second wave of colonialism

Rise of Britain, European Industrialization

-The second wave of colonial and imperialist expansion happened in the context of the Industrial Revolution
in Britain, which spread to other parts of Europe. From the wooden ships of the 16th and 17th centuries, the
countries in the second wave used ships made from steel and were powered by steam.

-The second wave of colonialism focused on the speed of travel along existing ocean routes instead of finding
new paths and routes. The expansion and control of previously unconquered lands in the resource-rich
continents of Asia and Africa, however, became important. Colonial efforts were driven by industrial growth
in the British and European economies, which demanded more raw materials to be processed in the factory
systems, as well as new markets where finished goods could be sold. To accomplish these would require new
colonies and spheres of influence.
Rise of Britain, European Industrialization
-Thus, the interests of industrialists played a big role in this renewed campaign for expansion. The rise of
Protestant groups also played a role in the second wave who, together with the Catholics, went to areas in
Africa.
-The Industrial Revolution created demand for raw materials from colonies that need to be processed in
Europe such as cotton, minerals, and agricultural products. The development in shipbuilding in the mid-19th
century allowed even larger imports of raw materials.
-Compared to the monopolized trade during the 16th and 17th centuries, which involved raw materials and
goods that were ready to be resold, other natural resources and commodities were extracted from the colonies
for the benefit of the European colonizers. In 1830, 60% of goods were made in the Americas, Asia and Africa.
The quantity declined to 37% by 1860, when goods were increasingly produced within Britain throughout
industrialization.
-Quests for glory and influence, aside from the imperialist mentality of the “White Man’s Burden,” were
political and cultural factors that drove Western powers to continue colonialism.
-European colonizers added an estimated five million square miles of new territories in Africa, India,
Australia, New Zealand, and Southeast Asia from 1824 to 1870.
The Old Powers
-Most of the Western powers during the first wave of colonialism also took part in the second wave. One of
the exceptions was Spain, which gradually declined as an empire due to loss of territories. This happened
after several wars of independence in its territories in the Americas (1808-1826), which were called the Guerra
de la Independencia Española. These losses were linked to the crisis created by Napoleon who forced Spain’s
kings to abdicate. Nonetheless, Spain was able to keep the Philippines as a colony until 1898.
-The Dutch, however, extended the control to the islands of the East Indies, especially after the state took
over the Dutch East India Company. It expanded from Java to islands such as Sumatra in Indonesia. The
Dutch territories in Indonesia later included Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Moluccas and Bali.
-Portugal gained its territories in Africa such as Angola, Mozambique, and southern Africa. Portugal
dominated the first wave of colonialism. However, they lost Malacca to the Dutch in 1641.
-France carved an empire to parts of Africa, in particular, the north and west. It also occupied territories such
as Saigon, the region of Cochinchina, and moved towards Laos, Tonkin, Cambodia, and Annam, which are
collectively known as French Indochina.
Consolidated Power: Britain in Asia
-The Industrial revolution and the defeat of France in 1815 were some of the factors that set Britain as the
biggest superpower by the 19th century. The dominance of Britain led to what is called Pax Britannica
(British peace). This refers to the “peace” achieved during the time when other colonial powers did not wage
war with Britain due to its growing economic and military power.

• British Rule in India

-Even before the resurgence of imperialism during the Victorian Era, Britain and France retained India as a
colony. Britain maintained it's hold in India by using the British East India Company, while France kept it's
established trading bases in Southeastern India, Pondicherry. By the mid-18th century, tensions between the
two colonial powers became obvious. For example, the colonial administrator Robert Clive led the siege of
Arcot and attacked French forts and French-held British trading posts. This led to France’s recognition of the
sovereignty of Britain in India with the capture of Calcutta.
-In 1784, the India Act mandated the private British East India Company to focus solely on commerce and
trade, while the British government handled political affairs. It also meant establishing government control
over the East India Company. The India Act appointed Lord Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) in 1786 as the
governor-general of India. Cornwallis and the British Parliament initiated reforms in taxation, landholding,
civil service, and education.
-By the mid-19th century, Britain had an estimated 40,000 British troops and 200, 000 Indian troops deployed
in India, Afghanistan, and various garrisons. British reforms and influence in India disregarded Indian
customs and traditions.
• British Rule in India
-Such disregard of Indian culture culminated in the Indian Rebellion in 1857 also known as Sepoy Mutiny.
British-recruited Indian troops were called sepoy. The rebellion started when rumors spread about the greased
cartridges of Enfield rifles issued by the British East India Company. These cartridges, whose top position
must be bitten off to release the powder, were greased with beef and pork fat. This offended Hindu and
Muslim troops and triggered the revolt, which took a year before finally being suppressed. This led to the
British monarchy’s takeover of the British East India Company and its direct control over India.

