Thirdly, access to practical knowledge can help to bridge theory, acquired at the teacher-training institute, and practice, experienced at the schools (Bengtsson, 1993). When making explicit mentors

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

727

practical knowledge and student teachers beliefs, students can start thinking critically about these and compare them to educational theories. Leinhardt, McCarthy Young, and Merriman (1995) claimed that in order to integrate theory and practice, there is a need for theorizing practice and particularizing theory. The articulation of a mentors practical knowledge, then, is a precondition for this integration. Eventually, student teachers should develop their own beliefs about teaching and a personal teaching style, based on critical reection on several information sources: their own experiences, their mentors practical knowledge, and theory (Black & Halliwell, 2000). Critical reection is required when comparing these three sources because there are likely to be both similarities and dierences. It is even possible that student teachers become aware of dierences between mentors explicated practical knowledge and mentors lessons. The literature shows that teachers knowledge and beliefs and their practice do not always correspond (Calderhead, 1996). Even then, the articulation of practical knowledge remains important. Student teachers have to reect on the views of others, including possibly inconsistent and conicting information. 1.3. Access to a mentors practical knowledge Mentors are not inclined to articulate practical knowledge, and student teachers are not trying consciously to access it, e.g., by asking questions after a mentors lessons (Brown & McIntyre, 1995; Penny, Harley, & Jessop, 1996; Zanting, Verloop, & Vermunt, 2001b). Therefore, it seems that student teachers should be stimulated to access practical knowledge, but how? Several instruments and techniques have been used in the research on teacher knowledge and beliefs: journal keeping, concept maps, stimulated recall, interviews, practical arguments, short-answer tests, repertory grids, metaphors, the drawing of pictures or story-lines, or conversations (Beijaard, Van Driel, & Verloop, 1999; Black & Halliwell, 2000; Kagan, 1990; Martin & Kompf, 1996; Meijer, Verloop, & Beijaard, 1999; Solas, 1992). In the present study, two instruments were examined as tools for

accessing practical knowledge by student teachers: concept mapping and completing sentences. Both instruments were chosen because they can provide a lot of information in a relatively short time, without requiring intensive training or expensive material equipment. 1.4. Research questions The main research question to be addressed was whether concept mapping and completing sentences were manageable and eective instruments to stimulate student teachers to explicate their own beliefs about teaching and to access their mentors practical knowledge. This question was divided into three subquestions: (a) what is the nature of the explicated beliefs of the student teachers and of the elicited practical knowledge of mentors (e.g., just descriptions of a mentors statements, or descriptions of a mentors statements including underlying cognitions and reasoning), (b) what do the student teachers conclude after having compared their own beliefs about teaching to the mentors elicited practical knowledge and the theory? And (c) how do the student teachers evaluate concept mapping and completing sentences for accessing their mentors practical knowledge and explicating their own beliefs about teaching? The rst research question examined concept mapping and completing sentences as elicitation techniques of reasons underlying teaching. The second one focused on learning experiences that, according to the student teachers, resulted from comparing their own explicated beliefs to the elicited practical knowledge and to the theory. This comparison was meant to stimulate meaningful learning. Student teachers have to elaborate this knowledge and these beliefs by relating the three information sources and thinking critically about them. These learning activities are intended to promote deep or meaningful learning (Vermunt, 1998; Vermunt & Verloop, 1999). It was assumed that student teachers would become motivated if they could connect explicated practical knowledge to their own beliefs about teaching. Involving ones own beliefs is a sensible starting point for exploring theories and others

728

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

beliefs (Kagan, 1992). To investigate the student teachers evaluation of both instruments, the third research question was formulated.

2. Method 2.1. Context The study was conducted at the postgraduate teacher training institute of Leiden University in the Netherlands. The 1-year course comprised, alternately, 50% classes in teaching methods, educational theory, and professional development, and 50% practical training at schools. The student teachers were being trained to teach at the high school level (pupils age 1518) in one specic language (Dutch, English, German, French, or Classics), science (mathematics, biology, physics, and chemistry), or social science (history, art history, and social studies). 2.2. Participants The whole 19981999 cohort, 35 student teachers, participated in this study: 16 (46%) were men and 19 (54%) were women. Sixteen of them were social science teachers, 13 were language teachers, and six were science teachers. One subject teacher, their mentor, supervised every student teacher. The teaching experience of the mentors, 25 men and 10 women, ranged from ve to 31 years. Their experience with mentoring was also very diverse, ranging from zero to 25 years. 2.3. The student teacher assignment The assignment included obtaining information from three information sources: the student teacher him/herself, the mentor, and theory. This was done by the student teachers by: (1) explicating their own beliefs about order by concept mapping and completing sentences, (2) eliciting the mentors practical knowledge about order in the same way, (3) studying literature about order, and (4) comparing their own beliefs, the mentors practical knowledge, and theory.

