Computer Hardware & Networking Notes

M.K.Prasad SRGPTC, Thriprayar

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Operating Systems Overview

An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or raphical User Interfaces !nown as UIs. In short, operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. "ere is an overview of the different types of operating systems. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitas!ing operating system that aims at e#ecuting real$time applications. %eal$time operating systems often use speciali&ed scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. 'he main ob(ect of real$time operating systems is their )uic! and predictable response to events. 'hey either have an event$driven or a time$ sharing design. An event$driven system switches between tas!s based of their priorities while time$sharing operating systems switch tas!s based on cloc! interrupts. Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: 'he operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. 'ime$sharing system can be classified as multi$user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. *ingle$user operating systems, as opposed to a multi$user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time. +eing able to have multiple accounts on a ,indows operating system does not ma!e it a multi$user system. %ather, only the networ! administrator is the real user. +ut for a Uni#$ li!e operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the -* ma!es it a multi$user operating system. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: ,hen a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single$ tas!ing system, while in case the operating system allows the e#ecution of multiple tas!s at one time, it is classified as a multi$tas!ing operating system. .ulti$tas!ing can be of two types namely, pre$emptive or co$operative. In pre$emptive multitas!ing, the operating system slices the C/U time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Uni#$li!e operating systems such as *olaris and Linu# support pre$emptive multitas!ing. Cooperative multitas!ing is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. .* ,indows prior to ,indows 01 used to support cooperative multitas!ing.

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Examples o Operating Systems 2. 3is! -perating *ystem (3-*) 3-* (3is! -perating *ystem) was the first widely$installed operating system for personal computers. It is a master control program that is automatically run when you start your /C. 3-* stays in the computer all the time letting you run a program and manage files. It is a single$user operating system from .icrosoft for the /C. It was the first -* for the /C and is the underlying control program for ,indows 4.2, 01, 05 and .6. ,indows 7', 8999 and :/ emulate 3-* in order to support e#isting 3-* applications. 'o use 3-*, you must !now where your programs and data are stored and how to tal! to 3-*. 8.U7I: U7I: is .ulti$user -perating *ystem. 'he U7I: environment and the client;server program model were important elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networ!s rather than in individual computers. U7I: is written in C. +oth U7I: and C were developed by A'<' and freely distributed to government and academic institutions. 4. Linu# Linu# is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus 'orvalds, at the University of "elsin!i in =inland. "e began his wor! in 2002 when he released version 9.98 and wor!ed steadily until 200> when version 2.9 of the Linu# ?ernel was released. 'he !ernel, at the heart of all Linu# systems, is developed and released under the 7U eneral /ublic License and its source code is freely available to everyone. 'he development of Linu# is one of the most prominent e#amples of free and open source software collaboration@ typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non$commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the 7U eneral /ublic License. >. ,INDOWS ,indows is first introduced as a personal computer operating system from .icrosoft that, together with some commonly used business applications such as .icrosoft ,ord and 6#cel, has become a de facto AstandardA for individual users in most corporations as well as in most homes. "owever, ,indows 01, 05, .6, 7', 8999 and :/ are complicated operating environments. Certain combinations of hardware and software running together can cause problems, and troubleshooting can be daunting. 6ach new version of ,indows has interface changes that constantly confuse users and !eep support people busy, and Installing ,indows applications is problematic too. .icrosoft has wor!ed hard to ma!e ,indows 8999 and ,indows :/ more resilient to installation problems and crashes in general.

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1. .ACI7'-*" 'he .acintosh (often called Athe .acA), introduced in 205> by Apple Computer, was the first widely$sold personal computer with a graphical user interface ( UI). 'he .acintosh has its own operating system, .ac -* which, in its latest version is called .ac -* :.

Classi i!ation o Computers Computers can be classified many different ways $$ by si&e, by function, and;or by processing capacity. ,e will study the classification of computers by si&e. 'he si&e of a computer often determines its function and processing capacity. 'he si&e of computers varies widely from tiny to huge and is usually dictated by computing re)uirements. Super Computers 'he largest computers are supercomputers. 'hey are the most powerful, the most e#pensive, and the fastest. 'hey are capable of processing trillions of instructions per second. 6#amples of users of these computers are governmental agencies, such as the 7ational ,eather *ervice, and the 7ational 3efense Agency. Also, they are used in the ma!ing of movies, space e#ploration, and the design of many other machines. 'he Cray supercomputer is nic!named A+ubblesA, because of its bubbling coolant li)uids. Cray supercomputers, the first of which was invented by *eymour Cray, now maintain B1 percent of the supercomputer mar!et. *upercomputers are used for tas!s that re)uire mammoth data manipulation. Main rame Computers Large computers are called mainframes. .ainframe computers process data at very high rates of speed, measured in the millions of instructions per second. 'hey are very e#pensive, costing millions of dollars in some cases. .ainframes are designed for multiple users and process vast amounts of data )uic!ly. +an!s, insurance companies, manufacturers, mail$order companies, and airlines are typical users. .ainframes are often CserversD$$ computers that control the networ!s of computers for large companies. Mi!ro!omputers .icrocomputers can be divided into two groups $$ personal computers and wor!stations. ,or!stations are speciali&ed computers that approach the speed of mainframes. -ften microcomputers are connected to networ!s of other computers. .icrocomputers ma!e up the vast ma(ority of computers. Note"ook Another classification of computer is the noteboo! computer. A noteboo! computer can fit into a briefcase and weigh fewer than two pounds, yet it can compete with the microcomputer.

#aptop
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A larger, heavier version is called a laptop computer. 7oteboo!s generally cost more than microcomputers but can run most of the microcomputer software and are more versatile. Li!e other computers, noteboo! computers are getting faster, lighter, and more functional. $ersonal %igital &ssistant 'he smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or a /3A. /3As are used to trac! appointments and shipments as well as names and addresses. /3As are called pen$based computers because they utili&e a pen$li!e stylus that accepts hand$written input directly on a touch$sensitive screen. Eou have probably noticed delivery employees using these.

$ROCESSORS 'C$(s)
'he C/U or Central /rocessing Unit, is the core of any computer. 'he processor (really a short form for microprocessor and also often called th C/U or central processing unit) is the central component of the /C. 'his vital component is in some way responsible for every single thing the /C does. It determines, at least in part, which operating systems can be used, which software pac!ages the /C can run, how much energy the /C uses, and how stable the system will be, among other things. 'he processor is also a ma(or determinant of overall system costF the newer and more powerful the processor, the more e#pensive the machine will be. *ypes o $ro!essors
'he vast ma(ority of microprocessors are embedded microcontrollers. 'he second most common type of processors are common des!top processors, such as IntelGs /entium or A.3Gs Athlon. Less common are the e#tremely powerful processors used in high$end servers, such as *unGs */A%C, I+.Gs /ower, or IntelGs Itanium. "istorically, microprocessors and microcontrollers have come in Astandard si&esA of 5 bits, 2H bits, 48 bits, and H> bits. 'hese si&es are common, but that does not mean that other si&es are not available. *ome microcontrollers (usually specially designed embedded chips) can come in other Anon$standardA si&es such as > bits, 28 bits, 25 bits, or 8> bits. 'he number of bits represent how much physical memory can be directly addressed by the C/U. It also represents the amount of bits that can be read by one read;write operation. In some circumstances, these are different@ for instance, many 5 bit microprocessors have an 5 bit data bus and a 2H bit address bus.

5 bit processors can read;write 2 byte at a time and can directly address 81H bytes 2H bit processors can read;write 8 bytes at a time, and can address H1,14H bytes (H> ?ilobytes) 48 bit processors can read;write > bytes at a time, and can address >,80>,0HB,801 bytes (> igabytes) H> bit processors can read;write 5 bytes at a time, and can address 25,>>H,B>>,9B4,B90,112,H2H bytes (2H 6#abytes)

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+arious Manu a!tures o $ro!essors

,N*E# Corporation

Intel Corporation (7A*3AIF I7'C@ *6"?F >441@ 6urone#tF I7C-) is an American technology company, and the worldGs largest semiconductor chip ma!er, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the #5H series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel was founded on July 25, 20H5, as Integrated 6lectronics Corporation (though a common misconception is that AIntelA is from the word intelligence) and is based in *anta Clara, California, U*A. Intel also ma!es motherboard chipsets, networ! interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing. Intel >99>, Intel 5959, Intel 5955, Intel 5985H, Intel 5945H, Intel 59>5H, Penti m I, Penti m Pr!, Penti m " " #, Penti m II, Penti m III, Penti m I $, Inte% &t!m, Inte% #e!n, Ce%er!n,Intel 3ual Core, Inte% C!re 2 D !, Inte% C!re i3, 5, Inte% C!re i' etc. are the some of the premium processors of Intel.

&M% *e!-nology

Advanced .icro 3evices ( A.3) is a leading global provider of innovative processing solutions in the computing, graphics and consumer electronics mar!ets. A.3 is dedicated to driving open innovation, choice and industry growth by delivering. 'he company started as a producer of logic chips in 20H0, then entered the %A. chip business in 20B1.

& " D (5 , & " D () , A.3 &th%!n, A.3 Athelon :/, A.3 *empron, A.3 3uron, A.3 &th%!n )4, & " D Phen!m, Opter!n etc are the some of the processors of A.3.