• British Involvement in China

-During the Qing dynasty (1636-1912), Britain’s trade with China was limited to tea and silk since the 1600s.
By the 19th century, the British attempted to expand their trading relationship with China through diplomacy
and eventually, through force.
-Initial attempts at diplomacy through George Macartney, Great Britain’s first envoy to China, failed due to
how the Chinese emperor viewed Macartney’s gestures and tributes as inappropriate. British subjects found
Chinese customs, such as the practice of kowtow inappropriate. Kowtow is the ritual of kneeling and touching
their foreheads to the ground when meeting the emperor as a sign of deep respect. Moreover, Macartney and
the British embassy violated the tributary system, which assumes that China is superior to all other nations
materially and culturally. As such, those who wanted to trade and deal with China must pay tribute in the
form of expensive gifts.
In the end, Macartney went and did the rituals necessary upon meeting the emperor. Although the outcome
was unsuccessful, it was largely due to the incompatibility of world views between two different cultures.
• British Involvement in China
-By 1825, Britain was the top supplier of opium, a narcotic substance, in China. China was no stranger to the
drug prior to Britain’s monopoly of the opium trade. As early as the 16th century, Portuguese traders took
advantage of the lucrative trade of opium as a medicinal and recreational drug. After the Battle of Buxar in
1746, the British East India Company gained control of the opium market, which they sourced from Bengal in
India. Merchants brought opium into China through legal and illicit means. Opium was either used as
payment for debt or smuggled in ships. In 1797, the British East India Company tightened its control by
enforcing direct trade between the opium farmers and the company. Soon enough, British exports of opium to
China increased from 15,000 kg to 75,000kg.
-In 1700, Emperor Jiaqing of the Qing dynasty, made an imperial decree banning imports of opium and its use.
However, drug trafficking still continued as it was pursued by the British East India Company. The number of
drug addicts increased between 4-12 million by 1883. The Daoguang Emperor sent the Special Imperial
Commissioner Lin Zexu to arrest opium dealers and demand foreign firms to turn over their stocks.
He destroyed the confiscated opium, which enraged British traders and led to war.
-China’s arrest of British opium traders became a pretext for British ships to attack the country. This was
known as the First Opium War, which began in 1839. The war between the better-equipped British forces
ended with the defeat of China.
-China’s defeat in the First Opium War was sealed by the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, which forced China to
accede to British demands. These demands gave Britain special privileges in Chinese trade and control of a
significant territory in China. Thus, Britain exercised an extent of control in China not through direct governing
but through economic relations and unequal treaties.
• British Involvement in China
-Important conditions of the treaty were:

1.) Expansion of previously limited British trade to five port cities: Amoy, Canton, Shanghai, Foochow, and
Ningpo.
2.) British possession over Hong Kong island as a colony, which was only reversed in the late 20th century.
3.) Compensation of the British for the amount of opium seized by the Chinese.
4.) Immunity of British citizens, who were accused of crimes within China, from being prosecuted under
Chinese laws; instead, they were to be tried under British laws.
5.) Opening of China to foreign missionaries.