The assignment was incorporated in the teachertraining program to test whether it really could be applied in an educational setting. Therefore, the criterion for selecting instruments were that (1) an instrument could be used easily by large numbers of student teachers, for example, tens or hundreds, and (2) an instrument could be used by student teachers without the need for extensive training. The criteria implied that some instruments that seem suitable for the elicitation of practical knowledge were not used, for example, stimulated recall which is rather complex, time-consuming and requires technical supplies (see Calderhead, 1981; Meijer, 1999). A pilot study with 20 student teachers of the 19971998 cohort had proved that, without training, the interview skills of the student teachers were not always sucient. For example, student teachers rarely prompted or they formulated only a few, supercial questions. Despite this, the interview proved to be suitable for eliciting a part of a teachers practical knowledge (e.g., Meijer, 1999). Because in a regular natural teacher training program there is no sucient time to practice interview skills, the interview was transformed into a sentence completion task. This task has similarities with an interview but is more structured and is written. The sentence completion task comprised eight written sentences on the subject of order in the classroom to be completed by both mentor and student teacher. They had, for example, to complete the sentences: Order in the classroom means to me y or A precondition for establishing order in the classroom is y Furthermore, four problems concerning order in the classroom were briey described, for example, All the pupils are working except one. This pupil does not disturb others but is not active at all. The mentor or student teacher had to describe a solution for this situation. The task aimed at explicating beliefs regarding the interpretation of order, the process of establishing and maintaining order, disciplinary measures, and the function of order. The sentences were formulated in consultation with student teachers of the 19971998 cohort. They judged the sentences on being clear, unambiguous, and

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

729

valuable for practice and, if necessary, restated them. Completing sentences was assumed to be complementary to the more abstract information elicited by concept mapping. Concept mapping has been used in the research on teacher knowledge and beliefs for capturing and graphically representing concepts of teaching and their internal relationships (e.g., Kagan, 1990; Meijer et al., 1999; Winitzky, Kauchak, & Kelly, 1994). It has been proved to be a suitable instrument for accessing mentors practical knowledge by student teachers and can be applied by them without intensive training (see Zanting, Verloop, & Vermunt, 2001a). Concept mapping can be carried out either in a structured or in a non-structured way. In structured concept mapping, teachers are given a xed list of concepts to use. In this way, comparisons between the concept maps can be made (Meijer, 1999). In the non-structured way, only the main concept is prescribed (Martin & Kompf, 1996). In the present study, the mentor teachers made a nonstructured concept map because this left room for the expression of individual concepts. They only got the central concept order, associated concepts that related to the main concept, wrote these on paper and related the concepts to each other by drawing lines. Examples of a student teachers concept map and her mentors concept map can be found in Appendices A and B, respectively. Choosing the same subject under examination intertwined interviewing and concept mapping. In doing so, dierent information about order could be obtained qualitatively. The subject of order was chosen because maintaining order is one of the main concerns of beginning student teachers (Fuller in Eraut, 1994; Kagan, 1992; Oosterheert & Vermunt, 2001). Eventually, to relate the exploration of mentors practical knowledge more strongly to actual teaching, it was preceded by lesson observations. These observations provided the student teachers with a framework to understand their mentors articulated practical knowledge. It cannot be assumed that the elicited practical knowledge related to these lessons. Concept mapping and completing sentences can elicit teaching knowledge, beliefs, and values that can be referred

. n, 1987). Other to as knowledge-on-action (Scho techniques, such as stimulated recall, are required for the elicitation of knowledge-in-action or interactive cognitions. 2.4. Procedure The elicitation of practical knowledge was integrated into the teacher-training program as a part of the course in personal development for teachers. The central question in this course was what knowledge and abilities a teacher should possess in order to function competently and comfortably. The main learning goals were: the student teacher is able (1) to reect on the teaching of others (experienced teachers and fellow student teachers), and (2) to infer conclusions regarding his or her own teaching. Accessing practical knowledge ts these goals because it reveals mentors knowledge, beliefs, and values, and the student teachers can then reect on these. Furthermore, the student teachers in this study reected on their own beliefs about teaching by comparing them to the elicited practical knowledge and the theory presented as part of their education. The student teachers, rstly, made their own concept maps about order and completed sentences concerning this theme. Before they actually carried out the assignment, two university teachers introduced it, each in one group, exactly following the procedure described in a scenario. This introduction covered the goals of the assignment, the procedure, and an explanation and illustration of concept mapping and completing sentences. During the class, student teachers made their concept maps. There was a written instruction for concept mapping and completing sentences both for mentor and student teacher. The mentors made and claried their concept maps and completed sentences at the practice schools. At home, the student teachers studied two chapters of literature about order and skills for maintaining order (ICLON, 1997). Then, they composed a report comprising the following elements
*

the student teachers and mentors concept map and completed sentences;

730
*

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

the student teachers main beliefs about order based on his or her own concept map and completed sentences; a summary of the mentors explicated practical knowledge of order based on his or her concept map and completed sentences; a summary of the main topics in the literature about the subject order; similarities and dierences between the student teachers beliefs and the mentors practical knowledge, these beliefs and the theory, and the practical knowledge and the theory; the student teachers conclusions based on the comparisons mentioned above.