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Cyrix

Cyrix Corporation was a mi!ropro!essor developer t-at was ounded in ./00 in Ri!-ardson1 *exas as a spe!ialist supplier o -ig--per orman!e mat!opro!essors or 203 and 403 mi!ropro!essors5 *-e !ompany was ounded "y ormer *exas ,nstruments '*,) sta mem"ers and -ad a long "ut trou"led relations-ip wit- *, t-roug-out its -istory5 Cyrix ounder 6erry Rogers aggressively re!ruited engineers and pus-ed t-em1 eventually assem"ling a small "ut e i!ient design team o 47 people5 Cyrix merged wit- National Semi!ondu!tor on .. Novem"er .//85 *-e irst Cyrix produ!t or t-e personal !omputer market was a x08 !ompati"le 9$( !opro!essor5 *-e Cyrix 9asMat- 04%08 and 04S08 were introdu!ed in ./0/5 *-e 9asMat- was t-e astest 403-!ompati"le !opro!essor and provided up to :7; more per orman!e t-an t-e ,ntel 074085 Cyrix 9asMat- 02S081 a 07208-!ompati"le !-ip was developed rom t-e Cyrix 04%08 and -as "een availa"le sin!e .//. :

MO*HER<O&R%

& mot-er"oard is t-e -ardware !omponent t-at !onne!ts almost all o t-e ot-er parts toget-er in a !omputer5 *-e mot-er"oard is1 in many ways1 t-e most important !omponent in your Computer5 ,t=s a large sili!on wa er to w-i!- all ot-er !omputer !omponents !onne!t5
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-rgani&ationF In one way or another, everything is eventually connected to the motherboard. 'he way that the motherboard is designed and laid out dictates how the entire computer is going to be organi&ed. ControlF'he motherboard contains the chipset and +I-* program, which between them control most of the data flow within the computer. CommunicationFAlmost all communication between the /C and its peripherals, other /Cs, and you, the user, goes through the motherboard. /rocessor *upportF'he motherboard dictates directly your choice of processor for use in the system. /eripheral *upportF'he motherboard determines, in large part, what types of peripherals you can use in your /C. =or e#ample, the type of video card your system will use (I*A, KL+, /CI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard uses. /erformanceF'he motherboard is a ma(or determining factor in your systemGs performance, for two main reasons. =irst and foremost, the motherboard determines what types of processors, memory, system buses, and harddis! interface speed your system can have, and these components dictate directly your systemGs performance. *econd, the )uality of the motherboard circuitry and chipset themselves have an impact on performance.
Mot-er"oard 9orm 9a!tors 'he form factor of the motherboard describes its general shape, what sorts of cases and power supplies it can use, and its physical organi&ation. =or e#ample, a company can ma!e two motherboards that have basically the same functionality but that use a different form factor, and the only real differences will be the physical layout of the board, the position of the components, etc. In fact, many companies do e#actly this, they have for e#ample a baby A' version and an A': version

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I%% *trati!n 1 + "!ther,!ar- .ay! t

C-ipset A chipset, /C chipset or chip set refers to a group of integrated circuit or chips, that are designed to wor! together. 'hey are usually mar!eted as a single product. 'he chipset also controls data flow to and from hard dis!s, and other devices connected to the I36 channels. 'he chipset consists of two main components, the 7orth$ and *outh$ +ridge chips, which are connected over the /CI bus. 'he C/U, .emory and A / tal! to the
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7orthbridge and the *outhbridge handles all the I;-, including the I*A bus. /rocessors themselves also have different chipsets. 'herefore, whenever you upgrade your computerGs hardware, ma!e sure you buy components that are compatible with the chipsets in your machine.
M ajor M otherboard M a nufactures

&SRo!k &S(S <ioStar >iga"yte *e!-nology ,ntel Corporation MS, *rans!end 9oxConn Mi!rostar ,nternational

3iagram of a motherboard chipset

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Random &!!ess Memory

%andom access memory or RAM most commonly refers to computer chips that temporarily store dynamic data to enhance computer performance. +y storing fre)uently used or active files in random access memory, the computer can access the data faster than if it to retrieve it from the far$ larger hard drive. %andom access memory is also used in printers and other devices. %andom access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents once power is cut. 'his is different from non$volatile memory such as hard dis!s and flash memory which do not re)uire a power source to retain data. ,hen a computer shuts down properly, all data located in random access memory is committed to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the ne#t boot$up, %A. begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, and with files opened by the user

%i erent R&M *ypes and its uses 'he type of %A. doesnGt matter nearly as much as how much of it youGve got, but using plain old *3%A. memory today will slow you down. 'here are three main types of %A.F *3%A., 33% and %ambus 3%A..

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S%R&M 'Syn!-ronous %R&M) Almost all systems used to ship with 4.4 volt, 2H5$pin *3%A. 3I..s. *3%A. is not an e#tension of older 63- 3%A. but a new type of 3%A. altogether. *3%A. started out running at HH ."&, while older fast page mode 3%A. and 63- ma# out at 19 ."&. *3%A. is able to scale to 244 ."& (/C244) officially, and unofficially up to 259."& or higher. As processors get faster, new generations of memory such as 33% and %3%A. are re)uired to get proper performance. %%R '%ou"le %ata Rate S%R&M) 33% basically doubles the rate of data transfer of standard *3%A. by transferring data on the up and down tic! of a cloc! cycle. 33% memory operating at 444."& actually operates at 2HH."& L 8 (a!a /C444 ; /C8B99) or 244."&L8 (/C8HH ; /C8299). 33% is a 8.1 volt technology that uses 25> pins in its 3I..s. It is incompatible with *3%A. physically, but uses a similar parallel bus, ma!ing it easier to implement than %3%A., which is a different technology. Ram"us %R&M 'R%R&M) 3espite itGs higher price, Intel has given %3%A. itGs blessing for the consumer mar!et, and it will be the sole choice of memory for IntelGs /entium >. %3%A. is a serial memory technology that arrived in three flavors, /CH99, /CB99, and /C599. /C599 %3%A. has double the ma#imum throughput of old /C299 *3%A., but a higher latency. %3%A. designs with multiple channels, such as those in /entium > motherboards, are currently at the top of the heap in memory throughput, especially when paired with /C29HH %3%A. memory. %,MMs vs5 R,MMs 3%A. comes in two ma(or form factorsF 3I..s and %I..*. 3I..s are H>$bit components, but if used in a motherboard with a dual$channel configuration (li!e with an 7vidia n=orce chipset) you must pair them to get ma#imum performance. *o far there arenGt many 33% chipset that use dual$channels. 'ypically, if you want to add 128 .+ of 3I.. memory to your machine, you (ust pop in a 128 .+ 3I.. if youGve got an available slot. 3I..s for *3%A. and 33% are different, and not physically compatible. *3%A. 3I..s have 2H5$pins and run at 4.4 volts, while 33% 3I..s have 25>$pins and run at 8.1 volts. %I..s use only a 2H$bit interface but run at higher speeds than 33%. 'o get ma#imum performance, Intel %3%A. chipsets re)uire the use of %I..s in pairs over a dual$channel 48$bit interface. Eou have to plan more when upgrading and purchasing %3%A.. Ca!-e Memory Cache .emory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the processor and main memory. 'he cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a trip all the way bac! to slower main memory. 'he memory structure of /Cs is often thought of as (ust main memory, but itGs really a five or si# level structureF 'he first two levels of memory are contained in the processor itself, consisting of the processorGs small internal memory, or registers, and L2 cache, which is the first level of cache, usually contained in the processor.
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'he third level of memory is the L8 cache, usually contained on the motherboard. "owever, the Celeron chip from Intel actually contains 285? of L8 cache within the form factor of the chip. .ore and more chip ma!ers are planning to put this cache on board the processor itself. 'he benefit is that it will then run at the same speed as the processor, and cost less to put on the chip than to set up a bus and logic e#ternally from the processor. 'he fourth level, is being referred to as L4 cache. 'his cache used to be the L8 cache on the motherboard, but now that some processors include L2 and L8 cache on the chip, it becomes L4 cache. Usually, it runs slower than the processor, but faster than main memory. 'he fifth level (or fourth if you have no AL4 cacheA) of memory is the main memory itself. 'he si#th level is a piece of the hard dis! used by the -perating *ystem, usually called virtual memory. .ost operating systems use this when they run out of main memory, but some use it in other ways as well. Older Memory *ypes =ast /age .ode 3%A. =ast /age .ode 3%A. is plain old 3%A. as we once !new it. 'he problem with standard 3%A. was that it ma#es out at about 19 ."&. 633%A. 63- 3%A. gave people up to 1M system performance increase over 3%A.. 63- 3%A. is li!e =/. 3%A. with some cache built into the chip. Li!e =/. 3%A., 63- 3%A. ma#es out at about 19 ."&. 6arly on, some system ma!ers claimed that if you used 633%A. you didnGt need L8 cache in your computer to get decent performance. 'hey were wrong. It turns out that 63- 3%A. wor!s along with L8 cache to ma!e things even faster, but if you lose the L8 cache, you lose a lot of speed. 2H5$/in *3%A. /C299 *3%A. /C244 *3%A. 25>$/in 33% 33%$8HH 33%$444 8>9$/in 33%8 33%8$144 33%8$HHB 33%8$599 33%8$29HH 8>9$/in 33%4 33%4$29HH 33%4$2444 33%4$2H99 33%4$2599 33%4$8999 33%4$8244

*uper 'alent .emory 33%$>99 33% < 33%8 .emory

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I%% *trati!n 2+ Di22erent type* !2 "em!ry "!- %e*

$ower On Sel *est '$OS*) 'he computer power$on self$test (/-*') tests the computer to ma!e sure it meets the necessary system re)uirements and that all hardware is wor!ing properly before starting
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the remainder of the boot process. If the computer passes the /-*' the computer will have a single beep (with some computer +I-* manufacturers it may beep twice) as the computer starts and the computer will continue to start normally. "owever, if the computer fails the /-*', the computer will either not beep at all or will generate a beep code, which tells the user the source of the problem. *-e steps o a $OS* 6ach time the computer boots up the computer must past the /-*'. +elow is the common steps a /-*' performs each time your computer starts.
13

'est the power supply to ensure that it is turned on and that it releases its reset

signal. C/U must e#it the reset status mode and thereafter be able to e#ecute instructions. +I-* chec!sum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable. C.-* chec!sum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable. C/U must be able to read all forms of memory such as the memory controller, memory bus, and memory module. )3 'he first H>?+ of memory must be operational and have the capability to be read and written to and from, and capable of containing the /-*' code. '3 I;- bus; controller must be accessible. /3 I;- bus must be able to write ; read from the video subsystem and be able to read all video %A..
23 33 43 53

If the computer does not pass any of the above tests, your computer will receive an irregular /-*'. An irregular /-*' is a beep code that is different from the standard one or two beeps. 'his could be either no beeps at all or a combination of different beeps indicating what is causing the computer not to past the /-*'. ,<M <,OS "eep !odes +elow are I+. +I-* +eep codes that can occur. "owever, because of the wide variety of models shipping with this +I-*, the beep codes may vary. +eep Code 7o +eeps 2 *hort +eep 8 *hort +eep Continuous +eep %epeating *hort +eep -ne Long and one *hort +eep 3escription 7o /ower, Loose Card, or *hort. 7ormal /-*', computer is o!. /-*' error, error code shown on screen 7o /ower, Loose Card, or *hort. 7o /ower, Loose Card, or *hort. .otherboard issue.

