MANUFACTURING PROCESS

3.0 POWDER METALLURGY

INTRODUCTION
Powder metallurgy, sintering, and powder processing have been synonymously used to describe the formation of discrete parts in mold/die cavities by compaction a mass of particles (< 150 microns) under pressure. The basic steps of powder processing are powder production, compacting of powder, and sintering. The last phase involves heating the preform part to a temperature below its melting point, when the powder particles lose their individual characteristics through an interdiffusion process and give the part its own overall physical and mechanical properties. Sintering lowers the surface energy of the particles by reducing their (surface) areas through interparticle bonding. Today powder-processed components are used by many industries: aerospace (turbine blades), automotive (gears, bushings, connecting rods), and household (sprinklers, electrical components, pottery).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course the student will be able to: State several types of metal powder production Describe the powder metallurgy process

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course the student has the ability to: Explain the principal operations for powder metallurgy process

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3.1

INTRODUCTION
Most manufacturing processes used materials such as metals and alloys that are in a molten state or in solid forms. In this chapter we will see how metals parts are made by compacting fine metal powders in suitable dies and sintering, that is heating without melting. This process is known as powder metallurgy.

Heat which is used in the process must be kept at a temperature below the melting point of the powder. The result in bonding the fine particles together will improve the strength and other properties of the finished product.

It is first used by the Egyptians, in 3000 B.C., to make iron tools. In 1900s, it is used to make the tungsten filaments for incandescent light bulbs. Typical products made by powder-metallurgy techniques range from tiny balls for ball-point pens, to gears, cams, and bushings, to cutting tools, to porous products, such as filters and oil-impregnated bearings, to variety of automotive components such as piston rings, valve guides, connecting rods, and hydraulics pistons.

The most commonly used metals in powder metallurgy are iron, copper, aluminum, tin, nickel, titanium, and refractory metals. For parts made of brass, bronze, steels, and stainless steel, prealloyed powders are used, where each powder particle itself is an alloy.

The advantages of this process are: the availability of a wide range of powder compositions the availability to produce parts to net dimensions (net shape forming) minimizing machining

The two important characteristics of a metal powder part are: strength machinability

The particle size, shape and size distribution of metal powders affect the characteristics and physical properties of the compacted product. Powders are produced according to specifications such as: shape fineness

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particle size distribution flowability chemical properties compressibility apparent specific gravity sintering properties

The shape of powder particle depends largely on how it is produced. It may be spherical, ragged, dendritic, flat or angular. A powder with good green strength can only be produced from irregularly shaped particles that will interlock on compacting. Fineness refers to the particle size and is determined by passing the powder through standard sieves or by microscopic measurement.

Particle size distribution has reference to the amount of each standard particle size in the powder. It influences flowability, apparent density, compressibility, final porosity, mechanical properties such as strength and elasticity. Flowability is that characteristics of a powder which permits it to flow readily and conform to the mold cavity.

Chemical properties are the purity of the powder, amount of oxides permitted, and the percentages of other elements allowed. Compressibility is the ratio of the volume of initial powder to the volume of the compressed piece. It varies considerably and is affected by particle size distribution and shape.

The apparent density of a powder is expressed in kilograms per cubic meter. Sintering is the bonding of particles by the application of heat. Mechanical properties are controlled by particle size, compaction pressure, sintering and heat treatment.

3.2

PRODUCTION OF METAL POWDERS

The powder metallurgy process consists of the following operations in sequence: Powder production Blending Compaction Sintering Finishing operation

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Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder metallurgy parts.

In powder production, there are several methods of producing metals powder. Most of them can be produced by more than one method where the choice refers to the requirements of the end product. Metal sources are generally bulk metals and alloys, ores, salts, and other compounds.

All metal powders because of their individual physical and chemical characteristics cannot be manufactured in the same way. Some of the processes for the powder production are:

Atomization Electrolytic deposition Reduction

Atomization of the operation of metal spraying is an excellent means of producing powders from many of the low-temperature metals such as lead, aluminum, zinc and iron.

The process produces a liquid-metal stream by injecting molten metal through a small orifice. The stream is broken up by jets of inert gas, air, or water. The size of the particles formed depends on the temperature of metal, the rate of flow, the nozzle size, and the jet characteristics. In one variation of this method, a consumable electrode is

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rotated rapidly in a helium-filled chamber. The centrifugal force breaks up the molten tip of the electrode into metal particles.

