CS2302 COMPUTER NETWORKS TWO MARKS UNIT-I 1. What are the three criteria necessar !"r an e!!

!ecti#e an$ e!!icient net%"r&' The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security. Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, and the capabilities of the connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w. Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from the failure and the networks robustness in a catastrophe. Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses. 2. (r")* the OSI +a ers , !)ncti"n' The seven layers of the O ! model belonging to three subgroups. "hysical, data link and network layers are the network support layers# they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. ession, presentation and application layers are the user support layers# they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission. 3. What are hea$er an$ trai+ers an$ h"% $" the -et a$$e$ an$ re."#e$' $ach layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer %ust above it and passes the whole package to the layer %ust below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. &eaders are added to the message at the layers ',(,),*, and +. , trailer is added at layer+. ,t the receiving machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken. /. What are the !eat)res *r"#i$e$ , +a erin-' Two nice features !t decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable components. !t provides a more modular design. 0. Wh are *r"t"c"+s nee$e$' !n networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two entities cannot %ust send bit streams to each other and e.pect to be understood. /or communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. , protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. 1. What are the t%" inter!aces *r"#i$e$ , *r"t"c"+s' ervice interface "eer interface ervice interface0 defines the operations that local ob%ects can perform on the protocol.

"eer interface0 defines the form and meaning of messages e.changed between protocol peers to implement the communication service. 2. Menti"n the $i!!erent *h sica+ .e$ia' Twisted pair1the wire that your phone connects to2 3oa.ial cable1the wire that your T4 connects to2 Optical fiber1the medium most commonly used for high0 bandwidth, long0distance links2 pace1the stuff that radio waves, microwaves and infra red beams propagate through2 3. 4e!ine Si-na+s' ignals are actually electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. The speed of light is, however, medium dependent0electromagnetic waves traveling through copper and fiber do so at about two0thirds the speed of light in vacuum. 5. What is %a#e6s %a#e+en-th' The distance between a pair of ad%acent ma.ima or minima of a wave, typically measured in meters, is called waves wavelength. 10. 4e!ine M"$)+ati"n' 5odulation 0varying the frequency, amplitude or phase of the signal to effect the transmission of information. , simple e.ample of modulation is to vary the power 1amplitude2 of a single wavelength. 11. E7*+ain the t%" t *es "! $)*+e7' Full duplex0two bit streams can be simultaneously transmitted over the links at the same time, one going in each direction. Half duplex0it supports data flowing in only one direction at a time. 12. What is CO4EC' , device that encodes analog voice into a digital ! 67 link is called a 3O6$3, for coder/decoder. 13. What is s*rea$ s*ectr). an$ e7*+ain the t%" t *es "! s*rea$ s*ectr).' pread spectrum is to spread the signal over a wider frequency band than normal in such a way as to minimize the impact of interference from other devices. /requency &opping 6irect sequence 1/. What are the $i!!erent enc"$in- techni8)es' 789 789! 5anchester ):/(:

10. 9"% $"es NR:-; $i!!er !r". NR:-I' !n the 7890; sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific meaningspositive for < and negative for =. in the 7890! sequence, the voltages are meaningless. !nstead, the receiver looks for changes from one level to another as its basis for recognition of =s. 11. What are the res*"nsi,i+ities "! $ata +in& +a er' pecific responsibilities of data link layer include the following. a2 /raming b2 "hysical addressing c2 /low control d2 $rror control e2 ,ccess control. 12. What are the %a s t" a$$ress the !ra.in- *r",+e.' :yte0Oriented "rotocols1"""2 :it0Oriented "rotocols1&6;32 3lock0:ased /raming1 O7$T2 13. 4istin-)ish ,et%een *eer-t"-*eer re+ati"nshi* an$ a *ri.ar -sec"n$ar re+ati"nshi*. *eer -t"- *eer re+ati"nshi*> ,ll the devices share the link equally. "rimary0secondary relationship- One device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it. 15. Menti"n the t *es "! err"rs an$ $e!ine the ter.s' There are + types of errors ingle0bit error. :urst0bit error. ingle bit error- The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit 1such as byte character/data unit or packet2 is changed from = to < or from < to =. :urst error- 5eans that + or more bits in the data unit have changed from = to < from < to =. 20. ;ist ")t the a#ai+a,+e $etecti"n .eth"$s. There are ) types of redundancy checks are used in data communication. 4ertical redundancy checks 14832. ;ongitudinal redundancy checks 1;832. 3yclic redundancy checks 13832. 3hecksum. 21. Write sh"rt n"tes "n <RC. The most common and least e.pensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical redundancy check 14832 often called a parity check. !n this technique a redundant bit called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of <s in the unit 1including the parity bit2 becomes even. 22. Write sh"rt n"tes "n ;RC.