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-ne Long and 'wo *hort +eeps -ne Long and 'hree *hort +eeps. 'hree Long +eeps -ne +eep, +lan! or Incorrect 3isplay &M, <,OS "eep !odes

Kideo (.ono;C A 3isplay Circuitry) issue. Kideo (6 A) 3isplay Circuitry. ?eyboard ; ?eyboard card error. Kideo 3isplay Circuitry.

+elow are the A.I +I-* +eep codes that can occur. +eep Code 2 short 8 short 4 short > short 1 short H short B short 5 short 0 short 29 short 22 short 2 long, 4 short 2 long, 5 short 3escriptions 3%A. refresh failure /arity circuit failure +ase H>? %A. failure *ystem timer failure /rocess failure ?eyboard controller ate A89 error 3ocument C"99900H C"999H9B C"99900H C"999H9B C"999H9B C"999454 C"999H9B C"999H9B C"999H9B C"999840 C"999H9B C"99900H C"999H9B

Kirtual mode e#ception error 3isplay memory %ead;,rite test failure %-. +I-* chec!sum failure C.-* shutdown %ead;,rite error Cache .emory error Conventional;6#tended memory failure 3isplay;%etrace test failed

&?&R% <,OS "eep !odes +elow are Award +I-* +eep codes that can occur.

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+eep Code 3escription

3ocument

Indicates a video error has occurred and the +I-* 2 long, 8 cannot initiali&e the video screen to display any C"999H9B short additional information Any other %A. problem. beep(s) C"99900H

If any other correctable hardware issues, the +I-* will display a message. ,denti ying external ports and inter a!ing -b(ectiveF 'o learn about different ports and how to connect devices to them. 'his diagram shows different ports available on the bac! panel of the /C

I%% *trati!n 3+ Rearpane% P!rt* an- !nne4t!r*

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$arallel port '#$* parallel port): As shown in the diagram parallel port with 81$pins can be used to connect a parallel port printer. /reviously dot matri#, in! (et, bubble (et printers etc were connected to parallel port. 7owadays$parallel port is used to connect 3ot$.atri# printers. Serial port: As shown in the diagram serial ports with 0$pins protruding outwards can be used to connect modem but it can also be used for connecting mouse, provided serial port mouse is available. +>& $ort: K A port which has 21$pins is used to connect a monitor. $S@2 $ort: 'wo H$pin /*;8 ports are there, one is violet to which !eyboard is connected and other is Light green to which mouse is connected

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(S< $ort: Connecting a U*+ device to a computer is simple N you find the U*+ connector on the bac! of your machine and plug the U*+ connector into it. U*+ ports are used to connect to In(!et /rinters, ,eb Cams, *canners etc. 6thernet /ortF 6thernet port is used to connect a computer on networ! through %J$>1 connector ame /ortF ame /ort is used to connect (oystic!, which is usually used in video games 'hree more ports are available for multimedia connections. reen port is used connect spea!ers, blue port is used to connect headphones and light -range is used to connect microphone.

I%% *trati!n 4+ Rear Pane% 56a4k !2 a PC7

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,denti ying $C !ards and inter a!ing5

-b(ective F 'o identify different /C cards and to learn how to install them. *ound card A sound card or audio board, which allows computers to output audio signals through spea!ers and or headphones.

Kideo card 'he video card is responsible for creating all that you see on your computer monitor K A Card 7etwor! card 'his piece of hardware allows your computer to be connected to a networ! of other computers (!nown as a LA7 or Local Area 7etwor!)

$ro!edure to install a sound !ard In this e#ample we are going to install a sound card. 7-'6F It is best not to install all your /CI hardware if you are building from scratch. -nly install your video card and sound card right now. -nce you have your operating system installed, turn off the computer and install the other components. 'his saves you from possible problems when loading up for the first time. 2. %emove any unnecessary temporary metal plates. -nly remove the metal plates from the slots you are going to use. If you do not remove these, you cannot install any /CI components. .ost either unscrew or pop out. 8. Locate /CI *lots on .otherboard. Eour /CI *lots should loo! similar to the ones in the image below 4. Line up component with /CI slot and install. *imply line up the component with the slot and gently press down on both sides until it slides in place >. Insert screw. 'here is only one screw needed to secure each /CI component in place. 1. ive it C3 *ound. %emember that audio cable from the C3$%-. driveO 7ow we will connect the other end of it. If you want to hear audio when play a cd in your C3$%-., you need to connect the C3$%-. to the *ound Card (or motherboard if your sound card is integrated in) using the audio cable as seen below. %efer to your sound card owners manual for correct placement. If you did not purchase a sound card and you have one integrated into your motherboard, refer to your motherboard ownerDs manual for correct placement H. %epeat for any other components. 6very component is different but as long as its /CI compatible, it is installed the same way (e#cept for the audio cable. It is installed only on sound cards and motherboards.) Identifying ports on the cards and interfacing -b(ectiveF 'o identify ports on the /C cards

.I3I ; ame port is a port which is most commonly used for the game port which will allow you to connect a game paddle and or Joystic! to the computer. 'his port will also allow you to connect a device such as a .I3I !eyboard to the computer, additional information on this can be found in the .idi section. Line In connector allows you to connect a Cassette 'ape, C3 or record player to the computer. Line -ut connector is the location which the spea!ers or headphones will be connected to get sound out of the sound card. Kolume control is generally no longer found on sound cards. "owever for cards that do include this as a feature this allows for the volume to be turned up and

down on a non$amplified output such as a set of headphones. .icrophone allows you to connect a microphone to the computer and record your own sound files.

$reventive maintenan!e o a $C
'o learn how to maintain a /C so that it gives longer service without any problems. .) System "a!kups5 'a!e the bac!up of data at regular intervals. Use floppy dis!s for small data and if data is very large perform bac!up using C3$ %, or tape drives. 2) System !leaning5 =loppy dis! drives are vulnerable to dust as they contain a large opening in the system case through which air continuously flows. 'herefore, they accumulate a large amount dust and chemical buildup within a short time. ,here as cleaning a hard dis! re)uires simply blowing the dust and dirt off from the outside the drive. 4) Cleaning mot-er"oards:

=irst, clean the dust and debris off the board and then clean any connectors on the board. 'o clean the boards, it is usually best to use a vacuum cleaner. Also blow any dust out of the power supply, especially around the fan inta!e and e#haust areas. Use a duster can and blast the compressed air into the supply through the fan e#haust port. 'his will blow the dust out of the supply and clean off the fan blades and grill, which will help with system airflow. 'o clean the connectors on the board use the cleaning solutions. A) Hard %isk Maintenan!e: 3e$fragmenting filesF As you delete and save files to your hard dis! they become fragmented ( they are stored on non contiguous areas on the dis!). +efore you defragment your dis! use *candis! to scan your hard dis!. 'o scandis! your hard dis! follow the below steps. o to programs Accessories *ystem tools *candis! 'o scandis! your hard dis! follow the below steps. o to programs Accessories *ystem tools 3is! 3efragmenter :) (nderstanding CMOS 'o !now and understand the features available in the C.-*. 'o enter into C.-* setup continue pressing 3elete(3el) or =8 button while system is booting.

Steps to &ssem"le a %esktop Computer

*-ings to get in pla!e "e ore starting: Anti$static wrist strap *et of screwdrivers and pliers /iece of cloth C/U 'hermal compound (recommended) /C components *ip: C/U 'hermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to !eep your C/U cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster. It is a must if you intend to overcloc! your /C. Note: Eou can find the meaning of an abbreviation at the end of this article under the heading Jargon +uster.

Step .: ,nstalling t-e mot-er"oard .a!e sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to wor! with.

/ut your antic$static wrist strap on to prevent your components from getting affected. .a!e sure your hands are clean before starting. =irst we will be installing the motherboard which is a piece of ca!e to install. -pen the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side /ut the motherboard in place 3rive in all the re)uired screws *ip: .ost motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. Step 2: ,nstalling t-e C$( C/U is the heart of a computer so ma!e sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Also try not to touch the pins fre)uently so that they do not get dirty. et hold of your motherboard and C/U manual. Eou need to place the C/U on the dotted white patch of the motherboard in a particular fashion for it to fit properly. 'here is a golden mar! on the C/U to help you assist. Consult both your motherboard and C/U manual to see which position it fits e#actly or you could also use try all the > positions.

Lift the C/U lever on the motherboard /lace the C/U properly on the motherboard /ull down the lever to secure the C/U in place ?arning: 3o not try to push the C/U into the motherboardP ot the thermal compoundO 7ow is the time to use it. 'a!e small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. +e careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. *ip: 'hermal compounds should be changed once every si# months for optimal performance. Step 4: ,nstalling t-e -eat sink

After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sin!. 'here are different !inds of heat sin!s that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Loo! into your C/U manual for instructions on how to install it properly. /lace the heat sin! on the processor /ut the (ac!s in place *ecure the heat sin! with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sin! on the motherboard. Again loo! into the motherboard manual on where to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sin! in operational mode.

Step A: ,nstalling t-e R&M Installing the %A. is also an easy (ob. 'he newer %A.s ie. 33% %A.s are easy to install as you donDt have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. 'he older ones, *3%A.s are plagued by this problem. If you want to use dual channel configuration then consult your manual on which slots to use to achieve that result. /ush down the %A. into the slot .a!e sure the both the clips hold the %A. properly

Step :: ,nstalling t-e power supply

,e will now install the power supply as the components we install after this will re)uire power cables to be connected to them. 'here is not much to be done to install a /*U. /lace the /*U into the cabinet /ut the screws in place tightly *ip: *ome /*U have e#tra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your /*U manual to see how to install them. Step 3: ,nstalling t-e video !ard

=irst you will need to find out whether your video card is A / or /CI$6. A / graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased out of the mar!et )uic!ly. *o if you bought a span!ing new card it will certainly be a /CI$6. %emove the bac! plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card /ush the card into the slot *ecure the card with a screw /lug in the power connection from /*U (if re)uired) "igh$end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from /*U into the graphics card.

Step 8: ,nstalling t-e -ard disk "ard dis! is another fragile component of the computer and needs to handled carefully. /lace the hard drive into the bay *ecure the drive with screws Connect the power cable from /*U Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive

If your hard drive is a *A'A one then connect one end of *A'A cable into the motherboard and other into the *A'A port on the hard dis!. If your hard dis! is /A'A type then use the I36 cable instead of the *A'A cable. *ip: If your /*U does not support *A'A power supply then you will need to get an converter which will convert your standard I36 power connector to a *A'A power connector. Step 0: ,nstalling opti!al drive

'he installation an optical drive is e#actly similar to an hard drive. /lace the optical drive into the bay 3rive in the screws Connect the power cable and data cable *ip: ,hen installing multiple optical drives ta!e care of (umper settings. .a!e sure you ma!e one as primary and other slave by using the (umper. 'his is not applicable if the drives are *A'A drives. Step /: Conne!ting various !a"les =irst we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the e#ternal ones. Eou will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard.

