TALCOTT PARSONS ''An Outline of the Social System'' (TS: 30-7 !

A cou"le of thin#s $hich mi#ht %e hel"ful to &no$ %efo'e ( %e#in) Pa'sons is a *+NCT(ONAL(ST, as %i# an- nasty as they come) .e is also hea/ily influence- %y the $'itin#s of 0u'&heim an- ma&es se/e'al 'efe'ences to the 1i# 0 in this essay, "a't) 2lem *o'ms an- 0OL) Also, e/e'ythin# in this a'ticle, inclu-in# all of the systems ty"olo#ies an- "'ocess schemas, a'e meant in the ''analytic'' sense) Pa'sons is "'ima'ily inte'este- in ho$ a social scientist can analy3e a social system) () 4ene'al Outline This essay is an attem"t %y Pa'sons to outline an action f'ame of 'efe'ence) This attem"t is %ase- on the con/iction that the'e a'e t$o essential 'efe'ence "oints fo' this ty"e of systematic analysis5 a classification of the functional 'e6ui'ements of a system an- the a''an#ement of these $ith 'efe'ence to "'ocesses of cont'ol in the cy%e'netic sense) Pa'sons "osits that the most em"i'ically si#nificant sociolo#ical theo'y must %e conce'ne- $ith com"le7 systems, that is, systems com"ose- of many su%systems) The "'ima'y em"i'ical ty"e-'efe'ence is to society, $hich is hi#hly com"le7) The %asic functional classification un-e'lyin# the $hole scheme in/ol/es the -isc'imination of 8 "'ima'y cate#o'ies: "atte'n maintenance, inte#'ation, #oal-attainment, an- a-a"tation, "lace- in that o'-e' in the se'ies of cont'ol-'elations) (Note Pa'sons o'-e' on this, $hich is L-(-4-A, the o""osite o'-e' of $hat $e''e use- to f'om Laumann's class)! 9o'e #ene'ally, Pa'sons is also inte'este- in ma&in# a fun-amental -istinction %et$een the mo'"holo#ical analysis of the mo'"holo#ical st'uctu'e of systems an- the ''-ynamic'' analysis of "'ocess) Neithe' has s"ecial "'io'ity o/e' the othe' e7ce"t that, at a "a'ticula' le/el, sta%le st'uctu'al 'efe'ence "oints a'e necessa'y fo' -ete'minin# #ene'ali3ations a%out "'ocess) The ol- %attle o f theo'y /e'sus em"i'icism may %e consi-e'e- to %e o/e') The'e is no lon#e' a 6uestion as to the stu-y of human %eha/io' as a scientific en-ea/o') Pa'sons theo'y is one of action , $hich #oes %eyon- the ol- 'e-uctionist theo'ies of social theo'y) The conce"t of a social system is im"o'tant fo' Pa'sons, an- fo' the TS e-ito's) To %e clea', $e must -elineate the "lace of social systems $ithin the action f'ame of 'efe'ence) One as"ect of this -istinction, $hich can %e ta&en fo' #'ante-, is %et$een the analytically -efine- in-i/i-ual an- the systems #ene'ate- %y the "'ocess of social inte'action) Social an- cultu'al systems a'e also im"o'tant fo' this -iscussion, %ut the t$o, ho$e/e' em"i'ically inte't$ine-, must %e &e"t analytically -istinct) Pa'allel to the social:cultu'al -istinction, is that of natu'e:nu'tu'e in 'e#a'-s to -e/elo"in# the in-i/i-ual) This can %e concei/e- of an the -istinction %et$een the in-i/i-ual o'#anism an- the o'#ani3ation of his %eha/io') *inally, -istinctions shoul- %e ma-e %et$een the functional su%systems of economy an- "olity $ithin a society, e/en thou#h they ha/e often o/e'la""e- in the "ast) All of these -istinctions can %e seen as 6uestions of %oun-a'ies f'o %oth the in-i/i-ual an- fo' systems)

;ith all of the a%o/e consi-e'ations in han-, Pa'sons mo/es on to offe' a "a'a-i#m fo' the analysis of social systems) Pa'sons is a fi'm %elie/e' in inte'"enet'ation an- mutual influence) This means, that ho$e/e' im"o'tant lo#ical closu'e may %e fo' a theo'etical i-eal, em"i'ically, social systems a'e concei/e- as o"en systems, en#a#e- in com"licate"'ocesses of inte'chan#e $ith en/i'onin# systems) This conce"t of o"en systems im"lies, a#ain, %oun-a'ies an- thei' maintenance) A %oun-a'y means sim"ly that a theo'etically an- em"i'ically si#nificant -iffe'ence %et$een st'uctu'es an- "'ocesses inte'nal to the system an- those e7te'nal to it e7ists an- ten-s to %e maintaine-) 1ecause of all of this, $e nee- to -efine a set of inte'-e"en-ent "henomena as a system, so as not to confuse a statistical sam"le of the "o"ulation $ith a t'ue system) 1esi-es i-entifyin# a system in te'ms of its "atte'ns an- %oun-a'ies, a social system can an- shoul- %e analy3e- in te'ms of th'ee lo#ically in-e"en-ent- i)e) c'oss-cuttin# - %ut also inte'-e"en-ent, %ases o' a7es of /a'ia%ility, o' as they may %e calle-, %ases of selecti/e a%st'action) <) The fi'st of these is in/ol/es a -istinction %et$een the st'uctu'al an- the functional) The conce"t of st'uctu'e -esi#nates the featu'es of the system $hich can %e t'eate- as constants o/e' ce'tain 'an#es of /a'iation in the %eha/io' of othe' si#nificant elements of the theo'etical "'o%lem) The functional 'efe'ence -i/e'#es f'om the st'uctu'al in the -ynamic -i'ection) (ts "'ima'y "u'"ose is inte#'ati/e, me-iatin# %et$een the system's st'uctu'e an- that im"ose- %y en/i'onin# systems) =) A fun-amental -istinction must also %e ma-e %et$een the t$o -ynamic "'ocesses of maintainin# system e6uili%'ium, an- st'uctu'al chan#e in the system) 3) The hie'a'chy of 'elations of cont'ol) The %asic su%systems of the #ene'al systems of action constitute a hie'a'chical se'ies of such a#encies of cont'ol of the %eha/io' of in-i/i-uals o' o'#anisms) Pa'sons 'etu'ns to the 8 functional im"e'ati/es of any system of action, #i/en in o'-e' of si#nificance f'om the "oint of /ie$ of cy%e'netic cont'ol of action "'ocesses in the system un-e' consi-e'ation) L - The function of "atte'n maintenance) The function of "atte'n maintenance 'efe's to the im"e'ati/e of maintainin# the sta%ility of "atte'ns of institutionali3e- cultu'e -efinin# the st'uctu'e of the system) The'e a'e t$o -istinct as"ects of this function) The fi'st conce'ns the cha'acte' of the no'mati/e "atte'n itself5 the focus lies in the st'uctu'al cate#o'y of /alues) The secon- conce'ns its state of institutionali3ation, $hich conce'ns the moti/ational commitment of the in-i/i-ual) A /e'y cent'al "'o%lem he'e is that of the sociali3ation of the in-i/i-ual, ta&en as the "'ocesses %y $hich the /alues of the society a'e inte'nali3e- in an in-i/i-ual "e'sonality) O/e'all, systems -o sho$ a ten-ency to maintain themsel/es (ine'tia!) 4 - The function of #oal-attainment) 4oal-attainment %ecomes a "'o%lem in so fa' as the'e a'ises some -isc'e"ancy %et$een the ine'tial ten-encies of the system an- its nee-s 'esultin# f'om inte'chan#e $ith the situation) A #oal is the'efo'e -efine- in te'ms of e6uili%'ium, an- -i'ectional chan#es $ill ten- to minimi3e the -isc'e"ancy %et$een the t$o systems) 4oal -attainment, o' #oal- o'ientation is thus, %y cont'ast $ith "atte'n