!n longitudinal redundancy check 1;832, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block. 23. Write sh"rt n"tes "n CRC. The third and most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy checks 13832 383 is based on binary division. &ere a sequence of redundant bits, called the 383 remainder is appended to the end of data unit. 2/. Write sh"rt n"tes "n CRC chec&er. , 383 checker functions e.actly like a generator. ,fter receiving the data appended with the 383 it does the same modulo0+ division. !f the remainder is all <s the 383 is dropped and the data accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and the dates are resent. 20. 4e!ine chec&s).. The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called checksum. 3hecksum is based on the concept of redundancy. 21. What are the ste*s !"++"%e$ in chec&s). -enerat"r' The sender follows these steps a2 the units are divided into k sections each of n bits. b2 ,ll sections are added together using +s complement to get the sum. c2 The sum is complemented and become the checksum. d2 The checksum is sent with the data. 22. Menti"n the t *es "! err"r c"rrectin- .eth"$s. There are + error0correcting methods. ingle bit error correction :urst error correction. 23. Write sh"rt n"tes "n err"r c"rrecti"n' !t is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in + ways. ?hen an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit. , receiver can use an error correcting coder, which automatically corrects certain errors. 25. What is the *)r*"se "! ha..in- c"$e' , hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. o the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction. 30. What is re$)n$anc ' !t is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or e.tra bits may be appended at the destination of each unit. 31. 4e!ine !+"% c"ntr"+' /low control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.

32. Menti"n the cate-"ries "! !+"% c"ntr"+' There are + methods have been developed to control flow of data across communication links. a2 top and wait0 send one from at a time. b2 liding window0 send several frames at a time. 33. What is a ,)!!er' $ach receiving device has a block of memory called a buffer, reserved for storing incoming data until they are processed.

UNIIT-II 1. What are the !)ncti"ns "! MAC' 5,3 sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. !t contains synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of the ne.t station to receive and route a packet. 2. What are the !)ncti"ns "! ;;C' The !$$$ pro%ect @<+ models take the structure of an &6;3 frame and divides it into + sets of functions. One set contains the end user portion of the &6;3 frame A the logical address, control information, and data. These functions are handled by the !$$$ @<+.+ logical link control 1;;32 protocol. 3. What is Ethernet' $thernet is a multiple0access network, meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames over a shared link. /. 4e!ine the ter. carrier sense in CSMA=C4' ,ll the nodes can distinguish between idle and a busy0link and Bcollision detectC means that a node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has interfered 1collided2 with a frame transmitted by another node. 0. 4e!ine Re*eater' , repeater is a device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog signals. &owever, no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any pairs of hosts, meaning that an $thernet has a total reach of only +,(<<m. 1. 4e!ine c"++isi"n $etecti"n' !n $thernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and as a consequence, they are said to be in the same collision detection. 2. Wh Ethernet is sai$ t" ,e a I-persistent *r"t"c"+'