The student teachers reports were the basis for data analyses. In addition to this, ten student teachers were interviewed to gather more in-depth information. 2.5. The interview Ten student teachers, four men and six women, were interviewed. An individual interview schedule was previously created for each of these on the basis of the individual reports. The aim of interviewing was gathering additional information and, if necessary, illuminating parts of the report. The interviews focused on the student teachers opinions about the function of the assignment and the preference for concept mapping, completing sentences, or both. The interviews lasted 45 min on average, were all conducted by the same interviewer, and were audiotaped. 2.6. Data-analysis The student teachers reports were analyzed to answer research questions a and b. The interviews were used for additional information and, especially, for answering research question c. 2.6.1. Qualitative analysis of the reported practical knowledge, ones own beliefs, and theory The descriptions of practical knowledge were analyzed using pre-formulated categories. These categories were based on distinctions of views on knowledge developed by Baxter Magolda, Kuhn,

and Perry, described in Hofer and Pintrich (1997). These authors reviewed Baxter Magoldas statement that knowledge can be viewed as absolute (authorities have the right answers) or as individual (opinions of individuals are equally valid). Kuhn (in Hofer & Pintrich, 1997) added that, in the individual view, dierent opinions could be compared and evaluated. Perry (in Hofer & Pintrich, 1997) called the absolutist right-andwrong view dualism and the individual perception of knowledge relativism. Based on the works of these authors, the rst distinction in the data analysis was called: absolute versus situational. This distinction is relevant, because there is not just one way to teach. Experienced teachers possess a variety of teaching skills that they can tailor to the specic subject matter, pupils, learning goal, or point in time. Practical knowledge reects this complexity and specicity of teaching, and is, therefore, situational (Carter, 1990). The second distinction was derived from Tomlinson (1995), who stressed the importance of a student teachers understanding of not only the how of teaching but also the why of teaching. These reasons underlying teaching are often not articulated by experienced (mentor) teachers (Brown & McIntyre, 1995). Therefore, the second distinction was practical knowledge as just facts versus analyzing practical knowledge by involving underlying reasoning and motives. This distinction is directly related to the main research question: are interviewing and completing sentences valuable ways for student teachers to access their mentors practical knowledge? The practical knowledge aimed at comprises the reasons for or the why of teaching. The two distinctions generated four categories, which are described in Table 1: descriptive absolute (DA), descriptivesituational (DS), analyticalabsolute (AA), and analyticalsituational (AS). The descriptions of the theory, the student teachers beliefs, and the mentors practical knowledge were labeled with these categories, including the descriptions of the comparisons between the three information sources. The reports were divided into coding units on the basis of their content. When a student teacher

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

731

Table 1 Matrix for analyzing restated practical knowledge based on two distinctions: (1) absolute versus situational, and (2) descriptive versus analytical Absolute Descriptive dening teaching or order as a state instead of a process; describing a teaching activity or disciplinary measure without reasons behind it; describing several teaching or disciplinary measures without indicating situation-specicity; describing practical tips and concrete advice without reasons behind it; Example There is order when the pupils do what I tell them. Exceptionally, I send pupils out of the classroom. ycall a pupil to order, giving guidelines, separate pupils, having a conversation with a pupil. Sending pupils out of the classroom does not work. Situational dening teaching or order as a relative and/or situational state; describing teaching or disciplinary measures in a specic situation; describing several teaching or disciplinary measures tailored to specic situations without reasons behind these; describing practical tips and concrete advice for dierent situations without reasons behind them; describing abstract situation-specic statements without underlying mechanism. dening teaching or order as a situationspecic process including the explication of the underlying mechanism; Example Order means something dierent for every person. When the pupils have just had a hard test, I tolerate more noise. On Tuesday morning my lessons are more intensive for the pupils than during the last class on Friday afternoon. When pupils are noisy, you can raise the lesson tempo. At least, in pre-university classes. Dont do this in junior general secondary classes. You adapt your communication style to the individual pupil.

Analytical

describing abstract statements without explicating underlying process or mechanism. dening teaching or order as a process including the explication of the underlying mechanism;

Order originates in the interplay between teacher and pupils.