-A Second Opium War, also called the Arrow War after the Chinese ship that started the conflict, was fought
from 1856-1858. In this war, Britain was joined by France and later by the United States.
-The Second Opium War was also a military loss for China. The resulting unequal agreements included the
Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, which was ratified through the Convention of Beijing in 1860. Generally, these
promoted burgeoning British “free trade” agenda as many Chinese ports became open to Britain. This
“free trade” imperialism also led to more territories for Britain such as Kowloon, aside from Hong Kong in the
First Opium War. Both Britain and France were allowed to have diplomatic presence in China. British
presence in China led to the series of events that would peak at the nationalist Boxer Rebellion of 1900.
• British Power in Other Parts of the World
-Britain expanded its territories up to Burma (present-day Myanmar) This became a British colony after the
Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826), the war was fought between Burma and the British colonial empire.
Combatants of the war included forces of the British East India Company and the army of Bagyidaw, the king
of Burma. Notably, this war featured Britain’s use of industrial technology in warfare. In particular, the Diana,
a steam- powered gunboat, titled balance in favor of expansionist Britain. By 1886, during Britain's phase of
“new Imperialism,” Burma was annexed to British India.
-Britain also established rule in Penang in 1786, Singapore in 1819, and Malacca in 1824, collectively known as
Straits Settlements. From here, Britain expanded colonies to the Malay Peninsula, such as Sarawak and Sabah.
Plantations from rubber and mines for tin were established in the peninsula.
-The South African Boer War, on the other hand, took place in the latter part of the 19th century until the early
part of the 20th century, when British forces began to expand their territories and capture Boer cities. The war
between the British Empire and the Boers, who were also known as Afrikaners and descendants of the original
Dutch settlers of southern Africa. The Boers retaliated by launching the guerilla wars. But in 1902, British
forces successfully stopped Boer resistance and the hostilities ended through the Peace of Vereeniging on
May 31 1902.
New Powers: Japan, Germany, and United States
-This period saw the rise of new industrial powers. The United States became independent from Great Britain
in 1776. United States’ expansionism in Asia especially took on the character of being the
“White Man’s Burden,” which espoused the power’s “civilizing” mission for its colonies. This is the case for
the Philippines, which it bought from Spain through the Treaty of Paris.
-Japan improved its military and government. The resulting need for food sources and raw materials were
some of the factors that drove Japan to imperialism in Asia in the 20th century. Japan engaged in wars against
China (Sino-Japanese War) in the latter part of the 19th century, and Russia (Russo-Japanese War) in
1904-2905 over imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. Japan successfully made Korea its protectorate in
1905 and under the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, Korea was annexed by Japan.
The “Scramble” for Africa
-Germany became interested in Africa especially since its fellow colonial powers such as Britain and France
already made incursions into the continent. For instance, Britain occupied Egypt in 1882 and secured the
strategic Suez Canal when the Egyptian government incurred huge debts. This is just 11 years after Germany
was consolidated into the German empire.
-The scramble for Africa saw colonial powers’ direct occupation of Africa territories. Regions such as southern
Africa were seen by European states as rich in gold and diamonds and had land that could be converted to
plantations. These powers used military force on various African groups, such as the use of the
Maxim machine gun. The imperialists also made use of alliances with the local African elites and exploited the
political divisions among Africans to facilitate their occupation. Colonial companies such as the
British South Africa Company were established to extract resources for imperialist commerce.
-By the late 19th century, Germany and Britain had claims for Kamerun (Cameroon). Portugal, France and
Belgium also competed for African colonies. From 1884 to 1885, Germany through Otto Von Bismarck hosted
the Berlin Conference, where claims over African territories were recognized and accelerated the colonial
apportionment. The conference engaged 14 European countries that had colonial claims and a representative
from the United States. There were no representatives from Africa during the conference. Nevertheless, it was
agreed by the Western powers that they had to physically occupy the African lands to legitimize territorial
claims.
The “Scramble” for Africa
-Britain colonized most of southern Africa, the area of present-day Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Nigeria, and parts
of western Africa, among others. France covered the areas of present-day Senegal, Mali, Chad, and Niger. The
Fashoda Incident of 1898 exhibited the conflicting interests of empire-builders in Africa wherein Britain and
France engaged in a diplomatic struggle over Sudan. Belgium under King Leopold II was allowed to occupy
territories to establish the Congo Free State, on condition that he would permit “free trade” within its borders.
-By the early 20th century Africa has been divided among Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal,
and Spain. One of the few exceptions was Ethiopia, whose organized army managed to repel Italian
imperialists.
Colonial Policies
-Colonial policies are usually described as either direct or indirect rule. In a direct rule, centers of European
administration were established in colonies in order to assimilate peoples into the colonizers’ way of life. For
example, French policy of assimilation in Senegal included a narrative that Africans could aspire to be just
like Europeans by immersing themselves in French laws, language, and culture.
-Indirect rule, however, made use of alliances with elites of the colonized country to administer the territory.
However, the local elites remain inferior politically to the colonizers and could be replaced.
-In Southeast Asia, a combination of indirect and direct strategies was practiced. France directly ruled
Cochinchina, while Tonkin, Annam, Laos, and Cambodia were protectorates-----areas with native
administration but tied to France. Other ways of forwarding colonial policy is through settlers or migrants
from the European countries who would occupy, intermingle, and oftentimes displace the indigenous
population. This was the case in the following African territories: Angola, Mozambique, South Africa, what
was then called Southern and Northern Rhodesia, and South West Africa. This was also practiced by the
Dutch in Indonesia in the early 19th century.
-From mercantilism’s trade protectionism, Britain during this period of imperialism tended to pursue
“free trade” as policy. This translated to what some called the “free trade imperialism” that focused on
commercial domination by finding new markets even by force while stopping short of full-blown direct
rule on whole countries. However, free trade imperialism and the 16th century colonization are similar in
that both compromised the sovereignty of smaller countries. This was the case in China when Britain and
other powers forced it to engage in foreign trade after the Opium Wars.
Effects of The Second Wave of Colonialism and Imperialism
• Development of The Economies of the Colonizers and Colonies
-Infrastructure such as roads, railways and communication were constructed in colonies. However, these were
unevenly distributed among colonies and protectorates and were only built to facilitate the transport of crops
and minerals to the imperialist countries at low prices.
-For example, the scramble for Africa further integrated the continent to the world economy dominated by
European powers with industrial capitalists economies. This came at the expense of African countries losing
control over their economies. Cash crops became priorities instead of farming practical needs, which enriched
the European metropole at the expense of African economies. Cotton was encouraged for export to Europe.
African countries during the time engaged little trade with each other.