Connect the large A': power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard

7e#t get hold of the smaller s)uare power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by ta!ing help from your motherboard manual Connect the cabinet cables for power,reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard Connect the front U*+;audio panel cable in the motherboard /lug the cable of cabinet fans Eou are done with installing the internal components of the /C. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. et the rest of the /C components li!e monitor, !eyboard, mouse, spea!ers etc. which we will connect now.

Connect the K A cable of the monitor into the K A port If mouse;!eyboard are /*;8 then connect them to /*;8 ports or else use the U*+ port Connect the spea!er cable in the audio port /lug in the power cable from /*U into the U/* Also plug in the power cable of the monitor Eou are now done with setting up your /C. /ower on and see your rig boot to glory. Step .7: ,nstalling t-e OS and drivers ,e are done with the hardware part. 7ow get your favorite -* dis!s ready and the C3 that came with your motherboard. *et the first boot device to C3;3K3 drive in +I-* /op in the -* dis! %eboot the /C Install the -* Install drivers from motherboard C3 (applicable only to ,indows -*)

Installation of ,indows :/
Step . - *tart your /C and place your ,indows :/ C3 in your C3;3K3$%-. drive. Eour /C should automatically detect the C3 and you will get a message saying A/ress any !ey to boot from C3A. *oon as computer starts booting from the C3 your will get the following screenF Step 2 $ At this stage it will as! you to press =H if you want to install a third party %aid or *C*I driver. If you are using a an I36 "ard 3rive then you do not need to press =H. If you are using a *C*I or *A'A "ard drive then you must press =H otherwise ,indows will not detect your "ard 3rive during the installation. /lease ma!e sure you have the %aid drivers on a floppy dis!. 7ormally the drivers are supplied on a C3 which you can copy to a floppy dis! ready to be installed. If you are not sure how to do this then please read your motherboard manuals for more information. Step 4 $ /ress * to *pecify that you want to install additional device. Step A $ Eou will be as!ed to insert the floppy dis! with the %aid or *C*I drivers. /ress enter after you have inserted the dis!. Step : $ Eou will see a list of %aid drivers for your "33. *elect the correct driver for your device and press enter. Step 3 $ Eou will then get a ,indows :/ /rofessional *etup screen. Eou have the option to do a new ,indows install, %epair previous install or )uit. *ince we are doing a new install we (ust press 6nter to continue. Step 8 $ Eou will be presented with the 6nd User Licensing Agreement. /ress =5 to accept and continue Step 0 $ 'his step is very important. "ere we will create the partition where ,indows will be installed. If you have a brand new unformatted drive you will get a screen similar to below. In our case the drive si&e is 5209.+. ,e can choose to install ,indows in this drive without creating a partition, hence use the entire si&e of the drive. If you wish to do this you can (ust press enter and ,indows will automatically partition and format the drive as one large drive. "owever for this demonstration I will create two partition. 'he first partition will be H999.+ (CF drive) and second partition would be 8259.+ (6F drive). +y creating two partition we can have one which stores ,indows and Applications and the other which stores our data. *o in the future if anything goes wrong with our ,indows install such as virus or spyware we can re$install ,indows on CF drive and our data on 6F drive will not be touched. /lease note you can choose whatever si&e partition your li!e. =or e#ample if you have 199 + hard drive you can have two partition of 819 + each. /ress C to create a partition. Step 0 $ ,indows will show the total si&e of the hard drive and as! you how much you want to allocate for the partition you are about to create. I will choose H999.+. Eou will then get the screen below. 7otice it shows CF /artition 2 followed by the si&e H999 .+. 'his indicates the partition has been created. ,e still have an unpartitioned space of 8250.+. 7e#t highlight the unpartitioned space by pressing down the arrow !ey. 'hen press C to create

another partition. Eou will see the total space available for the new partition. Just choose all the space left over, in our case 8259.+. Step / $ 7ow you will see both partition listed. /artition 2 (CF 3rive) H999.+ and /artition 8 (6F 3rive) 8259.+. Eou will also have 5.+ of unpartitioned space. 3onGt worry about that. Just leave it how its is. ,indows normally has some unpartitioned space. Eou might wonder what happened to 3F drive. ,indows has automatically allocated 3F drive to C3;3K3$%-.. *elect /artition 2 (CF 3rive) and press 6nter. Step .7 $ Choose format the partition using 7'=* file system.'his is the recommended file system. If the hard drive has been formatted before then you can choose )uic! 7'=* format. ,e chose 7'=* because it offers many security features, supports larger drive si&e, and bigger si&e files. ,indows will now start formatting drive CF and start copying setup files as shown on the two images below F Step .. - After the setup has completed copying the files the computer will restart. Leave the :/ C3 in the drive but this time 3- 7-' press any !ey when the message A/ress any !ey to boot from C3A is displayed. In few seconds setup will continue. ,indows :/ *etup wi&ard will guide you through the setup process of gathering information about your computer. Step .2 - Choose your region and language. Step .4 - 'ype in your name and organi&ation. Step .A5 6nter your product !ey. Step .: - 7ame the computer, and enter an Administrator password. 3onGt forget to write down your Administrator password. Step .3 - 6nter the correct date, time and choose your time &one. Step .8 $ =or the networ! setting choose typical and press ne#t. Step .0 - Choose wor!group or domain name. If you are not a member of a domain then leave the default settings and press ne#t. ,indows will restart again and ad(ust the display. Step ./ - =inally ,indows will start and present you with a ,elcome screen. Clic! ne#t to continue. Step 27 $ Choose 'help protect my PC by turning on automatic updates now' and press ne#t. Step 2. $ ,ill this computer connect to the internet directly, or through a networ!O If you are connected to a router or LA7 then chooseF 'Yes, this computer will connect through a local area network or home network' . If you have dial up modem chooseF 'No, this computer will connect directly to the internet'. 'hen clic! 7e#t. Step 22 $ %eady to activate ,indowsO Choose yes if you wish to active ,indows over the internet now. Choose no if you want to activate ,indows at a later stage. Step 24 - Add users that will sign on to this computer and clic! ne#t.

Step 2A $ Eou will get a 'han! you screen to confirm setup is complete. Clic! finish. Step 2:5 Log in, to your /C for the first time. Step 23 $ Eou now need to chec! the device manager to confirm that all the drivers has been loaded or if there are any conflicts. =rom the start menu select Start -B Settings -B Control $anel. Clic! on the System icon and then from the System $roperties window select the Hardware tab, then clic! on %evi!e Manager. If there are any yellow e#clamation mar! ACA ne#t to any of the listed device, it means that no drivers or incorrect drivers has been loaded for that device. In our case we have a Kideo Controller (K A card) which has no drivers installed. Eour hardware should come with manufacturer supplied drivers. Eou need to install these drivers using the automatic setup program provided by the manufacturer or you need to manually install these drivers. If you do not have the drivers, chec! the manufacturers website to download them. 'o install a driver manually use the following procedureF 'a) =rom the device manager double clic! on the device containing the e#clamation mar!. '") 'his would open a device properties window. '!) Clic! on the %river tab. 'd) Clic! Update 3river button. 'he ,i&ard for updating device driver pops up as shown belowF Eou now get two options. 'he first option provides an automatic search for the re)uired driver. 'he second option allows you to specify the location of the driver. If you donGt !now the location of the driver choose the automatic search which would find the re)uired driver from the manufacturer supplied C3 or =loppy dis!. ,indows would install the re)uired driver and may as! you to restart the system for the changes to ta!e affect. Use this procedure to install drivers for all the devices that contain an e#clamation mar!. ,indows is completely setup when there are no more e#clamation mar!s in the device manager.

,nstalling and Con iguring ("untu #,N(D

ReEuirements: ,e need the Ubuntu 29.9> L'* 3es!top I*- image that corresponds to your hardware architecture (i45H or amdH>), and that can be downloaded from here. ,hen the download is over, burn the I*- image with your favorite C3;3K3 burning application (7ero, C3+urner:/, %o#io) on a blan! C3 at 5# speed. %einsert or leave the C3 in your C3;3K3$%-. device and reboot the computer in order to boot from the C3. "it the =5, =22 or =28 !ey (depending on your +I-*) to select the C3;3K3$ %-. as the boot device ,ait for the C3 to load...

,e will see the wallpaper and the installation wi&ard. *elect your language and clic! the AInstall Ubuntu 29.9> L'*A button to continue...

'he second screen will feature a map of the 6arth. Upon the selection of our current location, the time for the final system will ad(ust accordingly. ,e can also select our current location from the drop$down list situated at the bottom of the window. Clic! the A=orwardA button after selected your desired location... 'est the !eyboard -n the third screen, we will be able to choose a desired !eyboard layout. +ut the default automatic selection should wor! for most of us. Clic! the A=orwardA button when you have finished with the !eyboard configuration... "ard dis! partitioning ,e have four options hereF 2. If we have another operating system (e.g. ,indows :/) and we want a dual boot system, select the first optionF AInstall them side by side, choosing between them at each startup.A 7oteF 'his option will -7LE appear if we have another operating system installed, such as .icrosoft ,indows. %emember that, after the installation, the ,indows boot loader will be overwritten by the Ubuntu boot loaderP 8. If we want to delete our e#isting operating system, or the hard drive is already empty and we want to let the installer automatically partition the hard drive, select the second option, AUse the entire dis!.A