maintenance, tie- to a s"ecific situation) Systems often ha/e a "lu'ality of #oals) *o' the social system as such, #oal-o'ientation conce'ns, the'efo'e, not commitment to the /alues of the society, %ut moti/ation to cont'i%ute $hat is necessa'y fo' the functionin# of the system) A - The function of a-a"tation) A-a"tation is anothe' conse6uence of #oal "lu'ality) A system has only so many set, sca'ce 'esou'ces, an- $hen #oals a'e many, often one #oal must %e sac'ifice- so the 'esou'ces may %e use- to attain anothe' #oal) this means that the system loses the %enefits of the sac'ifice- #oal) The sac'ifice- #oal is chosen th'ou#h the function of #oal-attainment) A-a"tation is conce'ne- $ith "'o/i-in# a--itional -is"osa%le facilities in-e"en-ent of thei' 'ele/ance to any "a'ticula' #oal) 9o'e #ene'ally, at the mac'osco"ic le/el, #oal-attainment is the focus of "olitical o'#ani3ation, ana-a"tation is the focus economic o'#ani3ation) ;ithin a #i/en system, #oal-attainment is a mo'e im"o'tant cont'ol then is a-a"tation) ( - The function of inte#'ation) (n the cont'ol hie'a'chy, inte#'ation stan-s %et$een the functions of "atte'n-maintennce an- #oal-attainment) The functional "'o%lem of inte#'ation conce'ns the mutual a->ustments of se#mente- units o' su%systems f'om the "oint of /ie$ of thei' cont'i%utions to the effecti/e functionin# of the system as a $hole) (n a hi#hly -iffe'entiate- society, the "'ima'y focus of the inte#'ati/e mechanism is founin the system of le#al no'ms an- the associate- le#al system) The system as a $hole is conce'ne- most $ith the allocation of 'i#hts an- o%li#ations) *o' any #i/en social system, the inte#'ati/e function is the focus of its most -istincti/e "'o"e'ties an- "'ocesses) (() Cate#o'ies of Social St'uctu'e Pa'sons concei/es of social inte'action as a st'uctu'e- affai') .e "'o/i-es a se'ies of st'uctu'al cate#o'ies, #i/en in ascen-in# o'-e' as 'ole, collecti/ity, no'm, an- /alue) These 'ou#hly co/e' the social st'uctu'e f'om in-i/i-ual to social system) Role is the essential sta'tin# "oint fo' in-i/i-ual inte'action ( = o' mo'e "eo"le ! $hich occu's in such a $ay as to constitute an inte'-e"en-ent system (as -istin#uishe- f'om a social system!) (N o'-e' fo' inte'action to %e sta%le, 'oles an- actions must ha/e meanin#s an- %e #o/e'ne- %y un-e'stoo-, sha'e- 'ules) Rules -efine #oals an- the conse6uences of ant #i/en mo/e %y one "laye' fo' the situation in $hich the othe' must ma&e his choice) Thus, the'e is a tem"o'al element to inte'action) .o$e/e', 'ules -o not -ete'mine o' "'esc'i%e any s"ecific act) *acilities a'e "'o/i-e-, %ut they a'e #ene'ali3e-, an- thei' allocation %et$een "laye's -e"en-s u"on each "laye''s ca"acities to ta&e a-/anta#e of o""o'tunities) The essential "'o"e'ty is mutuality of o'ientation -efine- in te'ms of sha'e- "atte'ns of no'mati/e cultu'e, &no$n as /alues) ;hen t$o in-i/i-uals inte'act in the a%o/e $ays, sha'in# a no'mati/e cultu'e, an- in so fa' as thei' %eha/io' is -istin#uisha%le f'om othe's %y thei' "a'tici"ation an- not othe's, they fo'm a collecti/ity) A 'ole may no$ %e -efine- as the st'uctu'es, i)e) no'mati/ely 'e#ulate-, "a'tici"ation of a "e'son in a conc'ete "'ocess of social inte'action $ith s"ecifie-, conc'ete 'ole-"a'tne's) Pe'fo'min# a 'ole $ithin a collecti/ity -efine- the cate#o'y of mem%e'shi", i)e) the assum"tion of o%li#ations of "e'fo'mance in that conc'ete inte'action system) O%li#ations

co''elati/ely im"ly 'i#hts) *o' any in-i/i-ual, the'e a'e many 'oles, an- one 'ole is only a secto' in his %eha/io'al system, an- hence of his "e'sonality) (n a--ition, in any #i/en system, the conce"ts of 'ole an- collecti/ity a'e "a'ticula'istic) No'ms an- /alues, in cont'ast $ith 'ole an- collecti/ity, a'e uni/e'salistic conce"ts) (t may cut ac'oss all conc'ete collecti/ities in a #i/en uni/e'se an- a""ly to all 'oles of a #i/en ty"e) The uni/e'salistic as"ect of /alues im"lies that they a'e neithe' situations"ecific, no' function-s"ecific) To sum u": St'uctu'ally s"ea&in#, then, the 'ole com"onent is the no'mati/e com"onent $hich #o/e'ns the "a'tici"ation of in-i/i-ual "e'sons in #i/en collecti/ities) The collecti/ity com"onent is the no'mati/e cultu'e $hich -efines the /alues, no'ms, #oalo'ientations, an- o'-e'in# of 'oles fo' a conc'ete system of inte'action of s"ecifia%le "e'sons5 the com"onent of no'ms $hich -efine e7"ectations fo' the "e'fo'mance of classes of -iffe'entiate- units $ithin the system - collecti/ities, o' 'oles, as the case may %e5 an- /alues a'e the no'mati/e "atte'ns -efinin#, in uni/e'salistic te'ms, the "atte'ns of -esi'a%le o'ientation fo' the system as a $hole, in-e"en-ent of the s"ecification of situation o' of -iffe'entiate- function $ithin the system) ;e no$ ha/e enou#h to outline a schematic i-eal ty"e fo' a com"le7 social system) the main #ui-in# line of the analysis is the conce"t that a com"le7 social system consists of a net$o'& of inte'-e"en-ent an- inte'"enet'atin# su%systems, each of $hich, seen as the a""'o"'iate le/el of 'efe'ence, is a social system in its o$n 'i#ht) (The infinitely 'e"'essi%le thin#!) The sta'tin# "oint is the conce"t of a society, ta&en to %e 'elati/ely self-sufficient collecti/ity $hich cannot %e sai- to %e a -iffe'entiate- su%system of a hi#h-o'-e' collecti/ity o'iente- to most of the functional e7i#encies of a social system) (All of these classifications a'e su%>ecti/e, use- an- a""lie- %y an analyst)!) The functional e7i#encies ta&e sha"e in th'ee -istinct manne's: -iffe'entiation, se#mentation an- s"ecification) The'e a'e se/e'al -iffe'ent mo-es of -iffe'entiation $ithin societies) The most common, e/en uni/e'sal, is -iffe'entiation amon# &inshi" lines) ?inshi" is essentially the "oint of a'ticulation, i)e) inte'"enet'ation, %et$een the st'uctu'e of social systems an- the 'elations in/ol/e- in the %iolo#ical "'ocess of 'e"'o-uction) 1iolo#ically, the'e a'e 3 c'ucial st'uctu'al com"onents, (<! -iffe'ences %et$een se7es, (=! -iffe'ences %et$een ol- anyoun#, matu'e an- immatu'e, an- (3! the fact hat the se7ual union of t$o s"ecific in-i/i-uals of o""osite se7es is necessa'y to, an- li&ely to 'esult in, "'e#nancy an'e"'o-uction) These 3 facto's set u" the nuclea' family unit, an- othe' -i/e'sifie- family fo'ms, a'oun- the con>u#al %on- of = "eo"le an- its 'esultant offs"'in#) ?inshi" st'uctu'es a'e also clea'ly su%>ect to im"o'tant "'ocesses of functional -iffe'entiation, anha/e often %ecome the locus fo' "olitical an- economic acti/ities) 1ecause of the connection of "a'amount societal collecti/ity o'#ani3ation an- "olitical function outline-, the functional -iffe'entiation of "olitical f'om othe' st'uctu'es also ten-s to come nea' the to" of the social hie'a'chy) The'e a'e t$o "'elimina'y ste"s) The fi'st is to -iffe'entiate &inshi" units $hich ca''y hi#h "olitical 'es"onsi%ility, 'oyals o'