,n adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability D= Dwhenever a busy line goes idle. 3. What is e7*"nentia+ ,ac& "!!' Once an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission, it waits a certain amount of time and tries again. $ach time it tries to transmit but fails, the adaptor doubles the amount of time it waits before trying again. This strategy of doubling the delay interval between each transmission attempt is a general technique known as e.ponential back off. 5. What is t"&en h"+$in- ti.e >T9T?' !t defines that how much data a given node is allowed to transmit each time it possesses the token or equivalently, how long a given node is allowed to hold the token. 10. What are the t%" c+asses "! tra!!ic in @44I' ynchronous ,synchronous 11. What are the !")r *r".inent %ire+ess techn"+"-ies' :luetooth ?i0/i1formally known as @<+.==2 ?i5,E1@<+.='2 Third generation or *F cellular wireless. 12. 4e!ine A+)et""th' :luetooth fills the niche of very short0range communication between mobile phones, "6,s, notebook computers, and other personal or peripheral devices. /or e.ample, :luetooth can be used to connect mobile phones to a headset, or a notebook computer to a printer. 13. What are the !")r ste*s in#"+#es in scannin-' =. The node sends a "robe frame. +. ,ll ,"s within reach reply with a "robe 8esponse frame. *. The node selects one of the access points, and sends that ," an ,ssociation 8equest frame. ). The ," replies with an ,ssociation 8esponse frame. 1/. E7*+ain the ter. han$"!!' !f the phone is involved in a call at the time , the call must be transferred to the new base station in what is called a hand off. 10. 4e!ine sat*h"nes' atphones use communication satellites as base stations, communicating on frequency bands that have been reserved internationally for satellite use. 11. 9"% t" .e$iate access t" a share$ +in&'

$thernet,token ring, and several wireless protocols. $thernet and token ring media access protocols have no central arbitrator of access. 5edia access in wireless networks is made more complicated by the fact that some nodes may be hidden from each other due to range limitations of radio transmission. 12. 4e!ine A--re-ati"n *"ints' !t collects and processes the data they receive from neighboring nodes, and then transmit the processed data. :y processing the data incrementally, instead of forwarding all the raw data to the base station, the amount of traffic in the network is reduced. 13. 4e!ine Aeac"ns' :eacon to determine their own absolute locations based on F" or manual configuration. The ma%ority of nodes can then derive their absolute location by combining an estimate of their position relative to the beacons with the absolute location information provided by the beacons. 15. What is the )se "! S%itch' !t is used to forward the packets between shared media ;,7s such as $thernet. uch switches are sometimes known by the obvious name of ;,7 switches. 20. E7*+ain Ari$-e' !t is a collection of ;,7s connected by one or more bridges is usually said to form an e.tended ;,7. !n their simplest variants, bridges simply accept ;,7 frames on their inputs and forward them out on all other outputs. 21. What is S*annin- tree' !t is for the bridges to select the ports over which they will forward frames. 22. What are the three *ieces "! in!"r.ati"n in the c"n!i-)rati"n .essa-es' =. The !6 for the bridge that is sending the message. +. The !6 for what the sending bridge believes to the root bridge. *. The distance, measured in hops, from the sending bridge to the root bridge. 23. What is ,r"a$cast' :roadcast is simple A each bridge forwards a frame with a destination broadcast address out on each active 1selected2 port other than the one on which the frame was received. 2/. What is .)+ticast' !t can be implemented with each host deciding for itself whether or not to accept the message. 20. 9"% $"es a -i#en ,ri$-e +earn %hether it sh")+$ !"r%ar$ a .)+ticast !ra.e "#er a -i#en *"rt'