7oteF 'his option is recommended for most users who do not have another operating system installed or who want to erase an e#isting one, for e#ample ,indows -*. 4. 'he third choice is AUse the largest continuous free spaceA and it will install Ubuntu 0.29 in the unpartitioned space on the selected hard drive. >. 'he fourth choice is A*pecify partitions manuallyA and it is recommended -7LE for advanced users, to create special partitions or format the hard drive with other filesystems than the default one. +ut it can also be used to create a ;home partition, which is very useful in case you reinstall the whole system. "ereGs how to manual partitioning with ;homeF $ *elect the A*pecify partitions manually (advanced) and clic! the A=orwardA button@ $ .a!e sure that the selected hard drive is the right one. ;dev;sda is the first physical hard drive. ;dev;sdb is the second hard drive in our machine. *o, ma!e sure that we !now which is the one we want to formatP -therwise, will lose ALL 3A'A on that hard drive@ $ LetGs say that the selected drive is empty (no other operating system or important data on it), but it has some partitions on it. *elect each one of those partitions and clic! the A3eleteA button. After a few seconds, it will say Afree space.A 3o this with the other partitions from the selected hard drive, until theyGre all deleted and you have a single Afree spaceA line@ $ ,ith the Afree spaceA line selected, clic! on the AAddA button. In the new window, type 8999 in the A7ew partition si&e in megabytesA field and select the Aswap areaA option from the AUse asFA drop down list. Clic! the -? button and, in a few seconds, we can see a AswapA line with the specified si&e@ $ ,ith the Afree spaceA line selected, clic! on the AAddA button. In the new window, select the A/rimaryA option, type a value between 29,999 and 19,999 in the A7ew partition si&e in megabytesA field and select ; as the A.ount point.A Clic! the -?

button and, in a few seconds, we can see an Ae#t> ;A line with the specified si&e@ $ ,ith the Afree spaceA line selected, clic! on the AAddA button. In the new window, select the A/rimaryA option, type a value between 49,999 and 19,999 (or whatever space you have left on the drive) in the A7ew partition si&e in megabytesA field and select ;home as the A.ount point.A Clic! the -? button and, in a few seconds, we can see an Ae#t> ;homeA line with the specified si&e. 'his is how our partition table should loo! li!e. If so, clic! the A=orwardA button to continue with the installation... ,A%7I7 F +e aware that all the data on the selected hard drive or partition will be 6%A*63 and I%%6C-K6%A+L6. Clic! the A=orwardA button to continue with the installation...

*ubmission of User details -n this screen, we must do e#actly what the title says. =ill in the fields with your real name, the name you want to use to log in on your Ubuntu -* (also !nown as the Ausername,A which will be re)uired to log in to the system), the password and the name of the computer (automatically generated, but can be overwritten). Also at this step, thereGs an option called ALog in automatically.A If we chec! the bo# on this option, automatically be logged in to the Ubuntu des!top. Clic! the A=orwardA button to continue...

In the final step of the installation, we can select to install the boot loader on another partition or hard drive than the default one, but it is only recommended for advanced users. If someone is installing to a U*+ memory stic!, as if it was a U*+ hard drive, then they should !now that the installer will mess with their computerGs hard dis! drive .+%. 'herefore, clic! the AAdvancedA button and select the correct drive (the U*+ stic! in this case)...

Clic! ..

the

AInstallA

button

to

start

the

installation

process...

'he Ubuntu 29.9> L'* (Lucid Lyn#) operating system will be installed... After appro#imately 29 to 25 minutes (depending on your computerGs specs), a pop$ up window will appear, notifying that the installation is complete, and will need to restart the computer in order to use the newly installed Ubuntu operating system. Clic! the A%estart 7owA button...

'he C3 will be e(ected@ remove it and press the A6nterA !ey to reboot. 'he computer will be restarted and, in a few seconds, will see the Ubuntu boot splash... At the login screen, clic! on the username and input password. Clic! the ALog InA button or hit 6nter...

,nstall %river So tware

13 23

-n the des!top, right$clic! .y Computer, and then clic! .anage. Under *ystem 'ools, clic! 3evice .anager.

'he devices that are installed on the computer are listed in the right pane. 33 6#pand the category of the device that you want to configure 7-'6F 'he device may be listed under -ther devices.

%ight$clic! the device for which you want to install the driver, and then clic! /roperties. 7-'6F 'he device may be displayed as Un!nown device, or as a generic device. 53 Clic! the 3river tab, and then clic! Update 3river.
43

'he Upgrade 3evice 3river wi&ard starts. )3 Clic! 7e#t. '3 3o one of the followingF o Clic! *earch for a suitable driver for my device (recommended), and then clic! 7e#t. $or$ o Clic! 3isplay a list of the !nown devices for this device so that I can choose a specific driver, and then clic! 7e#t. Clic! "ave 3is!, clic! +rowse, locate the .inf files that you downloaded in *tep 8F -btain the 3river, clic! an .inf file, and then clic! -pen. /3 =ollow the wi&ard instructions to install the driver. 03 %estart the computer.

,nstall a printer driver lo!ally

Installing a printer driver is a ,indows function, not a /ower/oint one. +efore installing a printer driver, )uit /ower/oint and your other programs. %ead over the installation instructions that came with your printer. ,hen in doubt, follow the instructions there rather than the ones below. Clic! *tart, *ettings, Control /anel. 3ouble$clic! A/rinters < =a#esA 3ouble$clic! AAdd /rinterA to start the Add /rinter ,i&ard

'he Add /rinter ,i&ard ,elcome screen Clic! 7e#t

Local or 7etwor! /rinter

Clic! ALocal /rinterA .a!e sure thereGs 7- chec!mar! ne#t to AAutomatically detect and install ...A Clic! 7e#t

*elect a /rinter /ort If your printer is actually attached to the computer, clic! AUse the following portA and select the port your printerGs attached to. If youGre installing a driver only to !eep /ower/oint happy, choose L/'2F or =IL6F (it doesnGt really matter, since youGll never actually print to the port) If youGre installing a local driver but need to print to a networ! printer, loo! for the printerGs port on the networ! and choose it, if available. If not, choose L/'2F for now. Eou can change the setting later. Clic! 7e#t

Install /rinter *oftware If installing a real printer, select your printer manufacturer and printer model here. If you have an installation dis! or C3 that came with the printer, clic! A"ave 3is!A and locate the I7= file for the printer (chec! the printerGs documentation for specific instructions). If installing a printer only to !eep /ower/oint happy, choose the "/ LaserJet >K;>.K as weGve done here Clic! 7e#t

7ame Eour /rinter

ive the printer a name (this is the name youGll use to select it later) If installing a printer (ust to ma!e /ower/oint happy, you might want to give it a name that indicates it isnGt a real physical printer (//' /acifier, or the li!e) Clic! AEesA under A3o you want to use this printer as the default printerA (this option may not appear in all ,indows versions@ see 7otes below) Clic! 7e#t

/rinter *haring Clic! A3o not share this printerA Clic! 7e#t

/rint 'est /age Clic! 7o

Clic! 7e#t

Completing the Add /rinter ,i&ard %eview your choices. Clic! +ac! if you need to change anything Clic! =inish .otherboard Layout 3iagram

1 2 3 Exer!ise .:

Some Ex!er!ises

%e ine ea!- o t-e ollowing terms5

13 ComputerQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ

23

33

43

53

)3

'3

QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ "ardwareQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ *oftwareQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ *upercomputerQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .ainframeQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .icrocomputerQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 7oteboo! ComputerQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ

/3 Laptop

ComputerQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 03 /ersonal 3igital AssistantQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 4 S-ort &nswer >ive at least : examples o -ow you -ave re!ently used a !omputer in your everyday li e: 2. 8. 4. >. 1.

Exer!ises Fey .5 Computer

An electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit. It accepts data from an input device and processes it into useful information, which it ma!es available on its output device.

25 Hardware

'he physical components of the computer and any e)uipment connected to it.

45 So tware

'he set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a tas!.

A5 Super!omputer

Classified by si&e, the largest classification of computers.

:5 Main rame

Classified by si&e, the second largest classification of computers.

35 Mi!ro!omputer

/ersonal computers or des!top computers.

85 Note"ook Computer

A personal computer that can fit into a briefcase.

05 #aptop Computer

A larger, heavier version of a noteboo! computer.

/5 $ersonal %igital &ssistant

Classified by si&e, the smallest classification of computers. It is a handheld computer.

S-ort &nswer >ive at least : examples o -ow you -ave re!ently used a !omputer in your everyday li e: *-ese answers will vary5 ,mportant $oints to Remem"er &ppli!ations so tware: *oftware that allows you to perform a tas! or solve a specific problem. A bac!up system A way of storing data in more than one location. +yte F A "yte A unit of storage usually made up of eight bits. It represents one character $ a letter, digit, or symbol. Central $ro!essing (nit : Central $ro!essing (nit 'C$() is an 6lectronic circuits that interpret and e#ecute instructions and communicates with the input, output, and storage devices. %ata Raw: 3ata %aw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer. %o!umentationF 3ocumentation Instructions provided with software that includes steps re)uired for installation and use of the product. 9reeware So tware: =reeware *oftware considered to be in the public domain and may be used or altered without fee or restriction. >iga-ertG : igahert& ( "R) A billion machine cycles per second. Hard!opy :"ardcopy -utput produced by a printer. Hardware: 'he e)uipment associated with a computer system@ it is responsible for performing four basic functionsF input, processing, output, and storage.

,nput devi!es: "ardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer can utili&e@ they send the data or instructions to the processing unit to be processed into useful information. & -ard disk : An internal dis!, a metal platter coated with magnetic o#ide that can be magneti&ed to represent data. Ma!-ine Cy!le : A machine cycle =our steps performed by the central processing unit in carrying out the instructions of a program. Mega lop: A megaflop -ne million floating$point operations per second. Mega-ertG: (."&) -ne million machine cycles per second. Memory F /rimary storage that wor!s with the C/U to hold instructions and data in order to be processed. O i!e suite: A pac!age of software that contains pieces of software. It is sold as a single pac!age and is designed to wor! together. Operating Systems: software 'he set of programs that lie between applications software and the hardware devices@ it controls the overall activity of a computer. Output devi!e: A hardware device that displays the processed information to the user. Random a!!ess memory (%A.)F .emory that the computer user can access. Read only memory 'ROM): .emory that contains programs and data that are permanently recorded when the computer is manufactured. Se!ondary or auxiliary storage: A more permanent form of storage that does not depend on a constant flow of electricity. S-areware: A form of free software@ however, the author of shareware hopes you will ma!e a voluntary contribution for using the product. So t!opy: .onitor output. So tware: A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware and accomplish tas!s. 6#ercise 8F
13 QQQQ "ardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer can use. 23 QQQQ %aw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer. 33 QQQQ 6lectronic circuits that interpret and e#ecute instructions and

communicate with the input, output, and storage devices. 43 QQQQ =our steps performed by the central processing unit in carrying out the instructions of a program.

