CHAPTER 26

Africa, India, and the New British Empire, 17501870

I0. Changes and Exchanges in Africa A0. New Africa States 10. Serious drought hit the coastlands of southeastern Africa in the early nineteenth century and led to conflicts over grazing and farming lands. uring these conflicts Sha!a used strict military drill and close"com#at warfare in order to #uild the $ulu !ingdom. %0. Some neigh#oring Africans created their own states &such as Swaziland and 'esotho( in order to )rotect themselves against the ex)ansionist $ulu !ingdom. Sha!a ruled the $ulu !ingdom for little more than a decade* #ut he succeeded in creating a new national identity as well as a new !ingdom. +0. In ,est Africa movements to )urify Islam led to the construction of new states through the classic -uslim )attern of jihad. .he largest of these reform movements occurred in the /ausa states and led to the esta#lishment of the So!oto Cali)hate &100121103(. 40. .he new -uslim states #ecame centers of Islamic learning and reform. So!oto and other -uslim states #oth sold slaves and used slaves in order to raise food* thus ma!ing it )ossi#le for them to seclude free -uslim women in their homes in accordance with reformed -uslim )ractice. 50. -odernization in Egy)t and Ethio)ia 10. In Egy)t* -uhammad Ali &r. 100621040( carried out a series of modernizing reforms that were intended to #uild u) Egy)t7s military strength. In order to )ay for his reform )rogram* -uhammad Ali re8uired Egy)tian )easants to cultivate cotton and other cro)s for ex)ort. %0. -uhammad Ali7s grandson Ismail )laced even more em)hasis on westernizing Egy)t. Ismail7s am#itious construction )rograms &railroads* the new ca)ital city of Cairo( were funded #y #orrowing from 9rench and 5ritish #an!s* which led 5ritain and 9rance to occu)y the country when the mar!et for cotton colla)sed after the American Civil ,ar. +0. In the mid" to late nineteenth century Ethio)ian !ings recon8uered territory that had #een lost since the sixteenth century* )urchased modern Euro)ean wea)ons* and #egan to manufacture wea)ons locally. An attem)t to hold 5ritish officials ca)tive led to a tem)orary 5ritish occu)ation in the 1030s* #ut the 5ritish withdrew and the modernization )rogram continued. C0. Euro)ean :entration 10. In 10+0 9rance invaded Algeria; it too! the 9rench eighteen years to defeat Algerian resistance organized #y the -uslim holy man A#d al"<adir and another thirty years to )ut down resistance forces in the mountains. 5y 10=1 1+0*000 Euro)ean settlers had ta!en )ossession of rich Algerian farmland. %0. Euro)ean ex)lorers carried out )eaceful ex)editions in order to trace the course of Africa7s rivers* assess the mineral wealth of the continent* and to convert Africans to Christianity. avid 'ivingstone* /enry -orton Stanley* and other