!t learns e.actly the same way that a bridge learns whether it should forward a unicast frame over a particular port0 by observing the source addresses that it receives over that port. 21. What are the +i.itati"ns "! ,ri$-es' scale heterogeneity UNIT-III 1. 4e!ine *ac&et s%itchin-' , packet switch is a device with several inputs and outputs leading to and from the hosts that the switch interconnects. 2. What is a #irt)a+ circ)it' , logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The connection is made after both computers do handshaking. ,fter the connection, all packets follow the same route and arrive in sequence. 3. What are $ata -ra.s' !n datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. $ven when one packet represents %ust a place of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it although it e.isted alone. "ackets in this technology are referred to as datagram. /. What is .eant , s%itche$ #irt)a+ circ)it' witched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial0up line in circuit switching. !n this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and e.its only for the duration of specific e.change. 0. What is .eant , Per.anent #irt)a+ circ)it' "ermanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching. !n this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses. 1. What are the *r"*erties in star t"*"+"- ' $ven though a switch has a fi.ed number of inputs and outputs, which limits the number of hosts that can be connected to a single switch , large networks can be built by interconnecting a number of switches. ?e can connect switches to each other and to hosts using point0to point links, which typically means that we can build networks of large geographic scope. 2. What is <CI' , 4irtual 3ircuit !dentifier that uniquely identifies the connection at this switch, and which will be carried inside the header of the packets that belongs to this connection.

3. What is h"*-, -h"* !+"% c"ntr"+' $ach node is ensured of having the buffers it needs to queue the packets that arrive on that circuit. This basic strategy is usually called hop0by0hop flow control. 5. E7*+ain the ter. ,est-e!!"rt' !f something goes wrong and the packet gets lost, corrupted, misdelivered, or in any way fails to reach its intended destination, the network does nothing. 10. What is .a7i.). trans.issi"n )nit' 5TG0 which is the largest !" datagram that it can carry in a frame . 11. 4e!ine R")tin-' !t is the process of building up the tables that allow thwe collect output for a packet to be determined. 12. 4e!ine ICMP' !nternet 3ontrol 5essage "rotocol is a collection of error messages that are sent back to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an !" datagram successfully 13. Write the &e s !"r )n$erstan$in- the $istance #ect"r r")tin-' The three keys for understanding the algorithm are, Hnowledge about the whole networks 8outing only to neighbors !nformation sharing at regular intervals 1/. Write the &e s !"r )n$erstan$in- the +in& state r")tin-' The three keys for understanding the algorithm are, Hnowledge about the neighborhood. 8outing to all neighbors. !nformation sharing when there is a range. 10. 9"% the *ac&et c"st re!erre$ in $istance #ect"r an$ +in& state r")tin-' !n distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of link state routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic or the state of the link. 11. 4e!ine Re+ia,+e !+""$in-' !t is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the routing protocol get a copy of the link state information from all the other nodes. 12. What are the !eat)res in OSP@' ,uthentication of routing messages.

,dditional hierarchy. ;oad balancing.

13. 4e!ine S),nettin-' ubnetting provides an elegantly simple way to reduce the total number of network numbers that are assigned. The idea is to take a single !" network number and allocate the !" address with that network to several physical networks, which are now referred to as subnets. 15. What are the $i!!erent t *es "! AS' tub , 5ulti homed , Transit , 20. What is an Area' ,n ,rea is a set of routers that are administratively configured to e.change link0 state information with each other. There is one special area0 the backbone area, also known as area <. 21. What is S")rce S*eci!ic M)+ticast' 5 , a receiving host specifies both a multicast group and a specific host .the receiving host would then receive multicast addressed to the specified group, but only if they are from the special sender. 22. What is .eant , c"n-esti"n' 3ongestion in a network occurs if user sends data into the network at a rate greater than that allowed by network resources. 23. Wh the c"n-esti"n "cc)rs in net%"r&' 3ongestion occurs because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to store arrived packets. 2/. What are the r)+es "! n"n ,")n$ar -+e#e+ .as&in-' The bytes in the !" address that corresponds to +(( in the mask will be repeated in the sub network address The bytes in the !" address that corresponds to < in the mask will change to < in the sub network address /or other bytes, use the bit0wise ,76 operator. 20. What is ;SP' !n link state routing, a small packet containing routing information sent by a router to all other router by a packet called link state packet. UNIT-I<