To me, order means a precondition for pupils to come to learn. They need a certain amount of rest and concentration to achieve learning goals.

describing teaching activities/disciplinary measures including the explication of the reasons behind it;

explicating relations within and inuences on teaching or order with explanation of the underlying process.

Only sent pupil out of the classroom very exceptionally. Otherwise, they think you are powerless because the deputy head has to handle your order problems. When you are not in a good mood, pupils sense it and, you get the same unpleasant behavior back.

describing teaching activities/disciplinary measures in a specic situation including the explication of the reasons behind it; explicating situational relations within and inuences on teaching or order including the explanation of the functioning.

When I am explaining new subject matter, it must be totally silent. Otherwise, they will not understand it. When they are practicing together, the pupils deliberate. Then, it is not silent: there is a working order. I dont punish the pupils in the nal year. I think it is their own responsibility to learn and to pass their exam.

One of the pupils has ADHD. It makes no sense to discipline him. This boy has a problem himself. So, I just let him go ahead. Fortunately, the other pupils accept this.

started to write about a new item, a new unit began. Two independent raters on the basis of 130 coding units determined the interrater reliability as 0.79.

2.6.2. Quantitative analysis of the reported practical knowledge, ones own beliefs, and theory In order to examine what parts of the assignment elicited the most analytical statements, a

732

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

quantitative analysis was conducted. It was assumed that analytical codes were nearer to the explications of practical knowledge than descriptive ones. Therefore, the relative frequency of analytical categories was determined for every part of the report by dividing the frequencies by the total number of coding units of a report. There were six parts: three summaries, viz., of the beliefs, practical knowledge, and theory, and three descriptions of similarities and dierences between these. In order to determine which part of the assignment had elicited most analytical statements, the relative frequencies of analytical codes were compared between the parts mentioned above. Because the data were not normally distributed, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was applied. 2.6.3. The student teachers conclusions After comparing their own beliefs, their mentors practical knowledge, and the theory, the student teachers wrote down their conclusions. Various categories of these conclusions were derived in interaction with the data. Therefore, contrary to the categories in Table 1, there were no pre-formulated categories. 2.6.4. Analysis of the student teachers evaluations of the instruments The interviews were analyzed by reviewing the tape and making notes. The focus of the analysis was on (1) the cognitive activities initiated by the assignment, and (2) the preference for concept mapping, completing sentences, or combining both. Various categories were derived in interaction with the data.

3.1.1. Descriptiveabsolute (DA) This category includes concrete statements about order, like measures that work or do not work, without explication of underlying mechanism. For example, one student teacher restated the theory studied as: Gordon stated that, as a teacher, you had better not say you should know better to a pupil (Student Teacher 22: ST22). In so doing, she indicated a principle, but she did not describe the reason for it. Therefore, the unit was coded as descriptive. Furthermore, she did not relate the principle to a specic situation. It was stated as a general truth and, thus, coded as absolute. 3.1.2. Descriptive-situational (DS) Other statements of the students own beliefs, the elicited practical knowledge, or theory comprised statements about the situationspecicity of teaching. These statements were also descriptive because there were no explications of underlying reasoning. For example: Every teacher has his or her own way of teaching and therefore also his or her own way of maintaining order. According to my mentor, it is important to remain who you are (ST23). This student teacher indicated the personal way of teaching, but did not elaborate on what exactly makes the dierence between teachers and what will happen if a student teacher imitates a way of teaching that does not t his or her personality. This relativity of teaching was also described without further explanation for the students own teaching: What really is order? In my lessons, pupils are allowed to consult each other, and order will dier from lesson to lesson (ST25). 3.1.3. Analyticalabsolute (AA) This category comprised reasons underlying teaching without indicating situation specicity, such as: In the chapters of the syllabus, conversations with pupils were emphasized, because these can elicit the reasons for conicts (ST17). Another student teacher related the content of the chapters to her personal teaching experiences. During one of my lessons, I noticed that a group of four pupils remained chatting. This

3. Results 3.1. Reported own beliefs, practical knowledge and theory The student teachers reports were analyzed with the categories described in Table 1. Excerpts of the reports will illustrate the four categories.