a'istoc'ats, f'om common &inshi" units) The othe' the -iffe'entiation of the "olitical f'om the "atte'n-maintenace an- inte#'ati/e functions of the hi#h-le/el units) Lo$e' -o$n, an im"o'tant "'o%lem he'e conce'ns the 'est'ictions on the mo%ility of 'esou'ces im"ose- %y the asc'i"ti/e as"ect of &inshi" an- its -iffe'entiation f'om "olitical function) 2/en $hen %u'eauc'acy an- systems not -i'ectly ties to &inshi" a'e institute-, hi#he'-le/el &inshi" units usually ha/e an e-#e of a-/anta#e o' 'esou'ces) This im"oses f'ust'atin# limits on lo$e' units) Pa'sons "e'cei/es the inte't$inin# of "olitical an- economic functions as an on#oin# "'o%lem, %u'ie- in many em"i'ical e7am"les) One must loo& closely, e)#) the function of a %usiness fi'm is "'ima'ily economic5 its #oal is "'o-uction, %ut its inte'nal o'#ani3ation must %e analy3e- fi'st in "olitical te'ms) 2conomic function, as -istin#uishe- f'om the "olitical, in/ol/es the "'o-uction an- allocation of -is"osa%le 'esou'ces) T'a-itionally, one of the main c'ite'ion of the /alues of economic 'esou'ces is 'elati/e sca'city) The othe' most im"o'tant one is #ene'al utility) The "ossi%ilities of #ene'ali3in# a%out "hysical commo-ities an- human 'esou'ces is thus inhe'ently limite-) The utili3ation of sca'ce 'esou'ces is -e"en-ent on the institutionali3ation of mechanisms $hich, in-e"en-ent of any "'io' &no$le-#e o' commitment, ma&e it "ossi%le to #ain access to $i-e 'an#es of -iffe'ent facilities as nee- fo' them -e/elo"s) (n &no$n societies, the'e a'e in "a'ticula' t$o hi#hly #ene'ali3e- mechanisms of this ty"e, namely "olitical "o$e' an- money) 1oth 'e6ui'e the institutionali3ation of the -is"osa%ility of facilities) 9oney is not a commo-ity he'e, %ut a /e'y s"ecial mo-e of institutionali3ation of e7"ectations an- commitments th'ou#h communication) The usefulness of money as a much mo'e #ene'ali3e- facility is -e"en-ent on a system of ma'&ets an- a-e6uate 'ules #o/e'nin# the continual flo$ of t'ansactions th'ou#h ma'&ets) 9oney has the "'imacy of economic function) Po$e' is -efine- as the #ene'ali3e- ca"acity, in-e"en-ent of s"ecific con-itions "'esc'i%e- in a-/ance, to influence the allocation of 'esou'ces fo' the #oals of the collecti/ity th'ou#h in/o&in# the institutionali3e- o%li#ations of mem%e' units, utili3in# such sanctions as a'e le#itimi3e- th'ou#h these o%li#ations an- institutionali3e- 'oles in/ol/e- in the "o$e' system) Po$e' is necessitate- %y the effecti/eness $hich is 'e6ui'e- fo' the "olitical function) the mechanism of "o$e' a'e not nea'ly as st'uctu'e- as those of money) Po$e' is a mechanism 'e#ulatin# the "'ocess of ma&in# actual commitments) Autho'ity, on the othe' han-, com"'ises the #ene'al 'ules $hich #o/e'n the ma&in# of s"ecific %in-in# -ecisions) As use- he'e, "olitical an- economic cate#o'ies a'e #ene'ali3e- functional cate#o'ies that "e'meate the enti'e st'uctu'e of the social system) 1ut it is a t$o-$ay st'eet) @ust as const'aints on the comme'cial o' com"etiti/e st'uctu'e of ma'&ets a'e im"ose- %y im"in#in# non-economic facto's, so in many collecti/ities the'e a'e const'aints on the "olitical "'imacy of thei' o'#ani3ation an- o'ientation to situations)

No society can acce"t economic 'ationality as its most #ene'al societal /alue-o'ientation, thou#h it can "lace the economic hi#hest amon# its functional "'io'ities) This statement also hol-s fo' othe' -iffe'entiate- functional /alue-systems) The same %asic "'inci"les of the 'elations %et$een st'uctu'e an- function, a""ly to "atte'n-maintenance an- the inte#'ati/e functions, to the 'elations of the 'ele/ant st'uctu'es to each othe' an- to the economic an- "olitical) *i'st, societies $ill -iffe' in so fa' as st'uctu'es $ith clea' "'imacy of these functions ha/e come to %e -iffe'entiatef'om those $hose functions a'e mo'e -iffuse) Secon-, 'ele/ant st'uctu'es $ill %e locateat -iffe'ent le/els on the scales of se#mentation an- s"ecification, an- may thus not %e -i'ectly com"a'a%le $ith each othe') ;ith 'es"ect to "atte'n-maintenance, as a functional cate#o'y, it is not meant to ha/e em"i'ically static connotations) Analytically, s"eciali3ation in %oth maintenance anchan#e in /alues shoul- %e "lace- in this cate#o'y) the "'ima'y a'ea of conce'n he'e is the 'eli#ion, "lace- $ithin the 'ealm of the cultu'al) Societal /a'iance is #'eat he'e, %ut e/en $hen a s"ecific 'eli#ion is not institutionali3e-, 'eli#ious /alues $ill %e) Also a "'ima'y com"onent of "atte'n-maintenance is sociali3ation of the in-i/i-ual, "lace- $ithin the 'ealm of "e'sonality) Sociali3ation uni/e'sally in/ol/es at least one &inshi" unit, usually the nuclea' family, as the "'ima'y collecti/e a#ent of ea'ly sociali3ation) All mo'e hi#hly -iffe'entiate- societies ha/e -e/elo"e- non-&inshi" st'uctu'es cente'in# a%out the functions of fo'mal e-ucation in $hich the hi#he'-le/el "atte'ns of no'mati/e cultu'e ansystems of o%>ects a'e inte'nali3e- in the "e'sonality) St'uctu'es $ith inte#'ati/e "'imacy must follo$ some no'mati/e co-e) No'ms must %e -efine-, inte'"'ete-, an- im"lemente-) The fi'st im"e'ati/e of a system of no'ms is inte'nal consistency) Secon-, the'e s the s"ecification of hi#he'-o'-e' no'ms to le/els $he'e they can #ui-e the action of the society's lo$e' le/el st'uctu'al units %y -efinin# the situation fo' them) A ma>o' functional "'o%lem of a no'mati/e system conce'ns the a->ustments $hich occu' %ecause a social system is al$ays in/ol/e- in "'ocesses of inte'chan#e $ith a chan#in# en/i'onment) The'e seem to %e th'ee %asic ty"es of "'ocesses of a->ustment in these cases) <) ?ee"in# the 'e#ulato'y no'ms at a sufficiently hi#h le/el of #ene'ality so that much of the a->ustment can %e left to the s"ontaneous, un"'esc'i%e-, action of the units themsel/es) =) Alte'in# the content of no'mati/e "atte'ns to meet the /a'yin# functional nee-s $ithout th'eatenin# the sta%ility of hi#he' le/el systems) 3) A thi'- "'ocess $hich o"e'ates, sho't of ma>o' st'uctu'al chan#es, in the a'eas $he'e the othe' t$o a'e ina-e6uate) ( (t is uns"ecifie-)! A final as"ect of social st'uctu'e is st'atification) .e'e, the focus of institutionali3est'atification is le#itimi3in# -iffe'ential "o$e' an- $ealth, an- mo'e #ene'ally, access to /alue- o%>ects an- statuses) Social class is the most common %asis of st'atification) ((() The 0ynamics of Social 26uili%'ium The analysis of -ynamic "'ocesses at the e6uili%'ation le/el must cente' a'oun- t$o cate#o'ies of the system's com"onents) The fi'st a'e the 'esou'ces $hich, sta'tin# f'om