1. E7*+ain the .ain i$ea "! U4P' The basic idea is for a source process to send a message to a port and for the destination process to receive the message from a port. 2. What are the $i!!erent !ie+$s in *se)$" hea$er' "rotocol number ource !" address 6estination !" addresses. 3. 4e!ine TCP' T3" guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes. !t is a full0 duple. protocol, meaning that each T3" connection supports a pair of byte streams, one flowing in each direction. /. 4e!ine C"n-esti"n C"ntr"+' !t involves preventing too much data from being in%ected into the network, thereby causing switches or links to become overloaded. Thus flow control is an end to an end issue, while congestion control is concerned with how hosts and networks interact. 0. State the t%" &in$s "! e#ents tri--er a state transiti"n' , segment arrives from the peer. The local application process invokes an operation on T3". 1. What is .eant , se-.ent' ,t the sending and receiving end of the transmission, T3" divides long transmissions into smaller data units and packages each into a frame called a segment. 2. What is .eant , se-.entati"n' ?hen the size of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for the network layer datagram or data link layer frame to handle, the transport protocol divides it into smaller usable blocks. The dividing process is called segmentation. 3. What is .eant , C"ncatenati"n' The size of the data unit belonging to single sessions are so small that several can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol combines them into a single data unit. The combining process is called concatenation. 5. What is rate ,ase$ $esi-n' 8ate0 based design, in which the receiver tells the sender the rate0e.pressed in either bytes or packets per second A at which it is willing to accept incoming data. 10. 4e!ine (ate%a . , device used to connect two separate networks that use different communication protocols.

11. What is .eant , 8)a+it "! ser#ice' The quality of service defines a set of attributes related to the performance of the connection. /or each connection, the user can request a particular attribute each service class is associated with a set of attributes. 12. What are the t%" cate-"ries "! B"S attri,)tes' The two main categories are, Gser Oriented 7etwork Oriented 13. ;ist ")t the )ser re+ate$ attri,)tes' Gser related attributes are 38 A ustainable 3ell 8ate "38 A "eak 3ell 8ate 5380 5inimum 3ell 8ate 346T A 3ell 4ariation 6elay Tolerance. 1/. What are the net%"r&s re+ate$ attri,)tes' The network related attributes are, 3ell loss ratio 13;82 3ell transfer delay 13T62 3ell delay variation 13642 3ell error ratio 13$82. 10. What is RE4' 8andom $arly 6etection in each router is programmed to monitor its own queue length and when it detects that congestion is imminent, to notify the source to ad%ust its congestion window. 11. What are the three e#ents in#"+#e$ in the c"nnecti"n' /or security, the transport layer may create a connection between the two end ports. , connection is a single logical path between the source and destination that is associated with all packets in a message. 3reating a connection involves three steps 3onnection establishment 6ata transfer 3onnection release UNIT-< 1. What is the !)ncti"n "! SMTP' The T3"/!" protocol supports electronic mail on the !nternet is called imple 5ail Transfer 1 5T"2. !t is a system for sending messages to other computer users based on e0mail addresses. 5T" provides mail e.change between users on the same or different computers.

2. What is the $i!!erence ,et%een a )ser a-ent >UA? an$ a .ai+ trans!er a-ent >MTA?' The G, prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the envelope. The 5T, transfers the mail across the !nternet. 3. 9"% $"es MIME enhance SMTP' 5!5$ is a supplementary protocol that allows non0, 3!! data to be sent through 5T". 5!5$ transforms non0, 3!! data at the sender site to 74T , 3!! data and deliverers it to the client 5T" to be sent through the !nternet. The server 5T" at the receiving side receives the 74T , 3!! data and delivers it to 5!5$ to be transformed back to the original data. ). Wh is an a**+icati"n s)ch as POP nee$e$ !"r e+ectr"nic .essa-in-' ?orkstations interact with the 5T" host, which receives the mail on behalf of every host in the organization, to retrieve messages by using a client0server protocol such as "ost Office "rotocol, version *1"O"*2. ,lthough "O"* is used to download messages from the server, the 5T" client still needed on the desktop to forward messages from the workstation user to its 5T" mail server. (. Five the format of &TT" request message>

1. What is the *)r*"se "! 4".ain Na.e S ste.' 6omain 7ame ystem can map a name to an address and conversely an address to name. 2. 4isc)ss the three .ain $i#isi"n "! the $".ain na.e s*ace. 6omain name space is divided into three different sections- generic domains, country domains I inverse domain. Feneric domain- 6efine registered hosts according to their generic behavior, uses generic suffi.es. 3ountry domain- Gses two characters to identify a country as the last suffi..

