Chapter 1

File Systems and Databases

Examples of Use of Database Systems

Banks

Travel Agents

Scientific Data Collection

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Introducing the Database

Major Database Concepts Data and information Data - Raw facts Information - Processed data

Data management
Database Metadata (=Data about data) Database management system (DBMS)
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Introducing the Database

Database management system (DBMS)

DBMS is the software that interacts with the users, application programs, and the database. Example : IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL etc.

Data

DBMS

Application Programs

Introducing the Database

Importance of DBMS It helps make data management more efficient and effective. It provides end users better access to more and better-managed data. It promotes an integrated view of organizations operations -- big picture. It reduces the probability of inconsistent data.
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The DBMS Manages the Interaction Between the End User and the Database

Introducing the Database

The Importance of Database Design A well-designed database facilitates data management and becomes a valuable information generator.

A poorly designed database is a breeding ground for uncontrolled data redundancies. A poorly designed database generates errors that lead to bad decisions.
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Basic File Terminology

Data Raw facts that have little meaning unless they have been organized in some logical manner. A character or group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific meaning. A field might define a telephone numbers, a birth date, a customer name, a year-to-date (YTD) sales value, and so on. A logically connected set of one or more fields that describes a person, place, or thing. A collection of related records.
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Field

Record

File

Common Data Elements

(concept of fields, records, and files)

Student File Id No. 1100 1200 1300 1400 Record all data about 1500
one occurrence of the entity (collection of related fields)

Field an
Faculty FIT FIT FCM FCM FOE Major SE MIS MM MM CE
individual characteristic or attribute

Name Ali Bobby Clement David Evelyn

File set of data describing all

occurrences of the entity (collection of related records)

Basic File Terminology

Data Model - A collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of database. Database instance Separate location of memory reserved for running a specific database Database Schema - the description of a database, which is specified during database design and is not expected to change frequently.

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A Simple File System

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File System Critique

File System Data Management File systems require extensive programming in a third-generation language (3GL). As the number of files expands, system administration becomes difficult.

Making changes in existing file structures is important and difficult.

Security features to safeguard data are difficult to program and usually omitted. Difficulty to pool data creates islands of information.
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File System Critique

Structural and Data Dependence Structural Dependence

A change in any files structure requires the modification of all programs using that file.
Data Dependence

A change in any files data characteristics requires changes in all data access programs.
Significance of data dependence is the difference between the data logical format and the data physical format.
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File System Critique

Field Definitions and Naming Conventions A good (flexible) record definition anticipates reporting requirements by breaking up fields into their components. Example: Customer Name --> Last Name, First Name, Initial Customer Address --> Street Address, City, State

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File System Critique

Field Definitions and Naming Conventions Selecting proper field names is very important.

Names must be as descriptive as possible within restrictions. Naming must reflect designers documentation needs and users reporting and processing requirements.
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File System Critique

FIELD CUS_LNAME CUS_FNAME CUS_INITIAL CUS_AREACODE CUS_PHONE CUS_ADDRESS CUS_CITY CUS_STATE

CONTENTS Customer last name Customer first name Customer initial Customer area code Customer phone Customer street address or box number Customer city Customer state
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File System Critique

Data Redundancy: Uncontrolled data redundancy sets the stage for Data Inconsistency (lack of data integrity) Data anomalies

Modification anomalies
Insertion anomalies Deletion anomalies

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Database Systems

The Database System Components Hardware Computer Peripherals

Software Operating systems software DBMS software Applications programs and utilities software
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Database Systems

The Database System Components People Systems administrators (SA) Database administrators (DBAs) / Owner (Dbo) Database designers Systems analysts and programmers End users Procedures (sp) Instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database system Data Collection of facts stored in the database

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Database Systems

The Database System Components The complexity of database systems depends on various organizational factors:

Organizations size Organizations function Organizations corporate culture Organizational activities and environment

Database solutions must be cost effective AND strategically effective.