outsi-e the system, #o th'ou#h /a'ious "hases as they "ass th'ou#h the system, an- at ce'tain "oints a'e use- in the system's functionin#) The secon- a'e the ty"es of mechanisms $hich me-iate these "'ocesses of #ene'ation an- utili3ation of 'esou'ces an'e#ulate thei' 'ates of flo$, -i'ection of use, etc) 9oney an- "o$e', as "'e/iously -iscusse-, a'e the "'ototy"es of these mechanisms) Pa'sons %o''o$s the theo'etical mo-el of 'esou'ces f'om economics %ecause it is ca"a%le of #ene'ali3ation) (n this mo-el, the'e a'e fou' facto's of "'o-uction, namely, lan-, la%o', ca"ital, an- o'#ani3ation) .e is most conce'ne- $ith a""lyin# the mo-el's lo#ical st'uctu'e, %ecause le/el of s"ecification of 'esou'ces an- 6ualitati/e -iffe'ences in 'esou'ces ma&e it -ifficult to a""ly the mo-el -i'ectly to social systems theo'y) None of the socially ultimate in"uts consists in eithe' actual "hysical o%>ects o' the "hysical %eha/io' of o'#anisms) (n an economic e7chan#e, in/ol/in# a "hysical commo-ity, $hat chan#es han-s is not the commo-ity, %ut "'o"e'ty 'i#hts in the commo-ity) Analytically, "hysical t'ansfe' of "ossession is a technolo#ical "'ocess, not a social systems "'ocess) Li&e a fee-e' chain, the ultimate 'esou'ces of a society shoulcom"'ise the ultimate out"uts of the su%systems of the #ene'al system of action) Lan- is a s"ecial case %ecause it is neithe' consume- in the "'o-uction "'ocess, no' is it "'o-uce-) (n the society as a system, the analo# of lan- is the institutionali3e- no'mati/e cultu'e) Acco'-in# to the "a'a-i#m, the in"uts shoul- %e th'ee: in"uts 'es"ecti/ely f'om the "e'sonality - ca"acity to sociali3e moti/ational commitments, the %eha/io'al o'#anism "lasticity $hich can %e %uilt into "atte'ns of "u'"osi/e 'es"onse, an- the cultu'al system info'mation ) 4ene'ally, out"ut co''es"on-in# too the in"ut if institutionali3e- no'mati/e cultu'e in the maintenance of the st'uctu'e intact) The "'ima'y out"uts of the othe' in"uts a'e as follo$s: "e'sonality system: #oal-#'atification, %eha/io'al o'#anism: "atte'nin# of 'es"onses at the le/el of %eha/io', an- cultu'al system: /ali-ation) The 'esou'ces com"lete this system as the th'u"ut) They a'e consume-) Resou'ce "'ocessin# occu's in th'ee "hases: #ene'ation, allocation an- utili3ation) Pa'sons sho$s some hea/y *'eu-ian influences he'e $hen he s"ea&s of the sociali3ation of moti/ational ca"acity as an e7am"le of 'esou'ce #ene'ation) .e outlines the $hole "'ocess of -e/elo"in# se7uality, com"lete $ith Oe-i"al com"le7) 1ut then, its %ac& to functionalism) Allocation is ma-e to o"e'ati/e units of the system, to $hich 'esou'ces a'e committe- fo' use) The "'ototy"e fo' an allocati/e mechanism a#ain comes f'om economics, it is the ma'&et) The ma'&et ma&es "ossi%le a 'elati/ely functional allocation $ithout much cent'ali3e- -ecision-ma&in#) (t also allo$s fo' much -iffe'entiation) Anothe' e7am"le can %e seen in the "o$e' mechanism's allocation of "o$e' in a "olitically -iffe'entiatesociet +tili3ation is essentially a "'ocess of successi/ely mo'e "a'ticula'i3e- -ecision-ma&in#5 action-o""o'tunities, facilities, an- 'es"onsi%ilities a'e allocate- mo'e s"ecifically at each

ste") The most %'oa-ly -efine- sta#es a'e the allocation to the collecti/ity, to the 'ole, anto the tas&) The function of the collecti/ty is to -efine $hat is to %e -one5 that of the 'ole, to -efine $ho is to -o it5 an- that of the tas& le/el, ho$ it is to %e -one) 9echanisms cont'ollin# 'esou'ce "'ocesses) Pa'sons a#ain 'efe's to "o$e' an- money, the t$o most stu-ie- of the mechanisms) 9oney is simultaneously %oth a measu'e of /alue an- a me-ium of e7chan#e an- it can function as %oth a facility an- a 'e$a'-) Po$e' is a ste" a%o/e money in the hie'a'chy of cont'ol mechanisms %ecause "o$e' can %e use- to cont'ol "o$e', i)e) a #o/e'nment cont'ollin# its moneta'y system) Po$e' allo$s fo' #'eate' fle7i%ility an- effecti/eness $ithout "'io' &no$le-#e o' s"ecifications) .e also -iscusses 'eal commitments, $hich ( %elie/e to %e institutionali3e- 'ole commitments, %ut ('m not su'e) They seem to ha/e a lot to -o $ith cont'acts an- le#al a#'eements) *inally, the'e is inte#'ati/e communication, $hich is also at the to" of the hie'a'chy of cont'ol mechanisms) The o"e'ational focus of this ty"e of mechanism is the moti/ational commitment of units of the system to the fulfillment of institutionali3ee7"ectations) (n a %'oa- sense then, the "'o%lem of the -ynamics of social systems is not so much a "'o%lem of t'ansfo'mation of ene'#y as of the "'ocessin# of info'mation) Analyses of these "'ocesses a'e in an ea'ly sta#e 'i#ht no$) (A) The P'o%lem of St'uctu'al Chan#e The "'ocesses of st'uctu'al chan#e may %e consi-e'e- the o%/e'se of e6uili%'atin# "'ocess5 the -istinction is ma-e in te'ms of %oun-a'y maintenance) The cont'ol 'esou'ces of the system a'e a-e6uate fo' its maintenance u" to a $ell--efine- set of "oints in one -i'ection: %eyon- that set of "oints, the'e is a ten-ency fo' a cumulati/e "'ocess of chan#e to %e#in, "'o-ucin# states "'o#'essi/ely fa'the' f'om the institutionali3e- "atte'ns) As o%se'/e-, st'uctu'al chan#e in su%systems is an ine/ita%le "a't of the e6uili%'atin# "'ocess in la'#e' system) ;ithin this f'ame of 'efe'ence, the "'o%lem of st'uctu'al chan#e can %e consi-e'e- un-e' th'ee hea-in#s: (<! sou'ces of ten-encies to$a'-s chan#e, (=! the im"act of these ten-encies on the affecte- st'uctu'al com"onents, (3! "ossi%le #ene'ali3ations a%out t'en-s an- "atte'ns of chan#e) Sou'ces of chan#e can %e eithe' e7o#enous o' en-o#enous) 27o#enous sou'ces of chan#e a'e chan#es in the en/i'onment o' en/i'onin# social systems) Thei' im"act is ma-e felt only th'ou#h the en-o#enous ten-encies to chan#e $hich al'ea-y e7ists in the units o' su%systems of the social system in 6uestion) 2n-o#enous chan#e itself is often "e'cei/eas st'ain) A st'ain is a ten-ency to -is-e6uili%'ium in the in"ut-out"ut %alance %et$een t$o o' mo'e units of the system) St'ain can %e 'elie/e- %y %ein# fully 'esol/e-, %y %ein# isolate- o' a''este-, o' %y chan#in# the st'uctu'e itself) Since st'ain usually falls on 'elations %et$een units of the system, st'uctu'al chan#e to 'elie/e the st'ain is -efine- as alte'ation in no'mati/e cultu'e -efinin# the e7"ectations #o/e'nin# that 'elation) 4i/en st'uctu'al ine'tial ten-encies, st'ain shoul- occu' only $hen lo$e'-le/el cont'ol mechanisms ha/e faile-) Sou'ces of chan#e may %e my'ia- o' multi-causal)