53 QQQQ /rograms and data that are permanently recorded when the computer is

manufactured. )3 QQQQ A billion machine cycles per second. '3 QQQQ "ardware devices that display the processed information to the user. /3 QQQQ A million machine cycles per second. 03 QQQQ A more permanent form of storage that does not depend on a constant flow of electricity. 113QQQQ A pac!age of software that contains several pieces of software. It is sold as a single pac!age and is designed to wor! together. 113QQQQ A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware. 123QQQQ An internal storage dis!@ it is a metal platter coated with magnetic o#ide that can be magneti&ed to represent data. 133QQQQ A form of free software@ however, the author hopes you will ma!e a voluntary contribution for using the product. 143QQQQ Instructions provided with software that includes steps re)uired for installation and use of the product. 153QQQQ .emory that the computer user can use. 1)3QQQQ -utput displayed on a monitor. 1'3QQQQ -utput produced by a printer. 1/3QQQQ /rimary storage that wor!s with the C/U to hold instructions and data to be processed. 103QQQQ *oftware considered to be in the public domain@ it may be used or altered without fee or restriction. 213QQQQ *oftware that allows you to perform a particular tas! or solve a specific problem. 213QQQQ 6)uipment associated with a computer system@ it is responsible for performing four basic functionsF input, processing, output, and storage. 223QQQQ A set of programs that lie between applications software and the hardware devices@ it controls the overall activity of a computer. 233QQQQ A storage unit that is usually made up eight bits and represents one character, letter, digit, or symbol. 243QQQQ A way of storing data in more than one location. 253QQQQ -ne million floating$point operations per second.

4
13 23 33 43 53 )3 '3

Exer!ise Fey Input devices 3ata C/U .achine cycle %-. igahert& -utput devices

/3 .egahert& 03 *econdary or au#iliary storage 113 -ffice suite 113 *oftware 123 "ard dis! 133 *hareware 143 3ocumentation 153 %A. 1)3 *oftcopy 1'3 "ardcopy 1/3 .emory 103 =reeware 213 Applications software 213 "ardware 223 -perating systems software 233 +yte 243 +ac!up system 253 .egaflop

Networking <asi!s
A networ! is an interconnection of two or more devices in order to enable transfer of data or information from one place to another. Advantages 2. *haring of hardware resources 8. *haring of software resources 4. Central storage and data security >. 6asier and faster sharing of information 3isadvantages 2. Costly hardware and software 8. 7eed for an administrator to ta!e care of the networ! *ypes o Computer Networks 2. Local Area 7etwor! (LA7) A networ! consisting of two or more computers that are interconnected by means of cable in a single location is called as Local Area 7etwor!. In a LA7, the computers can ta!e any one of the three functions as detailed below. /eer$to$peer F 'his is an e#ample of a simple networ! where two or more computers are directly connected to each other and share resources. 'here is no central control over the networ!. /eer networ!s are organi&ed into wor!groups. Access to individual resources has to be controlled through a password. 'here is no restriction on the number of computers on a peer networ!. *erver +ased 7etwor! F In this type of networ!s, there is a main computer called as the *6%K6% that controls the networ!s and provides central storage space for information. 'he other computers that are connected to the server are called as CLI67'*, or ,-%?*'A'I-7*, or 3U.+ '6%.I7AL*.

"ybrid 7etwor! F 'hese types of networ! are a combination of both peer$to$peer networ! and server networ!. 8. .etropolitan Area 7etwor! (.A7) A networ! of computers that are interconnected within a specific geographical area li!e a university campus or a city is called as .etropolitan Area 7etwor! or Campus Area 7etwor! (CA7) 4. ,ide Area 7etwor! (,A7) A networ! of computers that are interconnected over a large area is called as a ,ide Area 7etwor!. 'he computers are connected by means of cables, telephone lines, satellites or radio transceivers. Components o a Computer Network 2. *erver 8. ,or!stations 4. 7etwor! Interface Card (7IC) >. 7etwor! media 1. Connector H. Connecting devices *ypes o !a"les Coaxial !a"le Coa#ial cable has a single strand or multi$strand of copper. 'he wire is enclosed in plastic foam for insulation. 'he foam is surrounded by a second conductor, a wire mesh or metallic foil. 'he wire mesh protects the central conductor from electro magnetic interference. It also provides proper grounding for the central conductor. Coa#ial cable transmit data typically at 29 .bps. 3ata is transmitted in the form of electric current and are comparatively slower than fiber$optic cables.

*wisted-pair !a"le 'hese cables have one or more pairs of copper wires that are twisted. 'he twisting reduces e#ternal interference. 'here are two types of twisted pair cables. 2. *hielded 'wisted /air (*'/) and 8. Unshielded 'wisted /air (U'/). *'/ cables are shielded

with aluminium or polyester present in between the outer (ac!et and the wires. U'/ cables do not have this shielding.

9i"er-opti! !a"le 'hese cables are mainly used as bac!bone in a ,A7. 3ata is transmitted in the form of light signals. 'he inner core is enclosed in a layer of glass called as a cladding, that reflects light bac! into the core. A plastic sheath surrounds each fiber. =iber$optic cables are capable of transmitting data at a very high speed offering data transfer speeds ranging from 299 .bps to 8 bps and are more e#pensive. $lenum !a"le In coa#ial cables, /KC is used as the outer (ac!et for insulation. ,hen the cables have to be run in the space between the false ceiling and the floor above, a special type of cable called as plenum$grade cable has to be used. ,hen burned, /KC gives off poisonous gases, so a fire resistant cable such as the plenum$grade cable is used. It is more e#pensive and less fle#ible than /KC insulated coa#ial cables.

Network Conne!tivity %evi!es Any networ! grows over a period. 'his growth creates the need for attaching more computers in the networ!. 6#pansion of a networ! is of two types, they are a) 6#pansion within a networ! b) Joining two networ!s .ore computers can be attached in a networ! by using additional cables and connectors. +ut once the networ! architecture is stretched beyond a point, it reduces the data transmission speeds. In such a situation, there arises a need for special devices, which can amplify the signals and send them over longer distances. 'he following devices can be used to e#pand a single networ! without connecting it to other networ!s. a) "ubs (Active, /assive and Intelligent) b) %epeaters c) *witches d) +ridges e) .ultiple#ers a) Hu"s 'hese are the connecting points in a networ! where U'/ and *'/ cables are used. "ubs amplify signals and split them so that the signals reach their destination. "ubs can be of three types based on their function. "ubs are available in configuration of >;5;2H;48 ports for connecting >;5;2H;48 computers respectively. 'o add more computers to the networ! cascading of hubs can be done. Cascading is nothing but ta!ing the signal from one hub to another hub. 'his is allowed only for Active hubs. Active hubs F 'hese hubs provide connection points for cables to be attached from each computer in the networ!. 'he hub in turn is connected to the main computer called as the *erver. Active hubs are mainly used in *tar 'opology. /assive hubs F 'hese hubs merely act as (unction bo#es for e#tending the networ!. 'hey cannot amplify or split signals. Intelligent hubs F 'hese hubs have special instructions stored in the %-. that help in signal regeneration and path selection. An intelligent hub has the ability to choose the path where the signal has to reach instead of sending the signals along all paths. 'hey can also choose the )uic!est path for sending the signal.

") Repeaters 'he signals that pass in the networ! media (cables) are prone to wea!ening called as attenuation. 'his results in loss of signals. In order to prevent this, a repeater is used to boost the signal allowing it to travel over longer cable distances. !) Swit!-es *witches operate at the data lin! layer and are responsible for receiving and transmitting frames. *witches use .AC (.essage Authentication Code) address from the hostDs 7IC cards to filter the networ!. *witches wor! in full$duple# mode (299 .bps) where the signals can be transmitted and received between the switch and the computer simultaneously. *witches are available in configuration of 5;2H;8>;48 ports for connecting computers. d) <ridges +ridges are used to cross from one circuit, channel or element over to another. It is a device that connects two LA7 segments together, which may be of similar or dissimilar types, such as 6thernet and 'o!en %ing. A bridge is inserted into a networ! to segment it and !eep traffic contained within the segments to improve performance. +ridges learn from e#perience and build and maintain address tables of the nodes on the networ!. +y monitoring which station ac!nowledged receipt of the address, they learn which nodes belong to the segment. +ridges are protocol independent@ routers are protocol dependent. +ridges are faster than routers because they do not have to read the protocol to glean routing information. +ridges with more than two ports (multiport bridges) perform a switching function. 'odayGs LA7 switches are really multiport bridges that can switch at full wire speed. e) Multiplexers 'hese devices use a techni)ue called as multiple#ing where many different signals are combined and transmitted and at the receiving end, they are demultiple#ed to reach the appropriate destination. 'he transmission signals of cable 'K is an e#ample of multiple#ing where multiple channels are send in a single coa#ial cable and the demultiple#er present in the 'K recogni&es the appropriate signal.

,nter-network Conne!tivity Any networ! consisting of two or more networ!s is called as an inter$networ!. 'he Internet is an e#ample of this. An inter$networ! may have different types of networ!s

li!e 6thernet, 'o!en ring, and A'.. 'he following devices can be used to e#pand an inter$networ! by connecting it to other networ!. a) Routers A device that forwards data pac!ets from one local area networ! (LA7) or wide area networ! (,A7) to another. +ased on routing tables and routing protocols, routers read the networ! address in each transmitted frame and ma!e a decision on how to send it based on the most e#pedient route (traffic load, line costs, speed, bad lines, etc.). %outers wor! at layer 4 in the protocol stac!, whereas bridges and switches wor! at the layer 8. %outers are used to segment LA7s in order to balance traffic within wor!groups and to filter traffic for security purposes and policy management. %outers are also used at the edge of the networ! to connect remote offices.

") <routers +routers are a combination of a router and a bridge.

!) >ateways 'hese are sophisticated devices combining both hardware and software. ateway helps in connecting disparate networ!s. 'hey ta!e care of protocol conversion so that data received from any networ! can be interpreted in your networ! and used. d) CS(@%S( Channel *ervice Unit;3igital *ervice Unit help in using the e#isting telephone line for transmitting signals. Apart from sending signals C*U;3*U also shield your networ! from voltage currents that come through the telephone networ!. Network *opology 'he term topology, or more specifically, networ! topology, refers to the arrangements or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the networ!. 'he three popular topologies are bus, star and ring. 6ach topology has its strengths and wea!ness.

'hese are the three ma(or topologies used in networ!s. 6thernet uses bus, hub and switch topologies. 'o!en %ing uses ring and switch. $at!- C-ord /atch Chord is (ust an U'/ cable with %J$>1 connectors connected at both the ends. 'he patch chord may be straight cable or cross over cable depending upon the application where it is used.