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

733

was very disturbing to me, because I was not able to concentrate on the questions of other pupils in the classroom. I tried to ignore them, at rst, but this did not solve anything. So, I accepted the responsibility for my own feelings and told the students honestly and clearly that this could not continue during these lessons and that their behavior irritated me. This appeared to be very eective. In the syllabus, this is referred to as explicating what eect the situation has on yourself (ST18).

ones (z 2:54; po0:05). This was not the case for the written comparisons between the three sources. In a separate examination of the summaries of the three sources, only those of the student teachers own beliefs included more analytical than descriptive categories (z 2:43; po0:05). 3.3. Dierences between the student teachers In order to examine possible patterns in the student teachers reports, the group was divided into a low analyzing group (LA) and a high analyzing group (HA). The percentages of the analytical codes were computed. The mean of this score was 0.56 and the median 0.54. The line of demarcation for the HA group was put at 0.55, the average of mean and median. Student teachers with a relative proportion of analyzing statements lower than 0.55 belonged to the LA group, the others to the HA group. Subsequently, dierences in scoring patterns between the LA and HA groups were examined. It appeared that the relatively higher proportions of analyzing categories could be traced back to more analytical statements of the students own beliefs by the HA group (z 2:24; po0:05). There were no dierences in the statements of the elicited practical knowledge and the theory. 3.4. The student teachers conclusions After comparing the mentors explicated practical knowledge with their own beliefs about teaching and the theory, the student teachers drew conclusions regarding their own beliefs. Three types of conclusions were derived from the reports. These conclusions reect new ideas or intentions as perceived by the student teachers in response to the assignment. This does not mean that these conclusions can be translated directly into the student teachers actual teaching. The rst type of conclusion, mentioned by 14 out of 35 student teachers, concerned the content of order: its denition and the process of establishing and maintaining it. For example: Order is a precondition for creating a good atmosphere in which pupils and teacher can

3.1.4. Analyticalsituational (AS) The student teachers could also write in a way that comprised reasons underlying teaching or a description of underlying mechanism in dierent situations. The timing of the lesson inuences the atmosphere in the classroom. When the pupils just have had their physical education class, some of them will arrive too late and, then, the order is already disturbed. The pupils also have to relax for a moment, with their ushed faces, before being able to concentrate (ST22). 3.2. Frequencies of the categories in the student teachers reports In the student teachers reports, there were more absolute (AD & AA, P 91%) statements than situational (SD & SA, P 9%) ones (z 4:85; po0:001). This pattern of more absolute categories than situational was not due to one specic part of the reports. It appeared in the reports of the students own beliefs, elicited practical knowledge, and theory, and in the mutual comparisons. This meant that most statements were rather general and not focusing on specic pupils or situations. In the further analysis, the distinction between absolute versus situational was not used. The second distinction, descriptive versus analytical, was examined. Overall, there was no signicant dierence between the number of descriptive (P 46%) and analytical statements (P 54%). However, in the summary of students own beliefs, the elicited practical knowledge, and the theory, there were more analytical statements than descriptive

734

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

function well. Order facilitates, besides other things, the instructional process . . . Preparing your lessons thoroughly is also of great importance for maintaining order. If you master the subject matter, you have to concentrate less on it (ST23). This conclusion was also stated as an intention for their own teaching: prepare the lessons well, treat the subject matter soundly, and structure the lesson clearly (ST6). The second type of conclusion comprised linking the mentors practical knowledge and ideas described in the literature to the students own beliefs about teaching, leading to the extension of these beliefs, critical thought about them or, possibly, changing them. This conclusion was reached by 11 student teachers, for example: The mentor and both chapters provided me with a reference frame to test my own beliefs, which, to a not inconsiderable extent, have been molded by my own educational experience as a pupil (ST6). The student teacher explained that he was confronted with several aspects of order I had not the slightest notion of and that he could use the ideas for developing a more extensive repertoire for maintaining order. This was described more specically by another student teacher: My conclusion is that my own beliefs about order in the classroom were incomplete. According to me, what matters most importantly was motivating the pupils and being selfcondent as a teacher. I did not realize the importance of being explicit to the pupils, structuring lessons, and showing your feelings to the pupils. I was not familiar with the numerous solutions to discipline problems that can be applied before punishing (ST17). A conclusion concerning the students own teaching was described about taking into account the background of the pupils: Possibly, my mentor can help me, because he knows more about the pupilsy. I will also try to nd some articles in order to get a better picture about ways of dealing with pupils backgrounds (ST20). Exploring ones own teaching style was intended by a student teacher who stated:

My mentor acts in a way that suits him, but that does not suit, or only partly suits the theory (that he knows). I have to discover what suits me and feel comfortable with. I think it is useful to look at the theory regularly and then, if necessary, to change my practice (ST11). The third type of conclusion, mentioned nine times, stressed the student teachers individual interpretation of order and the wish to develop a personal teaching style. In general, my mentor and I agree about order. In practice, I tolerate more than my mentory. I think this has to do with my own former secondary school. Basically, it was hardly ever quiet there. My mentor prefers the pupils to be quiet, while I dont mind when the kids talk quietly to each other. My mentor already corrects when the kids talk quietly for a moment, while I only do so when the chatting of the other ones disturbs other pupils. This example clearly illustrates the dierences between my mentor and me (ST30).