!nverse domain- /inds the domain name given the !" address. 3. 4isc)ss the TCP c"nnecti"ns nee$e$ in @TP. /T" establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, the other for control information. The control connection uses very simple rules of communication. The data connection needs more comple. rules due to the variety of data types transferred. 5. 4isc)ss the ,asic ."$e+ "! @TP. The client has three components- the user interface, the client control process, and the client data transfer process. The server has two components- the server control process and the server data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes. The data connection is made between the data transfer processes. 10. Na.e !")r !act"rs nee$e$ !"r a sec)re net%"r&' Privacy: The sender and the receiver e.pect confidentiality. ut!entication- The receiver is sure of the senders identity and that an imposter has not sent the message. "nte#rity- The data must arrive at the receiver e.actly as it was sent. $on-Reputation- The receiver must able to prove that a received message came from a specific sender. 11. 9"% is a secret &e $i!!erent !r". *),+ic &e ' !n secret key, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this key and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data# the receiver uses the same key and the corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data. !n public key, there are two keysa private key and a public key. The private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public. 12. What is a $i-ita+ si-nat)re' 6igital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. !t is similar to that of signing transactions documents when you do business with a bank. !n network transactions, you can create an equivalent of an electronic or digital signature by the way you send data. 13. What are the a$#anta-es C $isa$#anta-es "! *),+ic &e encr *ti"n' ,dvantagesa2 8emove the restriction of a shared secret key between two entities. &ere each entity can create a pair of keys, keep the private one, and publicly distribute the other one. b2 The no. of keys needed is reduced tremendously. /or one million users to communicate, only two million keys are needed. 6isadvantage!f you use large numbers the method to be effective. 3alculating the cipher te.t using the long keys takes a lot of time. o it is not recommended for large amounts of te.t.

1/. What are the a$#anta-es C $isa$#anta-es "! secret &e encr *ti"n' ,dvantageecret Hey algorithms are efficient- it takes less time to encrypt a message. The reason is that the key is usually smaller. o it is used to encrypt or decrypt long messages. 6isadvantagesa2 $ach pair of users must have a secret key. !f 7 people in world want to use this method, there needs to be 7 170=2/+ secret keys. /or one million people to communicate, a half0billion secret keys are needed. b2 The distribution of the keys between two parties can be difficult. 10. 4e!ine *er.)tati"n. "ermutation is transposition in bit level. Strai#!t permutation- The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved. %ompressed permutation- The no. of bits is reduced 1some of the bits are dropped2. &xpanded permutation- The no. of bits is increased 1some bits are repeated2. 11. 4e!ine s),stit)ti"n C trans*"siti"n encr *ti"n' . Substitution: , character level encryption in which each character is replaced by another character in the set. 'ransposition: , 3haracter level encryption in which the characters retain their plainte.t but the position of the character changes. 12. 4e!ine C(I' . 3F! is a standard for communication between &TT" servers and e.ecutable programs. !t is used in crating dynamic documents. 13. What are the re8)ests .essa-es s)**"rt SNMP an$ e7*+ain it' F$T $T The former is used to retrieve a piece of state from some node and the latter is used to store a new piece of state in some node. 15. 4e!ine P(P' "retty Food "rivacy is used to provide security for electronic mail. !t provides authentication, confidentiality, data integrity, and non repudiation. 20. 4e!ine SS9' ecure hell is used to provide a remote login, and used to remotely e.ecute commands and transfer files and also provide strong client/server authentication / message integrity.

21. (i#e the !"r.at "! 9TTP res*"nse .essa-e'