R6 A: 6a!k

%J>1 Colors and ,iring *tandards

*-:30< Straig-t-*-roug- Et-ernet Ca"le

+oth the '$1H5A and the '$1H5+ standard *traight$'hrough cables are used most often as patch cords for your 6thernet connections. If you re)uire a cable to connect two 6thernet devices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will need to use a Crossover cable instead.

R6-A: Crossover Et-ernet Ca"le

"ow to +uild an 6thernet Cable InstructionsF /ull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut using wire cutters or scissors. If you are pulling cables through holes, itGs easier to attach the %J$>1 plugs after the cable is pulled. 'he total length of wire segments between a /C and a switch or between two /CGs cannot e#ceed 299 .eters (485 feet) for 299+A*6$': and 499 .eters for 29+A*6$'. 23 *tart on one end and strip the cable (ac!et off (about 2A) using a wire stripper or a !nife. +e e#tra careful not to nic! the wires, otherwise you will need to start over. 33 *pread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end. =latten the end between your thumb and forefinger. 'rim the ends of the wires so they are even with one another, leaving only 2;8A in wire length. If it is longer than 2;8A it will be out$of$spec and susceptible to crosstal!. =latten and insure there are no spaces between wires. 43 "old the %J$>1 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. /ush the wires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Chec! the order of the wires. 3ouble chec! again. Chec! that the (ac!et is fitted right against the stop of the plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the %J$>1 with the crimp tool. 53 Chec! the color orientation, chec! that the crimped connection is not about to come apart, and chec! to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even one of these are incorrect, you will have to start over. 'est the 6thernet cable.
13

6thernet Cable 'ipsF A straight$thru cable has identical ends. A crossover cable has different ends. A straight$thru is used as a patch cord in 6thernet connections. A crossover is used to connect two 6thernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs. A crossover has one end with the -range set of wires switched with the reen set. -dd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solid colored.

Loo!ing at the %J$>1 with the clip facing away from you, +rown is always on the right, and pin 2 is on the left. 7o more than 2;8A of the 6thernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible to crosstal!. 3o not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power cables, and do not run 6thernet cables near noise inducing components.

*C$@,$ 'C/;I/ stands for 'ransmission Control /rotocol;Internet /rotocol. It was developed for the U* 3epartment of 3efense to allow communication between different types of computer and networ!s. 7ow it is a widely used networ!ing protocol. 'C/ and I/ are the two best !nown protocols in the suite. 'he 'ransmission Control /rotocol ('C/) provides reliable se)uence delivery of pac!ets between clients. 'he Internet /rotocol (I/) provides pac!et delivery between hosts. ,$ &ddressing In a 'C/;I/ environment communication between hosts and servers on the internetwor! is transparent. 'his is because each node using the 'C/;I/ protocol suite has at least one uni)ue 48 bit Internet /rotocol (I/) address. A router SreadsT the destination address in an I/ pac!et and ma!es a routing decision based on this address. All hosts on an inter$networ! re)uire uni)ue addresses. I/ address can be represented as a group of four decimal number (in the range 9 to 811), separated by decimal points. 'his is !nown as dotted decimal notation. 'hey can also be represented in binary or he#. 6ach I/ address identifies a hosts within the inter$networ!. /art of an I/ address identifies a particular networ!, part identifies a subnet and part identifies a specific host within that sub$networ!. An I/ address can be represented in dotted decimal notation or binary or he#adecimal notation. =or e#ample F 3otted decimal 249.1B.49.1H +inary 29999929.99222992.99922229.99222999 "e#adecimal 58.40.I6.45 Logically an I/ address contains two parts. 'hey are 2. 7etwor! I3 8. "ost I3 In order to provide a method for assigning addresses in simple and easy manner, the I/ address is classified for different types of networ!s li!e large, medium and small networ!s. ,$ &ddress Classes 3epending on your networ!ing re)uirements, you are assigned (by your service provider) specific classes of I/ address. 'hey are five classes of I/ addressesF A, +, C, 3 and 6. Class AF Address range from 2 to 28H. 'hese addresses use the first byte to specify the networ! and the last three bytes to specify the host. Class A addresses are assigned to system in a small number of networ!s and a large number of hosts.

Class +F Address range from 285 to 202. 'hese addresses use the first two bytes to specify the networ! and ne#t two bytes to specify the host. Class + addresses are assigned to systems in universities and commercial organi&ations. Class CF Address range from 208 to 884. 'hese addresses use the first three bytes to specify the networ! and the last byte to specify the host. Class C addresses are assigned to systems in a networ! with small number of hosts. Class 3F Address range from 88> to 840. 'hese addresses are used for broadcasting messages over an inter$networ!. 'hese addresses are also used for multicasting. Class 6F Address range from 8>9 to 811. 'hese addresses are reserved for research purposes and future use.

*ubnet .as! *ubnet is a physical segment in a 'C/;I/ environment that uses I/ addresses derived from a single networ! I3. *ubnettingF -ne part is used to identify the segment as a uni)ue networ! other part used to identify the hosts. 'his is !nown as subnetting. 6#ample Class room *tudents in the class "ere Class room $ *ubnet *tudents $ 7etwor! I3 *tudents name $ "ost I3 *ubnet mas! is a 48b bit address and is used to (2) bloc! out a portion of the I/ address to distinguish the networ! I3 from the host I3 (8) specify whether the destination host I/ address is located on a local networ! or remote networ!. 6ach host on a 'C/;I/ networ! re)uires a subnet mas! number 3efault subnet mas!s U used when a networ! is not divided into subnets Custom subnet mas!s U used when a networ! is divided into subnets

%e ault gateway I/ routing is the process of sending data from a host on one networ! to a remote host on another networ! through a router or routers. In I/ terminology routers are referred to as gateways. 'he router uses a path to deliver pac!ets, which is defined in its routing table. %outing table contains the I/ address of router interfaces that connect one router with other. ,mportant $oints to Remem"er: +ridge A combination of hardware and software that recogni&es the messages on a networ! and passes on those addressed to nodes in other networ!s. *oftware on the userDs computer that allows the user to access the Internet via the service provider, using a graphical interface.

+rowser

3ata communicationsComputer systems that transmit data over systems communications lines such as telephone lines or cables. 3ownload files 6$mail =ile 'ransfer (='/) "ost computer "ub Internet /rotocol %etrieve from another computer and store them. 'he ability to send messages directly from one computer to another. A standard way to transfer copies of files on the Internet. 'he mainframe computer in a ,A7. A device that repeats signals and connects a group of computers to a networ!. A rapidly growing web of networ!s from around the world $$ simply, a networ! of networ!s.

Internet *ervice /rovider/rovides the server computer and the software re)uired (I*/) for you to connect to the Internet.

Listserv

,idely used automatic mailing manager.

Local Area 7etwor! (LA7) A networ! of computers that share hardware, software, and data in small geographic area. .odem 7ewsgroups A device that converts a digital signal to an analog signal and vice versa. An informal networ! of computers that allows the posting and reading of messages in newsgroups that focuses on specific topics. *oftware that enhances the value of a browser by increasing its features. A special computer that directs communications traffic when several networ!s are connected together. %esourceA uni)ue address on the ,,,. 3ocuments that contain te#t, graphics, sound, and;or video and have built$in connections called hyperlin!s. A related collection of ,eb pages. Area 7etwor!A networ! of geographically distant computers and terminals.

/lug$ins %outer Uniform Locator (U%L) ,eb pages ,eb site ,ide (,A7)

,orld ,ide ,eb (,,,) 'he largest and most popular part of the Internet@ it is the graphical part of the Internet.

6#ercise 4F Complete each of the statements below by filling in the blan!s with terms found in the Computer 7etwor! Concepts module.
13 Computer systems that transmit data over communications lines such as

telephone lines or cables are called QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ.

23

A QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a device that converts a digital signal to an analog signal and vice versa. It is short for modulate;demodulate. QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQis a technology that is capable of moving data at 285,999 bps over any modem. of geographically distant computers and terminals is a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ.

33

43 A networ!

53

'o QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ files means to retrieve files from another computer and store them. 'o QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ files means to send files to another computer. A networ! of computers that covers a small geographical area is a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. A special computer that directs communications traffic when several networ!s are connected together is a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. *ending messages QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. directly from one computer to another is

)3 '3

/3

03

113 A QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ is an automatic mailing manager. 113 22. 'he QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a rapidly growing web of networ!s from

around the world $ a networ! of networ!s.

123 28.

'he largest and most QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ.

popular

part

of

the

Internet

is

the

133 24. It is the graphical part of the Internet.QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ are

documents that contain te#t, graphics, sound, and;or video and have built$in connections called QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ.
143 2>.

A related collection of QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. A uni)ue address on QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. the

,eb ,,,

pages is

is called

a a

153 21.

1)3 2H. A QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ is the software on the userDs computer

that allows the user to access the Internet via the service provider using a graphical interface.
1'3 2B. 'he QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ provides the server computer and

the software re)uired for you to connect to the Internet. A-L is an e#ample.
1/3 25. Computers on the Internet have a standard way to transfer copies of files.

'his program is called QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ. 6#ercise ?ey

13 23 33 43 53

3ata Communications *ystems .odem Integrated *ervices 3igital networ!, I*37 ,ide Area 7etwor! (,A7) 3ownload

)3 Upload '3 Local Area 7etwor! (LA7) /3 %outer 03 6$mail 113Listserv 113Internet 123,orld ,ide ,eb (,,,) 133,eb pages 143,eb site 153Uniform %esource Locator (U%L) 1)3+rowser 1'3Internet *ervice /rovider (I*/) 1/3=ile 'ransfer /rotocol (='/)

Some *rou"les-ootung *ips and *e!-niEues

Common *rou"les-ooting Strategies "ere are five common$sense techni)ues and strategies to solve common computer hardware problems. '.) *rial-and-error /ersonal computers are highly modular by design. 'he most powerful trouble$ shooting techni)ue is to isolate the problem to a specific component by trial$and$ error. *wap compatible components and see if the system still wor!s. 'ry different peripherals on different machines and see if the same problem occurs. .a!e one change at a time. '2) H,t=s t-e !a"le1 s-----5H .ore than B9M of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections. 6nsure all cables are connected firmly. I36 and *A'A cables and power cables can often go loose. 6nsure microprocessor, memory modules, and adapters such as video card and sound card are inserted correctly and didnGt Apop$upA during transportation. '4) %on=t "e rustratedC 3onGt be afraid of computer problems. It is often the best opportunity to learn. 'rouble$shooting is part of the fun of owning a computer. Imagine the satisfaction you could get by solving a problem yourself.