0istu'%ance in the system may 'esult f'om the %alance of in"uts an- out"uts %ein# th'o$n off) The im"act of these fo'ces fo' chan#e $ill /a'y in acco'-ance $ith thei' ma#nitu-e, "'o"o'tion of system units affecte-, the st'ate#ic cha'acte' of the affecte- unit(s!, the -e#'ee to $hich the fo'ces affect functionally -iffe'ent units o' secto's, an- 'esistance of system units) 2m"i'ically, it is ha'- to "in"oint these fo'ces fo' chan#e %ecause they a'e -iffuse an- sel-om o"e'ate -isc'eetly) 1y "'esent -efinition, a chan#e in the st'uctu'e of a social system is a chan#e in its no'mati/e cultu'e) At the most #ene'al le/el, it is a chan#e in the "a'amount /alue system) Chan#e can also affect the inte'action of -iffe'ent le/els of the social system, e)#) no'mati/e cultu'e an- the "e'sonality system) .o$e/e', sym"toms of -istu'%ance a'e common to "'ocesses $hich -o an- -o not cause chan#e) St'uctu'al chan#e is only one "ossi%le outcome of st'ain) The sociali3ation of the chil- actually constitutes a "'ocess of st'uctu'al chan#e in one set of st'uctu'al com"onents of social systems, namely, the 'ole-"atte'ns of the in-i/i-ual in-ee-, much of the fo'e#oin# "a'a-i#m has %een -e'i/e- f'om this sou'ce) The sociali3ation of the in-i/i-ual -oes not, ho$e/e', com"'ise chan#e in the social system of society) This is a #oo- illust'ation of Pa'sons' neste- systems a""'oach) TALCOTT PARSONS: Talcott Pa'sons on (nstitutions an- Social 2/olution Cha"te' <: The Role of Theo'y in Social Resea'ch (n this sho't cha"te', Pa'sons e7"'esses his conce'n fo' $hat a""ea's to %e the com"lete -i/o'ce %et$een the em"i'ically-min-e- an- the theo'etically min-e- in $hich each -oes thei' ty"e of 'esea'ch $hile -e#'a-in# the $o'& of the othe') *o' instance, Pa'sons says, ''ce'tain of the em"i'ically min-e- a'e not me'ely not inte'este- in attem"tin# to cont'i%ute to theo'y themsel/es, they a'e acti/ely anti-theo'etical'' (B7!) .e ma&es the same "oint of the theo'etically min-e-) Althou#h he is /e'y sym"athetic to$a'em"i'icists $ho -o not li&e to st'uctu'e thei' 'esea'ch on fi'm theo'etical #'oun-s, he a'#ues the $hethe' they $oul- li&e to a-mit it o' not, scientific en-ea/o's cannot an- -o not ma&e much cont'i%ution to scientific &no$le-#e unless they a'e ''#ui-e- %y the lo#ical st'uctu'e of a theo'etical scheme)'' Pa'sons sees the "'inci"le functions of analytical theo'y in 'esea'ch in the follo$in# fou' $ays: <! it "'o/i-es a %asis of selection fo' the im"o'tant facts f'om the unim"o'tant, #i/en the $ealth of miscellaneous facts $e ha/e =! it "'o/i-es a %asis fo' o'#ani3ation of the facts 3! it 'e/eals the #a"s in the e7istin# &no$le-#e an- thei' im"o'tance 8! it "'o/i-es a sou'ce of ''c'oss fe'tili3ation'' of 'elate- fiel-s Cha"te' =: The Place of +ltimate Aalues in Sociolo#ical Theo'y 1asically $hat Pa'sons says in this cha"te' is that "eo"le st'i/e to achie/e en-s an- they -o so #i/en the o""o'tunities o' means that a'e a/aila%le to them (means-en-s chain!) .o$e/e', "eo"le's ''ultimate en-s'' as $ell as ho$ they achie/e them a'e not chosen

'an-omly) (nstea-, the means %y $hich "eo"le achie/e thei' #oals, etc), a'e -efine- anesta%lishe- %y the #'ou" of $hich they a'e a "a't) Pa'sons calls this a ''common system of ultimate en-s)'' Actions a'e #o/e'ne- %y no'mati/e 'ules of the #'ou" o' institution) (n othe' $o'-s, Pa'sons' conce"t of action is #'oun-e- in a no'mati/e f'ame$o'&) Cha"te' 3: The Action *'ame of Refe'ence A f'ame of 'efe'ence is the sta'tin# "oint fo' analysis an- is -ete'mine- %y the "a'ticula' /anta#e "oint an- "u'"oses) 9ayhe$ says that ''the #'oun-in# of the no'mati/e in the /e'y conce"t of action as a necessa'y element of an action f'ame of 'efe'ence, #i/es the stu-y of no'ms a soli- theo'etical foun-ation'' (C!) No'ms ha/e s"ecial im"o'tance in social life5 they "'o/i-e an action f'ame of 'efe'ence fo' analy3in# social st'uctu'e an- its functions) Cha"te' 8: .o%%es an- the P'o%lem of O'-e' .o%%es %elie/e- that "eo"le a'e #ui-e- %y thei' "assions) The #oo- is sim"ly $hat man -esi'es) .o$e/e', the'e a'e many limitations on the e7tent to $hich these -esi'es can %e 'eali3e-) The'efo'e, in o'-e' to ''cont'ol'' "eo"le's -esi'es, society has c'eate- a social cont'act that e7ists %et$een mem%e's of society) Th'ou#h this cont'act men a#'ee to #i/e u" some li%e'ties to the so/e'ei#n "o$e' an- in 'etu'n they 'ecei/e secu'ity, o' immunity, f'om a##'ession %y the fo'ce o' f'au- of othe's) Th'ou#h this autho'ity, the -esi'es an"assions a'e hel- in chec& an- o'-e' an- secu'ity a'e maintaine-) ;ithout it, men $ill attem"t to achie/e thei' en-s in the most efficient means a/aila%le, in othe' $o'-s, fo'ce o' f'au-) This $ill e/entually lea- to a state of $a') (t is this social cont'act of .o%%es that is most inte'estin# to Pa'sons) .o%%es' social cont'act is synonymous $ith Pa'son's no'mati/e f'ame$o'&) .e says that an o'-e'esocial life cannot %e foun-e- on 'ational calculation alone5 the'e must %e a no'mati/e f'ame$o'& to esta%lish c'ite'ia of choice that $ill "'o/i-e fo' social cont'ol of -is'u"ti/e con-uct) Cha"te' D: Patte'n Aa'ia%les Patte'n /a'ia%les a'e ''the "'inci"le tools of st'uctu'al analysis outlinin# the -e'i/ation of these cate#o'ies f'om the int'insic lo#ic of social action -- the inhe'ent -ilemmas of choice facin# acto's'' (<0!) (n this cha"te' Pa'sons a'#ues that the'e a'e a st'ictly limitean- -efine- set of alte'nati/es o' choices that can %e ma-e, an- the 'elati/e "'imacies #i/en to choices constitute the ''"atte'nin# of 'elational institutions)'' These choices o' alte'nati/es a'e calle- o'ientation-selection) The'e a'e fi/e "atte'n /a'ia%les of 'ole--efinition that Pa'sons -iscusses, althou#h he says that the'e a'e many mo'e "ossi%ilities) The fi'st is the #'atification--isci"line -ilemma: affecti/ity /s) affecti/e-neut'ality) The -ilemma he'e is in -eci-in# $hethe' one e7"'esses thei' o'ientation in te'ms of imme-iate #'atification (affecti/ity! o' $hethe' they 'enounce imme-iate #'atification in fa/o' of mo'al inte'ests (affecti/e-neut'ality!) "a'sons says, ''no acto' can su%sist $ithout #'atifications, $hile at the same time no

action system can %e o'#ani3e- o' inte#'ate- $ithout the 'enunciation of some #'atifications $hich a'e a/aila%le in the #i/en situation'' (<07!) The secon- set of "atte'n /a'ia%les of 'ole--efinition a'e the "'i/ate /s) collecti/e inte'est -ilemma: self-o'ientation /s) collecti/ity o'ientation) (n this case, one's 'ole o'ientation is eithe' in te'ms of he' "'i/ate inte'ests o' in te'ms of the inte'ests of the collecti/ity) Pa'sons e7"lains, ''a 'ole, then, may -efine ce'tain a'eas of "u'suit of "'i/ate inte'ests as le#itimate, an- in othe' a'eas o%li#ate the acto' to "u'suit of the common inte'ests of the collecti/ity) The "'imacy of the fo'me' alte'nati/e may %e calle- ''self-o'ientation,'' that of the latte', ''collecti/ity-o'ientation'' (<07!) The thi'- "ai' of "atte'n /a'ia%les a'e the choice %et$een ty"es of /alue-o'ientation stan-a'-: uni/e'salism /s) "a'ticula'ism) Sim"ly "ut, ''in the fo'me' case the stan-a'- is -e'i/e- f'om the /ali-ity of a set of e7istential i-eas, o' the #ene'ality of a no'mati/e 'ule, in the latte' f'om the "a'ticula'ity of ))) an o%>ect o' of the status of the o%>ect in a 'elational system'' (<0 !) 27am"le: the o%li#ation to fulfill cont'actual a#'eements /s) hel"in# someone %ecause she is you' f'ien-) The fou'th "ai' of "atte'n /a'ia%les a'e achie/ement /s) asc'i"ti/e 'ole %eha/io': the choice %et$een mo-alities of the social o%>ect) Achie/ement-o'ientation 'oles a'e those $hich "lace an em"hasis on the "e'fo'mances of the "eo"le, $he'eas asc'i%e- 'oles, the 6ualities o' att'i%utes of "eo"le a'e em"hasi3e- in-e"en-ently of s"ecific e7"ecte"e'fo'mances) The final "ai' of "atte'n /a'ia%les a'e s"ecificity /s) -iffuseness: the -efinition of sco"e of inte'est in the o%>ect) (f one a-o"ts an o'ientation of s"ecificity to$a'-s an o%>ect, it means that the -efinition of the 'ole as o'ientin# to the social o%>ect in s"ecific te'ms) (n cont'ast, in a -iffuse o'ientation, the mo-e of o'ientation is outsi-e the 'an#e of o%li#ations -efine- %y the 'ole-e7"ectation) Cha"te' 7: (nte#'ation an- (nstitutionali3ation in the Social System (nstitutionali3ation: 1y institutionali3ation Pa'sons meant the inte#'ation of 'oles ansanctions $ith a #ene'ali3e- /alue system o' no'mati/e f'ame$o'& $hich all mem%e's sha'e) .e states, ''institutionali3ation is an a'ticulation o' inte#'ation of the actions of a "lu'ality of acto's in a s"ecific ty"e of situation in $hich the /a'ious acto's acce"t >ointly a set of ha'monious 'ules 'e#a'-in# #oals an- "'oce-u'es'' (<<C!) (nstitutionali3in# Roles: Pa'sons says that the social system of the institution must contain an allocati/e "'ocess %y $hich the "'o%lem of $ho is to #et $hat, $ho is to -o $hat, an- the manne' an- con-itions un-e' $hich it is to %e -one is ma-e e7"licit) (f this is not -one, the social system $ill fail an- $ill ma&e $ay fo' anothe' system) (f it -oes occu', inte#'ation $ill %e achie/e-) The function of allocation of 'oles, facilities, an'e$a'-s, the'efo'e, must %e esta%lishe- $ithin the social system) Access to 'oles is -ete'mine- %y 6ualifications) Access to facilities is -ete'mine- %y "osition) One is #i/en facilities to hel" to achie/e the #oals set fo'th %y the -uties of the "osition they occu"y) The "u'"ose of facilities is the fulfillment of 'ole-e7"ectations) Re$a'-s ha/e the function of maintainin# o' mo-ifyin# moti/ations) The'efo'e, access to 'e$a'-s is -ete'mine- %y achie/ement o' ho$ $ell one -oes he' $o'&)