• Through Changes in Colonized Societies

-Despite narratives of the “White Man’s Burden” and a “civilizing mission,” the extraction of resources and
forced labor involved in colonial economies meant poverty and dispossession for the colonized country.
Indigenous economies were controlled or otherwise influenced indirectly by colonial powers through
agreements such as the treaties between China and Britain after the Opium Wars.
• Through Changes in Colonized Societies
-Indigenous political systems were either replaced with European administration systems or maintained
under European influence on existing domestic rulers. European values and their languages were imposed on
Africans and Asians. New borders also artificially divided lands and peoples, such as in Africa. Land
ownership was also imposed but without giving property rights to indigenous people. Some sectors of the
colonized society sided with the imperialists as a result of colonial education, in addition to the use of local
“auxiliaries” that facilitated colonial rule (such as in Africa). This created and expanded divisions within
societies. The physical union of European settlers and non-European peoples also created mixed-race sections
of the population.
-Educational systems for the colonies existed in some cases, but most were oriented toward ensuring the
compliance and non resistance of the colonial subjects. This involved religious institutions, especially the
Protestant and Catholic churches, which were dominant during the period. However, the colonized peoples
also made creative use of these values and systems of ideas to forward their own narratives of social
belonging, as well as independence. Domestic middle classes managed to avail of education in Europe,
eventually opening up about possibilities of independence such as Gandhi in India, who studied law in
Britain; Jose Rizal in the Philippines; and Sukarno of Indonesia.
• Violence against the Colonized People
-Countries with vast areas and in the case of Africa, almost the whole continent, were divided and directly
occupied by the colonizers. Like the first wave of colonialism, the second wave involved widespread abuses
and violence against the people who resisted European imposition on their societies. The violence against
native Americans of present-day United States is also an example.
-The indigenous people in Peru, Brazil, Congo, and Ecuador endured slavery and low-paid work during the
upsurge of the rubber industry. Accounts of Belgium’s imperialist violence in Congo included taking African
women hostage and killing some villagers, if a village failed to meet the required quota of rubber to be
produced. The population was said to have declined 20 million to 9 million in the first 15 years of Belgian
imperialism in Congo.
Thanks for listening 

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