-f course the fun could ran out )uic!ly once you are frustrated and have spent too much time on the same problem. If you feel frustrated, itGs time to leave it for a while and go bac! with some new ideas or call someone who can help. %ule of thumbF Eou shouldnGt spend more than three hours on the same problem at one time. 'A) *ake notesC 'a!e notes of what you have done and all the error messages. Eou may need to use them later. =or instance, when you see an unusual blue screen with an error message, copy the entire message onto a piece of paper. In many situations, that message may point to the right direction in getting the problem solved )uic!ly. ':) *ake a lookI ItGs -? to open a computer case and ta!e a loo! inside. 'here is only 1K and 28K 3C voltage supplied to the components outside the power supply. -f course, still always power down and unplug the power cord first. 1 *rou"les-ooting *ips or Cases and $ower Supplies

'he most important part of a computer case is its power supply. Unfortunately, itGs also the part that has most of the problems for a case. 'here are two situations when a new power supply may appear dead on arrival (3-A) when they are actually wor!ing as described belowF .ost cases and power supplies these days are made and tested in China and other Asian countries where 889K electricity is used. 3es!top computer power supplies do not switch the power voltage automatically. If the factory forgets to turn the manual switch bac! to 229K for the 7orth American mar!et after testing, the power supply would appear 36A3 if you use on a 229K$outlet. 'herefore, always check the voltage setting on the back of a new power supply FIRST if it appears dead. 3o not e#pect an A': power supply to wor! by simply plugging the power and turning on the switch. A': power supplies are soft$switched on and off by the motherboard and +I-*. 'herefore, you must plug it to a wor!ing motherboard with a wor!ing microprocessor, memory and video card to wor!. If your computer does not turn on after you turn on the power switch, it may not necessarily mean a dead power supply. The problem might be with the motherboard, microprocessor, memory or video card instead. Eou must e#amine all these components to isolate the problem. V 'he most effective techni)ue to tell if a power supply is causing any problem is to use a different one to see if it solves the problem. Alternatively, you can plug the old power supply to an e#isting, wor!ing computer to see if it wor!s there.

V .ore than B9M of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections. 6nsure that you all the power plugs are connected firmly, including power connections to your motherboard and all the drives. V .a!e sure the cooling fan inside the power supply is wor!ing all the time. %each out to feel the fan behind your case often. Clean the fan if necessary. If your case feels warmer than room temperature, chec! the power supply fan first. 2 *rou"les-ooting *ips or a New Mot-er"oard

.ore than B9M of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections. 6nsure all cables are connected and connected firmly. I36 and floppy ribbon cables and power cables can often go loose. 6nsure microprocessor, memory modules, and adapters such as video card are inserted correctly and didnGt Apop$upA due to vibration. System -as no power at all5 $ower lig-t does not illuminate1 an inside t-e power supply does not turn on1 and indi!ator lig-t on key"oard does not turn on5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 /ower cable is unplugged. 3efective power cable. 3IA 7-*I* Kisually cable. inspect *-LU'I-7 power .a!e sure power cable is securely plugged in. try %eplace cable.

Kisual inspection, another cable.

/ower supply failure.

/ower cable and wall soc!et are -?, but system Contact technical support is still dead.

Use different soc!et, repair =aulty wall outlet@circuit /lug device into soc!et outlet, reset circuit brea!er or brea!er or fuse blown. !now to wor! and test. replace fuse.

System inoperative5 Fey"oard lig-ts are on1 power indi!ator lig-ts are lit1 and -ard drive is spinning5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

'urn off computer. 'a!e Using even pressure on both 6#pansion card is partially cover off system unit. ends of the e#pansion card, dislodged from e#pansion Chec! all e#pansion cards press down firmly on slot on the motherboard. to ensure they are securely e#pansion card. seated in slots. 3efective e#pansion card. 'urn computer off. .a!e sure e#pansion card is %emove an e#pansion secure in e#pansion soc!et. card.

System does not "oot rom -ard disk drive1 !an "e "ooted rom loppy disk drive5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

Chec! cable running form ,hen attempting to run the dis! to dis! controller on the =3I*? utility described in Connector between hard board. .a!e sure both ends the "A%3 3I*? section of drive and system board are securely plugged in@ the manual you get a unplugged. chec! the drive type in the message, I7KALI3 3%IK6 *tandard C.-* *etup (in */6CI=ICA'I-7. your motherboard manual). =ormat hard dis!@ if unable 3amaged "ard 3is! or 3is! to do so, the hard dis! may Contact 'echnical *upport. Controller. be defective. =format the hard drive(*ee +ac!ing up the hard drive is "ard 3is! directory or =A' "A%3 3%IK6 section of e#tremely important. All "ard is scrambled. manual). Copy your bac!up 3is!s are capable of data bac! onto hard drive. brea!ing down at any time.

Error message reading HSEC*OR NO* 9O(N%H or ot-er error messages indi!ation !ertain data is not allowed to "e retrieved5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

+ac! up any salvageable data. 'hen do a low level format, partition, and high Use a file by file bac!up A number of causes could level format of the hard drive( instead of an image bac!up be behind this. see "ard 3is! section of your to bac!up the "ard 3is!. manual for instructions). %e$ install all saved data when completed.

& ter install an expansion !ard 'network !ard1 tape drive !ard1 et!5) t-e system no longer works properly5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

7o power to monitor.

Change the interrupt or %A. address on the new All or part of the system e#pansion card. *ee the may be inoperable. 'he documentation that came new card may wor! but a with the new card in order to mouse or C-. port may change pin settings. many not wor!. e#pansion devices come with proprietary software that will assist you in doing this.

S!reen message says H,nvalid Con igurationH or HCMOS 9ailure5H /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

Incorrect information Chec! the configuration %eview systemGs e)uipment. entered into the program. %eplace any .a!e sure correct configuration (setup) incorrect information. information is in setup. program.

S!reen is "lank5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7

7o power to monitor.

Chec! the power connectors to monitor and to system. /ower connectors may be .a!e sure monitor is loose or not plugged in. connected to display card, change I;- address on networ! card if applicable. *ee instructions above. *ee instructions above.

.onitor not connected to computer. 7etwor! card I;- address conflict.

/%-+A+L6 CAU*6

3IA 7-*I*

*-LU'I-7 %eboot computer. %e$install memory, ma!e sure that all memory modules are installed in correct soc!ets. Chec! (umper and switch settings on display card. *ee display card section for information of settings. Use anti$virus programs (.cAfee;/C$cillin, 6$port, etc) to detect and clean viruses.

.emory problem, display card (umpers not set correctly.

Computer virus.

S!reen goes "lank periodi!ally5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 *creen saver is enabled. 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 3isable screen saver.

Fey"oard ailure5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 %econnect !eyboard. Chec! !eys again, if no improvement, replace !eyboard.

?eyboard is disconnected.

No !olor on s!reen5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 =aulty .onitor. C.-* incorrectly set up. 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 If possible, connect monitor to another system. If no color, replace monitor. Call technical support.

C: drive ailure5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 *6'U/ program does not have correct information. "ard 3rive cable connected properly. not 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 +oot from drive AF using 3-* system dis!. Input correct information to *6'U/ program. Chec! "ard drive cable.

Cannot "oot system a ter installing se!ond -ard drive5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 .aster;*lave (umpers not set correctly. "ard 3rives not compatible ; different manufacturers. 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 *et master ;*lave (umpers correctly. %un *6'U/ program and select correct drive types. Call drive manufactures for compatibility with other drives.

Missing operating system on -ard drive5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 C.-* setup changed. has been 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 %un setup and select correct drive type.

Certain keys do not un!tion5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 ?eys (ammed or defective. 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 %eplace !eyboard.

Fey"oard is lo!ked1 no keys un!tion5 /%-+A+L6 CAU*6 ?eyboard is loc!ed. 3IA 7-*I* *-LU'I-7 Unloc! !eyboard

7
/

*-e purpose o t-e <oot5ini ile in ?indows D$

,indows (specifically 7tldr) uses the +oot.ini file to determine which operating system options to display when the *tartup program is running. +y default, +oot.ini is not flagged as a read$only system file and generally does not re)uire any manual modification. If you must change the contents of this file, use the *ystem tool in Control /anelF 2.Clic! *tart button, clic! Control /anel, and then double$clic! *ystem.

. Clic! the Advanced tab, and then clic! *ettings under *tartup and %ecovery.
0 11

'ypically, the +oot.ini file contains the following dataF

Wboot loaderX timeoutY49 defaultYscsi(9)dis!(9)rdis!(9)partition(2)Zwinnt Woperating systemsX scsi(9)dis!(9)rdis!(9)partition(2)Zwinnt Y A,indows 7'A ;7-36+U -perating *ystem on CFZA
11

CFZ Y A/revious

'he following list describes the meaning of the data in the +oot.ini fileF

[ 'he AtimeoutA variable specifies how long ,indows waits before choosing the default operating system. [ 'he AdefaultA variable specifies the default operating system. [ 'he term Ascsi(9)A means that the primary controller (that is fre)uently the only controller) is responsible for the device. If there are two *C*I controllers, and the dis! is associated with the second controller, the controller is named Ascsi(2)A. If the system uses I36, enhanced I36 (6I36), or 6nhanced *mall 3evice Interface (6*3I) drives, or if the system uses a *C*I adapter that does not have a built$in +I-*, replace AscsiA with AmultiA. [ 'he term Adis!(9)A refers to the *C*I logical unit (LU7) to use. 'his may be a separate dis!, but most *C*I setups have only one LU7 for each *C*I I3. [ 'he term Ardis!(9)A refers to physical dis! 2. [ 'he term Apartition(2)A is the partition on the first drive in the computer. If there are two partitions, partition C is partition(2) and partition 3 is partition(8). [ A multi$boot parameter calls for chec!ing the ,innt folder to start from a specified *C*I controllerGs dis! and partition. [ A;7-36+U A specifies that no debugging information is being monitored. 3ebugging information is useful only for developers. [ Eou can add the @SOS option to display driver names while the drivers are being loaded. +y default, the -* Loader screen only shows progress dots. [ A/revious -perating *ystem on CFZA implies that the Aprevious operating systemA is .*$3-*, because ACFZA is an .*$3-* path.

Edited By
Graison Varghese