3.5. The student teachers learning experiences with the instruments The student teachers were asked what activities had been initiated by the student teacher assignment. These activities can be interpreted as learning activities and can be described by the following categories
*

becoming aware of ones own beliefs about teaching ( f 5); becoming aware that ones own beliefs are situational and relative ( f 1); structuring and relating ones own beliefs ( f 10); eliciting beliefs of the mentor that were rst unknown to the student teacher ( f 7); structuring the beliefs of the mentor, listing all the points, and getting an overview in one moment ( f 2); testing ones own beliefs about teaching against those of the mentor ( f 1).

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

735

(The sum of the frequencies can exceed ten, because an individual student teacher could have mentioned more than one learning activity.) Seven student teachers preferred the combination of concept mapping and completing sentences because, according to them, both instruments complemented each other. Completing sentences yielded concrete, practical, and situation-specic information, while concept mapping yielded more abstract and general information. In this way, the sentences concretized the concept map of the mentor. One student teacher added that the concept map was additional to the sentences, because it forced both student and mentor teacher to explicate their beliefs in a visual way. One student teacher preferred the concept map because she thought the sentences were too restrictive. This has to do with the specicity of the sentences, which was also indicated by the other student teachers. Two student teachers preferred completing sentences because they thought this elicited more practical information.

do the student teachers evaluate concept mapping and completing sentences as a means to access a part of their mentors practical knowledge and explicating their own beliefs about teaching? 4.1. The nature of the reported practical knowledge, own beliefs, and theory Can student teachers explicate their own beliefs about teaching and access their mentors practical knowledge through concept mapping and completing sentences? The assumption was that, if they could, they should not only reveal statements about teaching performance, the how of teaching, but also reasons underlying teaching, the why of teaching. In other words, the reports should include analytical statements reecting underlying thinking and reasoning about teaching instead of only descriptive ones (see Table 1). Another distinction was that between absolute and situational statements. Situational statements recognize the situational, personal, and relative character of teaching strategies. It was shown that the student teachers reports included more absolute than situational statements. This can be explained by the nature of the professional knowledge of beginners or novices and of more experienced mentors. We know that experienced teachers knowledge is more elaborate, event-based, and consists of knowledge about typical behaviors, interactions, and situations (Carter, 1990). It is remarkable that the student teachers descriptions of the mentors practical knowledge did not include more situational statements than did the descriptions of their own beliefs. The latter would be expected when reporting on mentors practical knowledge. Possibly, the subject order is rather general and principally elicited more absolute statements. In the report, there was no dierence between the number of descriptive and analytical statements. When examining parts of the reports, it appeared that the summaries of the student teachers beliefs, the mentors practical knowledge, and the theory included a greater number of analytical units, which was not the case for the written comparisons between these three sources. This can be explained by the fact that the student teachers often referred

4. Conclusions and discussion Concept mapping and completing sentences were evaluated as instruments that could be used by student teachers as a means to explicate their own beliefs about teaching and to access their mentors practical knowledge. To this end, instruments resembling those used by researchers on teachers knowledge and beliefs were tested in an educational context. This was done by answering the rst research question: (a) what is the nature of the explicated beliefs of the student teachers and of the elicited practical knowledge of mentors (e.g., just descriptions of a mentors statements, including underlying cognitions and reasoning)? In the present study, beliefs and practical knowledge focused on the subject order. The second research question was aimed at comparing three information sources: (b) what do the student teachers conclude after having compared their own beliefs about teaching to the mentors elicited practical knowledge and to theory? Finally, the student teachers perception of the assignment was investigated in the third research question: (c) how

736

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

to the summaries when describing the comparisons. When comparing their own ideas, their mentors, or the theory, they did not rehearse the analytical descriptions mentioned earlier. The reports with relatively high scores (HA) were compared to those with low scores to check which parts of the assignment had elicited the most analytical statements. It appeared that the relatively high analytical scores originated from the descriptions of the student teachers own beliefs. It is not clear whether the HA group could handle the concept mapping and completing sentences better or were better at reporting on their own reasoning. Furthermore, the HA group did not dier in the number of analytical statements when they reported on mentors practical knowledge. Some questions still remain: was the HA group better at eliciting their own beliefs in an analytical way, rather than their mentors practical knowledge? Or were they better able at reporting on their own beliefs rather than others practical knowledge? These questions have to do with the complexity of the student teacher assignment that appeals to several skills, especially when exploring a mentors practical knowledge: conversation, cognitive processing, and writing skills. Conversation skills, such as listening, continuing to ask questions, and summarizing, are required when the concept map is discussed with the mentor. Cognitive processing skills, such as selecting, relating, structuring, and critical thinking, are required for elaborating meaningfully the mentors concept map and completed sentences (see Vermunt, 1998). Writing skills are required for reporting on the elicited practical knowledge. What is more, the mentors should also possess skills to verbalize their practical knowledge. Thus, when student teachers did not report on their mentors practical knowledge, including the reasons underlying teaching, it is not possible to indicate the immediate cause. Conversely, when they did, it can be assumed that they possessed the skills required for this task. Further research should examine the partial skills required for eliciting and comparing own beliefs and mentors practical knowledge. This means that the capacities and motivation of mentor teachers for explicating their own practical knowledge should also be investigated more