ex)lorers traced the courses of the Nile* the Niger* the $am#ezi* and the Congo rivers. 0. A#olition and 'egitimate .rade 10. In 1000 news of slave revolts li!e that on Saint omingue and the activities of a#olitionists com#ined to lead 5ritain and the >nited States to )rohi#it their citizens from )artici)ating in the slave trade. .he 5ritish used their navy in order to sto) the slave trade* #ut the continued demand for slaves in Cu#a and 5razil meant that the trade did not end until 103=. %0. As the slave trade declined* Africans ex)anded their ?legitimate trade@ in gold and other goods. +0. .he most successful new ex)ort was )alm oil that was ex)orted to 5ritish manufacturers of soa)* candles* and lu#ricants. .he increased ex)ort of )alm oil altered the social structure of coastal trading communities of the Niger elta* as is demonstrated in the career of the canoe slave AaBa who #ecame a wealthy )alm oil trader in the 10=0s. 40. .he su))ression of the salve trade also hel)ed to s)read ,estern cultural influences in ,est Africa. -issionaries converted and founded schools for the reca)tives whom the 5ritish settled in Sierra 'eone while #lac! Americans #rought ,estern culture to 'i#eria and to other )arts of Africa #efore and after Emanci)ation in the >nited States. E0. Secondary Em)ires in Eastern Africa 10. ,hen 5ritish )atrols ended the slave trade on the Atlantic coast* slave traders in the Atlantic trade #egan to )urchase their slaves from the East African mar!ets that had traditionally su))lied slaves to North Africa and the -iddle East. $anzi#ar Island and neigh#oring territories ruled #y the Sultan of Cman were im)ortant in the slave trade* the ivory trade* and in the cultivation of cloves on )lantations using slave la#or. %0. .he demand for ivory along the East African coast allowed African and Ara# merchants hundreds of miles inland to #uild large )ersonal trading em)ires li!e that of .i))u .i). /istorians refer to these em)ires as ?secondary em)ires@ #ecause they de)ended on ,estern demand for ivory and other goods and on ,estern manufacturers for wea)ons. +0. Egy)t7s ex)ansion southward in the nineteenth century may also #e considered a secondary em)ire. -uhammad Ali invaded the Egy)tian Sudan in order to secure slaves for his armies. II0. India >nder 5ritish Dule A0. Com)any -en 10. In the eighteenth century the -ughal Em)ire was defeated and its ca)ital sac!ed #y marauding Iranian armies while internally* the -ughal7s de)uties & nawabs( had #ecome de facto inde)endent rulers of their states. %0. 5ritish* 9rench* and utch com)anies staffed #y am#itious young ?Com)any -en@ esta#lished trading )osts and strategic )laces and hired Indian troo)s &sepoys( to defend them. 5y the early 1000s the 5ritish East India Com)any had )ushed the 9rench out of south India* forced the -ughal Em)ire to recognize Com)any rule over 5engal* and ta!en control of large territories that #ecame the core of the ?5om#ay :residency.@ 50. DaB and De#ellion* 10102106= 10. .he 5ritish raj &reign( over India aimed #oth to introduce administrative and social reform and to hold the su))ort of Indian allies #y res)ecting Indian social and religious customs. .hese contradictory goals led to many inconsistencies in 5ritish )olicies toward India.

%0. 5efore 1060 the 5ritish created a government that relied on se)oy military )ower* disarmed the warriors of the Indian states* gave free reign to Christian missionaries* and esta#lished a )rivate land ownershi) system in order to ease tax collection. At the same time* the 5ritish #olstered the ?traditional@ )ower of )rinces and holy men and invented ?traditional@ rituals to cele#rate their own rule. +0. 5ritish )olitical and economic influence #enefited Indian elites and created Bo#s in some sectors while #ringing new o))ression to the )oor and causing the colla)se of the traditional textile industry. 40. iscontent among the needy and )articularly among the Indian soldiers led to the Se)oy De#ellion of 106=. .he re#ellion was su))ressed in 1060* #ut it gave the 5ritish a severe shoc!. C0. :olitical Deform and Industrial Im)act 10. After the re#ellion of 106=21060 the 5ritish eliminated the last traces of -ughal and Com)any rule and installed a new government* administered from 'ondon. .he new government continued to em)hasize #oth tradition and reform* maintained Indian )rinces in luxury* and staged ela#orate ceremonial )ageants !nown as dur#ars. %0. An efficient #ureaucracy* the Indian Civil Service* now controlled the Indian masses. Decruitment into the ICS was #y examinations that were theoretically o)en to all* #ut in )ractice* racist attitudes )revented Indians from gaining access to the u))er levels of administration. +0. After 106= the 5ritish government and 5ritish enter)rises ex)anded the )roduction and ex)ort of agricultural commodities and #uilt irrigation systems* railroads* and telegra)h lines. 9reer movement of )eo)le into the cities caused the s)read of cholera* which was #rought under control when new sewage and filtered water systems were installed in the maBor cities in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 0. Dising Indian Nationalism 10. .he failure of the re#ellion of 106= )rom)ted some Indians to argue that the only way for Indians to regain control of their destiny was to reduce their country7s social and ethnic divisions and to )romote a :an"Indian nationalism. %0. In the early nineteenth century Dammouhan Doy and his 5rahmo SamaB movement tried to reconcile Indian religious traditions with ,estern values and to reform traditional a#uses of women. After 106=* Indian intellectuals tended to turn toward ,estern secular values and western nationalism as a way of develo)ing a :an"Indian nationalism that would transcend regional and religious differences. +0. Indian middle class nationalists convened the first Indian National Congress in 1006. .he Congress )romoted national unity and argued for greater inclusion of Indians in the Civil Service* #ut it was an elite organization with little su))ort from the masses. III0. 5ritain7s Eastern Em)ire A0. Colonies and Commerce 10. 5ritish defeat of 9rench and utch forces in the Na)oleonic ,ars allowed 5ritain to ex)and its control in South Africa* Southeast Asia* and the southern Cari##ean. %0. .he Ca)e Colony was valua#le to 5ritain #ecause of its strategic im)ortance as a su))ly station on the route to India. In res)onse to 5ritish )ressure the descendants of earlier 9rench and utch settlers &the Afri!aners( em#ar!ed on a