Methods of metal powder production by atomization; (a) melt atomization, (b) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode.

Electrolytic deposition is a process for processing silver, tantalum and several other metals. It utilizes either aqueous solutions or fused salts. The powders produced are among the purest available.

The reduction method reduce metal oxides (removal of oxygen) uses gases, such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, as reducing agents; by this means, very fine metallic oxides are reduced to the metallic state. The powders produced by this method are spongy and porous, and they have uniformly sized spherical or angular shapes.

Other less commonly used methods for powder production are: a. b. c. Precipitation: by chemical solution Machining Vapor condensation

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3.3

COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS

Compaction is a process where the blended powders are pressed into shapes in dies. Pressures performed actuated either hydraulically or mechanically.

(a) Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The presses powder part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear. Source : metal Powder Industries Federation.

The pressed powder is known as a green compact. It is feed properly into the die cavity. Pressing is normally carried out at room temperatures.

The density of the green compact depends on the pressure applied. As the compacting pressure is increased, its density approaches the density of the metal in its bulk form. If all the particles are of the same size, there will be always some porosity when they are packed together. When the density is higher, the strength and elastic modulus of the part is higher. The reason is that the higher density, the higher the amount of solid metal in the same volume, and hence the greater its resistance to external forces. Because of friction between the metal particles in the powder and friction between the punches and the die walls, the density within the part can vary considerably.

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The pressure required for pressing metals powders ranges from 70Mpa for aluminum, and 800 Mpa for high-density iron parts.

The selection of the press depends on part size and configuration, on density requirements, and on production rate. However, the higher the pressing speed, the greater the tendency for the press to trap air in the die cavity and prevent proper compaction.

Compaction can be also be carried out or improved by additional processing such as isostatic pressing, rolling, and forging. Because the density of compacted powders can vary significantly, green compacts may be subjected to hydrostatic pressure in order to achieve more uniform compaction.

Two types of isostatic pressing are: Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)

In CIP, the metal powder is placed in a flexible rubber mold made of neoprene rubber, urethane, polyvinyl chloride, or another elastomer. Then it is pressurized hydrostatically in a chamber by water. Pressured used is 400 Mpa to 1000 Mpa.

In HIP, the metal powder is placed in a high-melting point sheet metal and pressurized by inert gas or fluid. Pressure used is 100 Mpa at 1100C. The advantage of HIP is its ability to produce compacts having almost 100% density, good metallurgical bonding of the particles and good mechanical properties.

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Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing as applied to forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the assembly inside a high pressure chamber. Source :Reprinted with permission from R.M German . Powder metallurgy Science .Princeton, NJ:Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.

The advantages of isostatic pressing are the following: Fully-dense compacts, uniform density, strength, toughness and good surface detail Can handling much larger parts

The limitations are as follows: Wider dimensional tolerances Greater cost and time For small production quantities (less than 10,000 parts per year)

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3.4

SINTERING
Sintering is the process whereby green compacts are heated in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to a temperature below the melting point, but sufficiently high to allow bonding (fusion) of the individual particles. It is the process by which solid bodies are bonded by atomic forces. In other words, in sintering the particles are fused together to increase density.

During the process grain boundaries are formed, which is the beginning of recrystallisation. Plasticity is increased and better mechanical interlocking is produced by building a fluid network. Any interfering gas phase present is removed by heat. The temperatures used in sintering are usually well below the melting point of the principal powder constituent, but may vary over a wide range up to a temperature just below the melting point.

For most metals the sintering temperatures can be obtained in commercial furnaces. The time element varies with different metals, but in most the effect of heating is complete in a very short time and there is no economy in prolonging the operation. Atmosphere is important because the product, made up of small particles, has a large exposed surface area.

Furnaces for sintering may be either the batch or continuous type. The continuous type, which has a wire mesh belt to carry the compacts through the furnace. Pusher and roller hearth furnaces are also used and are similar in appearance.

The dimensional change of growth or shrinkage may occur in sintering. It depends on the shape and particle size variation of the powder, the powder composition, sintering procedure, and briquetting pressure. Accurate size is maintained by compensating for the change in making the green compact and the maintaining uniform conditions.

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Schematic cross section of continuous sintering furnace

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