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Database Systems

Types of Database Systems Number of Users Single-user Desktop database Multiuser Workgroup database Enterprise database Scope/limitation Desktop Workgroup Enterprise
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Database Systems
The types of Database Systems Location Centralized Database Distributed Database

Use Transactional (Production) Decision support Data warehouse

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Database Systems
DBMS Functions 1. Data Dictionary Management 2. Data Storage Management 3. Data Transformation and Presentation 4. Security Management 5. Multi-User Access Control 6. Backup and Recovery Management 7. Data Integrity Management 8. Database Access Languages (DDL and DML) and Application Programming Interfaces 9. Database Communication Interfaces
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Database Models

A database model is a collection of logical constructs used to represent the data structure and the data relationships found within the database. Two Categories of Database Models Conceptual models focus on the logical nature of the data representation. They are concerned with what is represented rather than how it is represented. Implementation models place the emphasis on how the data are represented in the database or on how the data structures are 24 implemented.

Database Models
Three Types of Relationships One-to-many relationships (1:M) A painter paints many different paintings, but each one of them is painted by only that painter. PAINTER (1) paints PAINTING (M) Many-to-many relationships (M:N) An employee might learn many job skills, and each job skill might be learned by many employees. EMPLOYEE (M) learns SKILL (N) One-to-one relationships (1:1) Each store is managed by a single employee and each store manager (employee) only manages a single store. EMPLOYEE (1) manages STORE (1)

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Database Models
Three Types of Implementation Database Models Hierarchical database model Network database model

Relational database model

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Hierarchical Database Models

Hierarchical Database Model Basic Structure Collection of records logically organized to conform to the upside-down tree (hierarchical) structure. The top layer is perceived as the parent of the segment directly beneath it. The segments below other segments are the children of the segment above them. A tree structure is represented as a hierarchical path on the computers storage 27 media.

Types of Database Data Models Hierarchical

The first database systems developed were hierarchical
Databases using the hierarchical model use physical pointers to link records

Pointer Based Linkages Between Entities

Location P10 P11 P12 Prof# J13 M7 D23 Name Jones Morgen Davis Office# SB312 BA218 SB 106
Class Standing Fr So Fr Jr Fr Sr So Jr

1st Student
P203 P200 P201

Location Stud#
P200 P201 P202 P203 P204 P205 P206 P207 1234 4678 2943 1874 4017 2318 6021 5503

S_name Smith Davis Evans Allen Lloyd Marx Keen Watts

Next Prof_Stud P202 P204 P206 P205 * P207 * *

Pointers give the physical location of a related set of data, the location values (P10, P201, etc.) in our example are meant to represent this type of physical location. Real pointers usually indicate a displacement in a file. Instead of the P203 value in the first professor record we would see an indicator that the related data begins at the 4028th byte of the file that stores student data
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Pointer Based Linkages Between Entities

Location P10 P11 P12

Prof# Name Office#

J13 M7 D23 Jones SB312 Morgen BA218 Davis SB 106

1st Student P203 P200 P201

Location
P200 P201 P202 P203 P204 P205 P206 P207

Class Standin Stud# S_name g 1234 Smith Fr 4678 Davis So 2943 Evans Fr 1874 Allen Jr 4017 Lloyd Fr 2318 Marx Sr 6021 Keen So 5503 Watts Jr

Next Prof_Stud P202 P204 P206 P205 * P207 * *

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Types of Database Data Models Hierarchical

The first database systems developed were hierarchical Databases using the hierarchical model use physical pointers to link records allow only hierarchical relationships

Hierarchical
A hierarchical relationship is one where each entity at a lower level of the hierarchy is related to only one type of entity at a higher level of the hierarchy (a higher level entity can be linked to two or more lower level child entities)

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Types of Database Data Models - Hierarchical

The first database systems developed were hierarchical Databases using the hierarchical model use physical pointers to link records allow only hierarchical relationships +Hierarchical databases provide very efficient high-speed retrieval They are difficult to modify as an organizations data needs change It is difficult to use them to represent non-hierarchical relationships (essentially you must create multiple linked hierarchical databases in order to represent network relationships)

Types of Database Data Models - Network

The next type of data model developed was the network

model

Databases using the Network model use physical pointers to link records - like the hierarchical model do support network as well as hierarchical relationships + Network databases provide very efficient highspeed retrieval + Can represent network, as well as, hierarchical relationships easily Are difficult to modify as an organizations data needs change Have complex pointer structures which can be difficult to manipulate and hard for end-users34 to understand.