The (nte#'ation of the Social System: Social inte#'ation of the social system ta&es "lace $hen mem%e's a'e #o/e'ne- %y a common /alue-o'ientation, $hen the common /alues a'e moti/ationally inte#'ate- in action as a collecti/ity, an- $hen the "eo"le a'e #i/en an- ta&e 'es"onsi%ility fo' thei' 'ole-e7"ectation in that they ta&e 'es"onsi%ility fo' the -efinition an- enfo'cement of the no'ms #o/e'nin# the allocati/e "'ocesses an- ta&e 'es"onsi%ility fo' the con-uct of communal affai's) Cha"te' : (llness an- the Role of the Physician Pa'sons -efines illness as a -e/iant %eha/io' %ecause, as a sic& "e'son, $hethe' mentally o' "hysically, one is not a%le to "e'fo'm the functions o' o%li#ations to society) .e states, ''%eha/io' $hich is -efine- in sociolo#ical te'ms as failin# in some $ay to fulfill the institutionally -efine- e7"ectations of one o' mo'e of the 'oles in $hich the in-i/i-ual is im"licate- in the society'' (<8B!) .e -eals $ith fou' issues he'e: the "'ocesses of #enesis of illness, the 'ole of the sic& "e'son as a social 'ole, as"ects of the 'ole of the "hysician an- thei' 'elation to the the'a"eutic "'ocess, an- the $ay in $hich %oth 'oles fit into the #ene'al e6uili%'ium of the social system) (n the fi'st issue, that of the "'ocesses of #enesis of the illness, mental illness is assume-) Pa'sons su##ests that the #enesis of illnesses 'esults f'om somethin# that has #one $'on# in a "e'son's 'elationshi"s to othe's -u'in# the "'ocess of social inte'action) The su""o't a "e'son 'ecei/es f'om those su''oun-in# he' in $hich she is ma-e to feel a mem%e' of the #'ou" as $ell as the u"hol-in# of /alues of the #'ou" may %e lac&in# 'esultin# in the "e'son %ecomin# "atholo#ical) (n the secon- issue, the 'ole of the sic& "e'son is consi-e'e- a social 'ole) *i'st, the sic& "e'son is ma-e e7em"t f'om no'mal social o%li#ations) Then she is e7em"te- f'om ce'tain 'es"onsi%ilities of he' o$n state) Thi'-, #i/en the 'ole of the sic& 'elin6uishes one f'om the claim to full le#itimacy) *ou'th, %ein# sic& is -efine- as nee-in# hel"5 the sic& "e'son ma&es the t'ansition to the a--itional 'ole of "atient an- as such has ce'tain o%li#ations to fulfill) The thi'- issue, the as"ects of the 'ole of the "hysician an- thei' 'elation to the the'a"eutic "'ocess a'e -iscusse-) Pa'sons says that the'e a'e fou' main con-itions of successful "sychothe'a"y) The fi'st is su""o't $hich si#nifies the acce"tance of the sic& "e'son as a mem%e' of a social #'ou") The secon- is a s"ecial "e'missi/eness to e7"'ess $ishes an- fantasies $hich $oul- o'-ina'ily not %e "e'mitte- in no'mal social 'elationshi"s) The thi'- is that the the'a"ist -oes not 'eci"'ocate the e7"ectations of the "atient) The fou'th is the con-itional mani"ulation of sanctions %y the the'a"ist -- the #i/in# an- $ithhol-in# of a""'o/al) The final issue that Pa'sons -iscusses is ho$ the illness:sic& "e'son, the "hysician, an$ell as the "sychothe'a"y a'e %uilt into the st'uctu'e of society) Cha"te' <D: On the Conce"t of (nfluence

;ays of 4ettin# Results in (nte'action: Pa'sons a'#ues that the'e a'e at least fou' $ays of #ettin# 'esults in inte'action) The fi'st is th'ou#h in-ucement of offe'in# someone somethin# that they $ant so that they $ill com"ly) The secon- is th'ou#h -ete''ence of su##estin# that %y not com"lyin# somethin# %a- $ill ha""en to the "e'son) The thi'means is th'ou#h acti/ation of commitment o' su##estin# to the "e'son $hy it $oul- %e $'on#, in the "e'son's /ie$"oint, to 'efuse to com"ly) The fou'th means is th'ou#h "e'suasion o' offe'in# 'easons $hy it $oul- %e a #oo- thin# fo' him o' he' to com"ly, in-e"en-ent of situational a-/anta#es) Pa'sons "'esents the follo$in# -ia#'am to illust'ate his "oint:
CHANNEL SANCTION Positive Negative Intentional Situational inducement deterrence

persuasion activation of commitments

This he calls his "a'a-i#m of mo-es of #ainin# en-s) Pa'sons -efines influence as ''a means of "e'suasion) (t is %'in#in# a%out a -ecision on alte''s "a't to act in a ce'tain $ay %ecause it is felt to %e a '#oo- thin#' fo' him, on the one han- in-e"en-ently of contin#ent o' othe'$ise im"ose- chan#es in his situation, on the othe' han- fo' "ositi/e 'easons, not %ecause of the o%li#ations he $oul- /iolate th'ou#h noncom"liance'' (=3B!) (n othe' $o'-s, one has influence %ecause of $ho they a'e, %ecause they hol- some title, etc), that ma&es "eo"le %elie/e in them) Pa'sons states, ''the same statement $ill ca''y mo'e $ei#ht if ma-e %y someone $ith a hi#h 'e"utation fo' com"etence, fo' 'elia%ility, fo' #oo- >u-#ment, etc), than %y someone $ithout this 'e"utation ))) (t is not $hat he is sayin# ))) %ut $hat ''i#ht' he has to e7"ect to %e ta&en se'iously)'' (=3C- !) Pe'suasion is -one in common inte'est) (t is not in the inte'est of the "e'sua-e', %ut in the inte'est of the "e'son %ein# "e'sua-e- that the outcome $oul%enefit) An e7am"le of this is a -octo' an- a "atient) The -octo' has influence %ecause of $ho she is) She has a -e#'ee an- t'ainin# that #i/es c'e-i%ility, an- the aim she has is fo' the #oo- of the "atient) Ty"es of (nfluence) The'e a'e fou' ty"es of influence: "olitical, fi-ucia'y, influence th'ou#h a""ea' to -iffe'ent loyalties, an- influence o'iente- to the inte'"'etation of no'ms) (n "olitical influence, the'e is a -i'ectly si#nificant 'elation %et$een influence an"o$e') *i-ucia'y influence 'efe's to the a%ility to allocate 'esou'ces in a system $he'e %oth collecti/ities an- thei' #oals a'e "lu'al an- >ustification of each amon# the "lu'al #oals is "'o%lematic) (nfluence th'ou#h a""eal to -iffe'ential loyalties 'efe's to commitments #'oun-e- in institutionali3e- /alues) (t is a matte' of >ustifyin# assumin# "a'ticula' 'es"onsi%ilities in the conte7t of a "a'ticula' collecti/ity) The final ty"e of influence, that of influence o'iente- to the inte'"'etation of no'ms, 'efe's to the inte'"'etation of le#al no'ms of the >u-icial "'ocess)