?Ereat .re!@ to found new colonies on the fertile high veld that had #een de)o)ulated #y the $ulu wars. +0. .he 5ritish also esta#lished a series of strategic out)osts in Southeast Asia. .homas Daffles esta#lished the free )ort of Singa)ore in 10%4* Assam was annexed to India in 10%3* and 5urma was annexed in 106%. 50. Im)erial :olicies and Shi))ing 10. /istorians usually de)ict 5ritain in this )eriod as a reluctant em)ire #uilder* more interested in trade than in ac8uiring territory. -ost of the new colonies were intended to serve as )orts in a glo#al shi))ing networ! that the 5ritish envisioned in terms of free trade* as o))osed to the )revious mercantilist trade )olicy. %0. ,hether colonized or not* African* Asian* and :acific lands were #eing drawn into the commercial networ!s created #y 5ritish ex)ansion and industrialization. .hese areas #ecame ex)orters of raw materials and agricultural goods and im)orters of afforda#le manufactured )roducts. +0. A second im)etus to glo#al commercial ex)ansion was the technological revolution in the construction of oceangoing shi)s in the nineteenth century. >se of iron to fasten tim#ers together and the use of huge canvas sails allowed shi)#uilders to ma!e larger* faster vessels that lowered the cost of shi))ing and thus stimulated maritime trade. C0. Colonization of Australia and New $ealand 10. .he develo)ment of new shi)s and shi))ing contri#uted to the colonization of Australia and New $ealand #y 5ritish settlers that dis)laced the indigenous )o)ulations. %0. :ortuguese mariners sighted Australia in the early seventeenth century* and Ca)tain Aames Coo! surveyed New $ealand and the eastern Australian coast #etween 1=31 and 1==0. >nfamiliar diseases #rought #y new overseas contacts su#stantially reduced the )o)ulations of the hunter"gatherer A#origines of Australia and the -aori of New $ealand. +0. Australia received 5ritish convicts and* after the discovery of gold in 1061* a flood of free Euro)ean &and some Chinese( settlers. 5ritish settlers came more slowly to New $ealand until defeat of the -aori* faster shi)s* and a short gold rush #rought more 5ritish immigrants after 1030. 40. .he 5ritish crown gradually turned governing )ower over to the 5ritish settlers of Australia and New $ealand* #ut A#origines and the -aori ex)erienced discrimination. /owever* Australia did develo) )owerful trade unions* New $ealand )romoted the availa#ility of land for the common )erson* and #oth Australia and New $ealand granted women the right to vote in 1014. 0. New 'a#or -igrations 10. 5etween 10+4 and 10=0 large num#ers of Indians* Chinese* and Africans went overseas as la#orers. 5ritish India was the greatest source of migrant la#orers* and 5ritish colonies &)articularly sugar )lantations( were the )rinci)al destinations of the migrants. %0. ,ith the end of slavery* the demand for chea) la#or in the 5ritish colonies* Cu#a* and /awaii was filled #y Indians* free Africans* Chinese* and Aa)anese wor!ers. .hese wor!ers served under contracts of indenture which #ound them to wor! for a s)ecified num#er of years in return for free )assage to their overseas destination* a small salary* and free housing* clothing and medical care. +0. .hese new indentured migrants were similar to the Euro)ean emigrants of the time in that they left their homelands voluntarily in order to ma!e money that they could send or ta!e #ac! home or to finance a new life in their new country.

/owever* )eo)le recruited as indentured la#orers were generally much )oorer than Euro)ean emigrants* too! lower")aying Bo#s* and were una#le to afford the )assage to the most desira#le areas.