Network Relationships
A network relationship is one in which an entity at a lower level can be linked to two or more entities at a higher level. E.G. - an order is related to both a customer who placed it and a salesperson who made the sale The hierarchical model does not

C
A

support network relationships.

To capture them a second database would have to be created and linked to the first.
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Types of Database Data Models Relational

Relational Database Model Basic Structure RDBMS allows operations in a human logical environment. The relational database is perceived as a collection of tables. Each table consists of a series of row/column intersections. Tables (or relations) are related to each other by sharing a common entity characteristic. The relationship type is often shown in a relational schema. A table yields complete data and structural independence.
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Repetition of Identifying Data to Link Related Data

Prof# J13 M7 D23
Stud#

Name Jones Morgen Davis

S_name

Office# SB312 BA218 SB 106

Prof#

Class Standing

1234 4678 2943 1874 4017 2318 6021 5503

Smith Davis Evans Allen Lloyd Marx Keen Watts

Fr So Fr Jr Fr Sr So Jr

M7 D23 M7 J13 D23 J13 M7 J13

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Linking Relational Tables

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Relational Database Model

- Advantages Structural independence Improved conceptual simplicity Easier database design, implementation, management, and use Ad hoc query capability (SQL) Powerful database management system
Disadvantages Substantial hardware and system software overhead Possibility of poor design and implementation Potential islands of information problems

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A Relational Schema

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Entity-Relationship Data Model

Entity-Relationship Data Model
It is one of the most widely accepted graphical data modeling tools.

It graphically represents data as entities and their relationships in a database structure.

It complements the relational data model concepts.
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Entity-Relationship Data Model

Entity Relationship Data Model Basic Structure E-R models are normally represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD). An entity is represented by a rectangle. Each entity is described by a set of attributes. An attribute describes a particular characteristics of the entity. A relationship is represented by a diamond connected to the related 42 entities.

The ER Diagram

Complements the relational data model concepts Represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD) Based on entities, attributes, and relationships

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 Entity-Relationship Data Model Advantages Visual representation

Entity-Relationship Data Model

Exceptional conceptual simplicity Effective communication tool

Integrated with the relational database model

Disadvantages Limited constraint representation Limited relationship representation No data manipulation language Loss of information content
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Types of Database Data Models - Object Oriented

Object-Oriented Database Model Basic Structure Objects are abstractions of real-world entities or events. Attributes describe the properties of an object.

Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes.

A class is a collection of similar objects with shared structure (attributes) and behavior (methods). Classes are organized in a class hierarchy. An object can inherit the attributes and methods of the classes above it.
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 Object-Oriented Database Model Characteristics

Types of Database Data Models - Object Oriented

An object is described by its factual content. An object includes information about relationships between the facts within the object, as well as with other objects. An object is a self-contained building block for autonomous structures.

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Types of Database Data Models Object Oriented Object-Oriented Database Model

Advantages Add semantic content Visual presentation includes semantic content Database integrity Both structural and data independence Disadvantages Lack of OODM standards Complex navigational data access Steep learning curve High system overhead slows transactions
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A Comparison: The OO Data Model and the ER Model

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Centralized Versus Decentralized Database Systems

Centralized Database with remote Access All processing to support the database system is performed on a central computer. Only input/output functions are performed remotely. (If PCs are used for remote access they operate in terminal emulation mode and do not perform processing)

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Centralized Database with Remote Access

Terminal
Only I/O done here

Terminal Central DB Computer

All processing related to DB System done here Only I/O done here

Terminal
Only I/O done here

Terminal
Only I/O done here

Centralized Versus Decentralized Database Systems

Centralized Database with remote Access
All processing to support the database system is performed on a central computer. Only input/output functions are performed remotely.

Client-Server Database
All data reside on a central server Core database management processing is performed on server Application files and processing to request data, manipulate results and manage the user interface is performed on client computers
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Client-Server Database System

Client Comp
Syntax checks of SQL stmts. Manipulation - presentation of retrieved data done here

Server Computer

Client Comp
Syntax checks of SQL stmts. Manipulation - presentation of retrieved data done here

All Database access, retrieval and, manipulation processes performed here

References
ROB, P. AND CORONEL, C., 2004, Database Systems. 6th Ed., Thomson Course Technology

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