Cha"te' < : 2/olutiona'y +ni/e'sals in Society *ou' featu'es of human societies at the le/el of cultu'e an- social o'#ani3ation $e'e citeas ha/in# uni/e'sal an- ma>o' si#nificance as "'e'e6uisites fo' socio-cultu'al -e/elo"ment: technolo#y, &inshi" o'#ani3ation %ase- on an incest ta%oo, communication %ase- on lan#ua#e, an- 'eli#ion) P'ima'y attention, ho$e/e', $as #i/en to si7 o'#ani3ational com"le7es that -e/elo" mainly at the le/el of social st'uctu'e) The fi'st t$o, "a'ticula'ly im"o'tant fo' the eme'#ence of societies fo' "'imiti/eness, a'e st'atification, in/ol/in# a "'ima'y %'ea& $ith "'imiti/e %'ea& $ith "'imiti/e &inshi" asc'i"tion, an- cultu'al le#itimation, $ith institutionali3e- a#encies that a'e in-e"en-ent of a -iffuse 'eli#ious t'a-ition) *un-amental to the st'uctu'e of mo-e'n societies a'e, ta&en to#ethe', the othe' fou' com"le7es: %u'eauc'atic o'#ani3ation of collecti/e #oal-attainment, money an- ma'&et systems, #ene'ali3e- uni/e'salistic le#al systems, an- the -emoc'atic association $ith electi/e lea-e'shi" an- me-iate- mem%e'shi" su""o't fo' "olicy o'ientations) Althou#h these ha/e -e/elo"e- /e'y une/enly, some of them #oin# %ac& a /e'y lon# time, all a'e clea'ly much mo'e than sim"le in/entions of "a'ticula' societies) Pe'ha"s a sin#le theme tyin# them to#ethe' is that -iffe'entiation an- atten-ant 'e-uction in asc'i"tion has cause- the initial t$o-class system to #i/e $ay to mo'e com"le7 st'uctu'es at the le/els social of st'atification an- the 'elation %et$een social st'uctu'e anits cultu'al le#itimation) *i'st, this mo'e com"le7 system is cha'acte'i3e- %y a hi#hly #ene'ali3e- uni/e'salistic no'mati/e st'uctu'e in all fiel-s) Secon-, su%units un-e' such no'mati/e o'-e's ha/e #'eate' autonomy %oth in "u'suin# thei' o$n #oals an- inte'ests an- in se'/in# othe's inst'umentally) Thi'-, this autonomy is lin&e- $ith the "'o%a%ility that st'uctu'al units $ill -e/elo" #'eate' -i/e'sity of inte'ests an- su%#oals) *inally, this -i/e'sity 'esults in "lu'ali3ation of scales of "'esti#e an- the'efo'e of -iffe'ential access to economic 'esou'ces, "o$e', an- influence) TALCOTT PARSONS: ''Su##estions fo' a Sociolo#ical A""'oach to the Theo'y of O'#ani3ations'' <) 9A(N AR4+92NT Pa'son's /e'sion of sociolo#ical e7"lanation of o'#ani3ational theo'y) .e attem"te- to -efine o'#ani3ation %y locatin# it systematically in the st'uctu'e of the society in 'elation to othe' cate#o'ies of social st'uctu'e) .e -efines an o'#ani3ation as ''a social system o'iente- to the attainment of a 'elati/ely s"ecific ty"e of #oal, $hich cont'i%utes to a ma>o' function of a mo'e com"'ehensi/e system, usually the society'' (B3!) =) O+TL(N2 (A4(L SC.292! .e 'efe''e- to his %asic classification of the functional "'o%lem of social systems (A4(L!) This classification -istin#uishe- fou' main cate#o'ies: -the /alue system - $hich -efines an- le#itimi3e- the #oals of the o'#ani3ation (L! -the a-a"ti/e mechanisms - $hich conce'n mo%ili3ation of 'esou'ces (A!

-the o"e'ati/e co-e - mechanisms of the -i'ect "'ocess of #oal im"lementation (4! -the inte#'ati/e mechanisms ((! <! - (L! (ts /alue system -efinin# the societal commitments of $hich its functionin# -e"en-s) This /alue system must %e a su%/alue system of a hi#he'-o'-e' one, since the o'#ani3ation is al$ays -efine- as a su%system of a mo'e com"'ehensi/e social system) *'om this conce"t, Pa'sons maintaine- t$o conclusions) *i'st, the /alue system of the o'#ani3ation must im"ly %asic acce"tance of the mo'e #ene'ali3e- /alues of the su"e'o'-inate system) Secon-ly, on the 'e6uisite le/el of #ene'ality, the most essential featu'e of the /alue system of an o'#ani3ation is the /aluati/e le#itimation of its "lace o' 'ole in the su"e'o'-inate system) =! - (A! (ts mechanisms of 'esou'ce "'ocu'ement) The "'o%lem of mo%ili3in# flui'esou'ces conce'ns one ma>o' as"ect of the e7te'nal 'elations of the o'#ani3ation to the situation in $hich it o"e'ates) The 'esou'ces $hich the o'#ani3ation must utili3e a'e the facto's of "'o-uction as these conce"ts a'e use- in economic theo'y5 lan-, la%o', ca"ital an- o'#ani3ations ('efe's to the function of com%inin# the facto's of "'o-uction in such $ays as to facilitate the effecti/e attainment of the o'#ani3ation's #oal!) 3! - (4! (ts o"e'ati/e mechanism cente'in# a%out -ecision ma&in# in the fiel-s of "olicy, allocation, an- inte#'ation) The "olicy -ecision meant -ecisions $hich 'elati/ely -i'ectly commit the o'#ani3ation as a $hole an- $hich stan- in 'elati/ely -i'ect 'elation to its "'ima'y functions) Pa'sons note- that the c'itical featu'e of "olicy -ecisions is the fact that they commit the o'#ani3ation to a $hole to ca''y out thei' im"lications) The allocati/e -ecisions 'elate to the -ist'i%ution of 'esou'ces $ithin the o'#ani3ation an- the -ele#ations of autho'ity) *'om these "oints, the'e a'e t$o main as"ects of the allocati/e -ecision "'ocess5 one conce'ns mainly "e'sonnel, the othe' financial an- "hysical facilities) The coo'-ination -ecisions conce'n $ith the inte#'ation of the o'#ani3ation as a system) 8! - ((! (ts institutional "atte'ns $hich lin& the st'uctu'e of the o'#ani3ation $ith the st'uctu'e of the society as a $hole) The "'o%lem conce'n 'athe' the com"ati%ility of the institutional o'-e' un-e' $hich the o'#ani3ation o"e'ates $ith othe' o'#ani3ations ansocial units, as 'elate- to inte#'ati/e e7i#encies of the society as a $hole) This inte#'ati/e "'o%lem can %e #ene'ali3e- to %oth human a#ents an- inte'o'#ani3ational inte#'ation) Conclusion: The same %asic classification of the functional "'o%lems of social systems $as use- to esta%lish "oint of 'efe'ence fo' a classification of ty"es of o'#ani3ation, an%'oa-est outline of a "'o"ose- classification $as s&etche-) Then, Pa'sons su##este- some illust'ati/e cases %y a 'a"i- su'/ey of some of the "'inci"al %usiness, milita'y, anaca-emic o'#ani3ations) TALCOTT PARSONS: The P'ofessions an- Social St'uctu'e This cha"te' an- the "iece on a#e an- se7 can %e seen as attem"ts to a""ly Pa'sons' theo'ies to 'eal life situations) (n the case of %usiness an- the "'ofessions, he's loo&in# at