thoroughly. Other studies could focus on those student teachers who were not able or not willing to elicit their own beliefs and their mentors practical knowledge. Thus, it can, for example, be distinguished whether not supplying analytical descriptions is due to a lack of elicitation skills, or a lack of writing skills. 4.2. The student teachers conclusions Having compared their own beliefs about order, the elicited mentors practical knowledge, and the theory, the student teachers wrote down their conclusions. The three conclusions referred to (a) the denition and process of establishing and maintaining order, (b) linking the three information sources to each other, and (c) developing their own teaching style. These conclusions t the main purposes of the present study, namely the elicitation of student teachers beliefs and mentors practical knowledge, including the reasons underlying their teaching, and linking their own beliefs, mentors practical knowledge, and the theory. The rst conclusion comprises the process of establishing order, which means that inuencing factors and their reciprocity, clarications, and reasoning are involved. When they dened order, the student teachers related it to process instead of to a specic and indisputable state. The second conclusion, based on linking and comparing their own beliefs, practical knowledge, and the theory, was the second purpose of the study. The third conclusion, emphasizing the development of a personal teaching style, follows the second. After exploring the similarities and dierences, student teachers can deliberately decide to teach in their own way. Some indicated that they had broadened their own beliefs on the basis of other sources such as the mentor or the theory. Thus, the elicitation assignment could also serve to test and broaden own beliefs about teaching. 4.3. The student teachers evaluations of the instruments Preference for a particular instrument, concept mapping or completing sentences was investigated

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

737

on a small scale to gain more insight into the motivations for the student teachers preferences. The interviews with ten of the 35 student teachers showed that a combination of both instruments was preferred because the two were regarded as complementary. The interview elicits more concrete and practical information, while the concept map elicits more abstract and general information. These results contradict those of a previous study by Zanting et al. (2001a) in which the interview was greatly preferred. The small group that was interviewed in the present study and which possibly was not comparable to the group involved in the former study may have caused this dierence. Another explanation could be that concept mapping was evaluated positively in the present study because the student teachers had also made their own concept map. This made possible a comparison between own beliefs, on the one hand, and practical knowledge and theory, on the other. 4.4. Implications for teacher training and further research On the whole, the student teachers assignment to elicit own beliefs and their mentors practical

knowledge, to study related theory, and to compare these three sources met the purposes of the present study. Firstly, the student teachers were able to summarize and report on the views on order of the three sources in a way that comprised reasons underlying teaching. This means that these statements did not only comprise the way you can teach, but also the explanation of and motivations for choices made. Furthermore, the comparison between own beliefs, a mentors practical knowledge, and the theory induces learning activities like becoming aware of, accommodating, or extending ones own beliefs. It is recognized that because of its restrictive scale this in-depth study cannot immediately be generalized to the whole setting of teacher training. Nevertheless, the study has demonstrated that the assignment is worth investigating and using in an educational context. The study also showed that student teachers beliefs, mentors practical knowledge, and scientic knowledge can be connected and elaborated critically when the three sources are compared intentionally and systematically. We recommend that such systematic linking should become a regular recurring activity in teacher education.

Appendix A. A student teachers concept map

738

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

This could be achieved in various ways: assignments like in the present study, teacher stories to be studied by students under the supervision of an institute teacher, institutionalized discussions between institute teachers, mentors, and student teachers, etc. With regard to the elicitation of practical knowledge, further research is needed to investigate student teachers who could not deal with the assignment. It should be determined which of the required skills, described earlier in this section, were not sucient. Subsequently, practice and

coaching could be matched to an individual student teacher. Furthermore, the reasons why mentors are not willing or able to collaborate should be investigated, in order to anticipate these. Eventually, other ways of eliciting beliefs and practical knowledge that are mentioned in the introduction are worth investigating, including for example, stimulated recall. Stimulated recall is more directly linked to real teaching and classroom activities and could possibly, therefore, be useful to elicit more situation-specic practical knowledge.