ho$ ou' ''society'' as an o'#anism, maintains itself) T$o of Pa'sons' fou' functional nee-s of society - inte#'ation (coo'-inatin# system "a'ts! an- latency (mana#in# tensions %et$een "a'ts an- #ene'atin# ne$ "a'ts! - a'e sol/e- in this a'ticle %y $hat he calls ''functional s"ecificity'') (com"a'e to 0u'&heim!) Pa'sons %e#ins %y $on-e'in# $hy the "'ofessions a'e so hi#hly -e/elo"e-, an- $hy the'e is such a hi#hly 'efine- -i/ision of la%o' no$a-ays) (.e 'e>ects the i-ea that it is sim"ly in-i/i-uals' utilita'ian self-inte'est) .e says it is "a't of society, institutional) EE.e $ants to "'o/e that ''the ac6uisiti/eness of mo-e'ns %usiness is institutional 'athe' than moti/ational)'' .e'e institutional F cultu'al F #i/en "a't of social st'uctu'e)! Th'ee im"o'tant elements -istin#uish ou' society f'om othe's an- cont'i%ute to the uni6ue im"o'tance of "'ofessions in ou' society) <) (n ou' society, scientific 'ationality - that is, not acce"tin# t'a-itional e7"lanations >ust %ecause they a'e t'a-itional, an- the'efo'e sea'chin# fo' %ette' $ays an- e7"lanations - is ''institutional, a "a't of a no'mati/e "atte'n)'' This is to say, scientific 'ationality is not >ust somethin# that comes natu'al to all human %ein#s) =) *u'the'mo'e, ce'tain "eo"le ha/e autho'ity in ce'tain 'ealms %ut in no othe's) *o' instance, 'e#a'-less of thei' financial %ac&#'oun-s o' u"%'in#in#, -octo's a'e #i/en autho'ity in the fiel- of me-icine %ecause it is thei' s"ecialty) This is $hat Pa'sons calls the ''functional s"ecificity'' of technical com"etence o' autho'ity) (n cont'ast to comme'cial 'elations, $hich a'e functionally s"ecific, &in 'elations a'e functionally -iffuse) Gou' #'an-ma has autho'ity %ecause she's you' #'an-ma, not %ecause of thei' technical e7"e'tise) (Li&en functional s"ecificity to ;e%e' on %u'eauc'acy - officehol-e's can #i/e o'-e's %ecause of autho'ity of the office)! Pa'sons calls fo' a tho'ou#h stu-y of functional s"ecificity, since it is a "'o-uct of ou' uni6ue mo-e'n 0 of L) 3) Relate- to the last thin#, the'e a'e t$o &in-s of 'elations amon# "eo"le, uni/e'salistic an- "a'ticula'istic) The mo'e conte7ts in $hich you &no$ someone, li&e a 'elati/e o' a f'ien-, the less "ossi%le it is to a%st'act that "e'son's "e'sonality f'om the "a'ticula' 'ole they "lay at one time) *o' instance, a "e'son $ho has he' el-e'ly "a'ent li/in# $ith he' $ill t'eat the "a'ent much -iffe'ently than she $oul- t'eat a tenant $ho is a st'an#e') The mothe' is 'e#a'-e- as a "a'ticula' in-i/i-ual, mom) The othe' tenant is 'e#a'-e- as any othe' tenant $oul- %e, %y a ''uni/e'salistic'' 'ule fo' ho$ lan-lo'-s t'eat tenants) (Thin& of Simmel, content an- fo'm of 'elations - "a'ent 'elations ha/e mo'e content %ecause of -iffe'ent conte7ts, not a "u'ely fo'mal 'elation)! 1ut a'e "'ofessions an- %usiness 'eally all that -iffe'entH No, if $e thin& of them %oth as ha/in# the #oal of ''success)'' Peo"le $ish to succee- at $hate/e' /ocation thei' talent %'in#s them to, %e they -octo's, scientists, "ainte's o' financial analysts) 1ut this is only the case in the no'mal con-ition of society, a ''$ell-inte#'ate-'' situation) (f achie/ement fails to %'in# 'eco#nition, o' if you #et 'eco#nition fo' -oin# nothin# o'

the $'on# thin#, this causes st'ain) (Thin& of 9e'ton! St'ain lea-s to "'ofitee'in# in the "'ofessions an- sha-y "'actices in %usiness) (t is not accu'ate to say that %usiness fol&s a'e "u'ely e#oistic no' that "'ofessionals a'e "u'ely alt'uistic) 1oth ha/e the same so'ts f moti/ation, an- -iffe'ences in no'mati/e %eha/io's a'e institutionally -efine- -efinitions of the situation) System is maintaine- %y a com"le7 %alance of -i/e'se social fo'ces) TALCOTT PARSONS: A#e an- Se7 in the Social St'uctu'e of the +nite- States This is anothe' attem"t to ma&e Pa'sons' theo'ies 'ele/ant) This "iece -eals mostly $ith the functional nee-s of inte#'ation an- latency, $he'e -iffe'ent a#e an- se7 #'ou"s can %e seen as the -iffe'ent elements of an o'#anism) To some e7tent, it -eals $ith the 6uestion of ho$ to 'econcile in-i/i-ual $ith social nee-s) Pa'sons asse'ts that ou' society is uni6ue in that ou' chil-'en of %oth se7es a'e t'eateali&e, 'elati/e to othe' societies) The main 'eason fo' this simila'ity is that chil-'en a'e #i/en e-ucation that focuses mostly on li%e'al a'ts 'athe' than /ocations) (n s"ite of the ''cons"icuous'' e7ce"tion that in the >o% $o'l-, men an- $omen in this society sha'e an un-e'lyin# st'uctu'al e6uality) (('m >ust tellin# you $hat he says)! 2-ucation th'ou#h colle#e is me'it-%ase- an- the'e is little -isc'imination until you #et to "ost#'a-, $he'e the st'ict focus on /ocation lea-s to mo'e se7-%ase- -isc'imination) 2lse$he'e Pa'sons asse'ts that it is functional to ha/e a $oman at home 'aisin# the chil-'en an- ma&in# the man's home life 'un smoothly, so he can -e-icate himself to his ca'ee') ;omen nee- to %e e-ucate-, he im"lies, %ecause they nee- to life u" to e7"ectations $hich come $ith %ein# the $ife of a man of a ce'tain status) .e is $he'e she #ets he' status) (f she isn't sma't enou#h to fin- $ays to ente'tain he'self %y follo$in# the ''#oocom"anion'' "atte'n, a $omen may choose to follo$ the #lamou' #al 'outine, #oin# fo' clothes an- ma&eu") St'i/in# fo' success in these t$o 'ealms is functional %ecause these "atte'ns &ee" $omen f'om com"etin# $ith men) .o$e/e', since these $omen ha/e li%e'al a'ts e-ucations, they may un-e'#o such st'ain that it is no su'"'ise that they often e7hi%it neu'otic %eha/io') This se7-%ase- -iffe'entiation comes f'om a-olescent ''youth cultu'e,'' $he'e %oys /alue thin#s counte' to a-ult male 'es"onsi%ility (li&e s"o't, %oo3e, an- #i'lies! an- #i'ls #o fo' the #lamou' #al loo&) The #i'ls' 'ole is counte' to thei' a-ult e7"ectation of %ecomin# mommies, %ut nonetheless "'e"a'es them to acce"t thei' "lace 'elati/e to the men's $o'l-) As "eo"le a#e, $omen $hose chil-'en a'e #'o$n #et %o'e- an- eithe' sho" mo'e o' $o'& fo' %enefit o'#ani3ations) 9en an- $omen %oth 'omantici3e the -ays $hen thei' o"tions $e'e o"en to them, so men may -'in& an- han# out $ith youn#e', att'acti/e $omen) ;omen may #et neu'otic)

All this is an e7am"le of ho$ society t'ies to 'e#ulate its functions, in s"ite of st'ain) .e'e $e fin- "'o%lems of latency, $he'e tensions a'ise %et$een "a'ts, such as $omen $ho a'e sma't an- e-ucate- enou#h to ha/e ''men's'' >o%s %ut $oul- then fo'ce too much com"etition) The'e a'e also "'o%lems of inte#'ation o' coo'-inatin# the "a'ts of the system, es"ecially in the case of "'e"a'in# %oys fo' the a-ult $o'l- in a society $he'e thei' 'ole mo-els a'e a%sent ('cause they''e at $o'& all the time!) ( -on't thin& ( nee- to s"en- much time %'iefin# you all on "otential c'iticisms of this "a'ticula' little cha"te' (0on't men themsel/es ha/e anythin# to -o $ith &ee"in# $omen outH Since $hen has the'e %een #en-e' e6uality in the schoolsH ;hy is this system functional any$ayIHI!) Let's say, in the unli&ely chance $e #et as&e- a%out it, $e'll ha/e a fiel- -ay)