Appendix B. A mentor teachers concept map

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740

739

References
Beijaard, D., Van Driel, J., & Verloop, N. (1999). Evaluation of story-line methodology in research on teachers practical knowledge. Studies in Educational Evaluations, 25, 4762. Bengtsson, J. (1993). Theory and practice: Two fundamental categories in the philosophy of teacher education. Educational Review, 45(3), 205211. Black, A. L., & Halliwell, G. (2000). Accessing practical knowledge: How? Why? Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(1), 103115. Brown, S., & McIntyre, D. (1995). Making sense of teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press. Calderhead, J. (1981). Stimulated recall: A method for research on teaching. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 211217. Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. C. Berliner, & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 709725). New York: Macmillan. Carter, K. (1990). Teachers knowledge and learning to teach. In W. R. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 291310). New York: Macmillan. Edwards, A., & Collison, J. (1995). What do teacher mentors tell student teachers about pupil learning in infant schools? Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 1(2), 265279. Elliott, B., & Calderhead, J. (1994). Mentoring for teacher development: Possibilities and caveats. In D. McIntyre, H. Hagger, & M. Wilkin (Eds.), Mentoring: Perspectives on school-based teacher education (pp. 166189). London: Kogan Page. Eraut, M. (1994). Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: The Falmer Press. Feiman-Nemser, S., & Buchmann, M. (1987). When is student teaching teacher education? Teaching and Teacher Education, 3(4), 255273. Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). The knower and the known: The nature of knowledge in research on teaching. Review of Research on Teaching, 20, 356. Francis, D. (1995). The reective journal: A window to preservice teachers practical knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 229241. Gonzalez, L. E., & Carter, K. (1996). Correspondence in cooperating teachers and student teachers interpretations of classroom events. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(1), 3947. Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 88140. ICLON. (1997). Persoonlijk Functioneren (Personal development as a teacher). Unpublished workbook. Leiden, the Netherlands: Leiden University. Kagan, D. M. (1990). Ways of evaluating teacher cognition: Inferences concerning the Goldilocks principle. Review of Educational Research, 60(3), 419469.

Kagan, D. M. (1992). Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 62(2), 129169. Leinhardt, G., McCarthy Young, K., & Merriman, J. (1995). Integrating professional knowledge: The theory of practice and the practice of theory. Learning and Instruction, 5(4), 401408. Martin, J. M., & Kompf, M. (1996). Teaching in inclusive classroom settings: The use of journals and concept mapping techniques. In M. Kompf, W. R. Bond, D. Dworet, & R. T. Boak (Eds.), Changing research and practice: Teachers professionalism, identities and knowledge (pp. 90103). London: The Falmer Press. Meijer, P. C. (1999). Teachers practical knowledge: Teaching reading comprehension in secondary education. Doctoral dissertation. Leiden, the Netherlands: Leiden University. Meijer, P. C., Verloop, N., & Beijaard, D. (1999). Exploring language teachers practical knowledge about teaching reading comprehension. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(1), 5984. Olson, P. M., & Carter, K. (1989). The capabilities of cooperating teachers in USA schools for communicating knowledge about teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching, 15(2), 113131. Oosterheert, I. E., & Vermunt, J. D. (2001). Individual dierences in learning to teach: Relating cognition, regulation and aect. Learning and Instruction, 11(2), 133156. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307332. Penny, A. J., Harley, K. L., & Jessop, T. S. (1996). Towards a language of possibility: Critical reection and mentorship in initial teacher education. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 2(1), 5769. Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 102119). New York: Macmillan. . n, D. A. (1987). Educating the reective practitioner. San Scho Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Solas, J. (1992). Investigating teacher and student thinking about the process of teaching and learning using autobiography and repertory grid. Review of Educational Research, 62(2), 205225. Tillema, H. H. (1994). Training and professional expertise: Bridging the gap between new information and pre-existing belief of teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(6), 601615. Tomlinson, P. (1995). Understanding mentoring: Reective strategies for school-based teacher preparation. Buckingham: Open University Press. Vermunt, J. D. (1998). The regulation of constructive learning processes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 149171. Vermunt, J. D., & Verloop, N. (1999). Congruence and friction between learning and teaching. Learning and Instruction, 9, 257280.

740

A. Zanting et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (2001) 725740 teachers practical knowledge. Manuscript submitted for publication. Zanting, A., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J.D. (2001b). Student teachers beliefs about mentoring and learning to teach during teaching practice. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 5780.

Wilson, V., & Pirrie, A. (1999). Developing professional competence: Lessons from the emergency room. Studies in Higher Education, 24(2), 211224. Winitzky, N., Kauchak, D., & Kelly, M. (1994). Measuring teachers structural knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(2), 125139. Zanting, A., Verloop, N., & Vermunt, J.D. (2001a). Using interviews and concept maps to access mentor