H. Heck 2008 Section 2.

1 1
Module 2: Transmission Lines
Topic 1: Theory
OGI EE564
Howard Heck
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 2
Where Are We?
1. Introduction
2. Transmission Line Basics
1. Transmission Line Theory
2. Basic I/O Circuits
3. Reflections
4. Parasitic Discontinuities
5. Modeling, Simulation, & Spice
6. Measurement: Basic Equipment
7. Measurement: Time Domain Reflectometry
3. Analysis Tools
4. Metrics & Methodology
5. Advanced Transmission Lines
6. Multi-Gb/s Signaling
7. Special Topics
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 3
Contents
Propagation Velocity
Characteristic Impedance
Visualizing Transmission Line Behavior
General Circuit Model
Frequency Dependence
Lossless Transmission Lines
Homogeneous and Non-homogeneous Lines
Impedance Formulae for Transmission Line Structures
Summary
References
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 4
Propagation Velocity
Physical example:
Wave propagates in z direction
Circuit:
L = [nH/cm]
C = [pF/cm]
( )
t
I
Ldz dz
z
V
c
c
c
c
=
Total voltage change across
Ldz (use ):
AV L
dI
dt
=
Total current change across
Cdz (use ):
dt
dV
C I = A
( )
t
V
Cdz dz
z
I
c
c
c
c
=
[2.1.1]
[2.1.2]
Simplify [2.1.1] & [2.1.2] to get
the Telegraphists Equations
[2.1.3a]
t
I
L
z
V
c
c
c
c
=
t
V
C
z
I
c
c
c
c
=
[2.1.3b]
I
V
Ldz
Cdz
dz
V+ dz
dV
dz
I + dz
dI
dz
z
x
y
V, I
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 5
Propagation Velocity (2)
Phase velocity definition:
v
LC

1
[2.1.7]
Equation in terms of current:
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
t
I
t
I
LC
z
I
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
v
[2.1.8]
Equate [2.1.4] & [2.1.5]:
[2.1.6]
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
t
V
t
V
LC
z
V
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
v
Differentiate [2.1.3b] by z:
[2.1.5]
z t
I
L
z
V
c c
c
=
c
c
2
2
2
Differentiate [2.1.3a] by t:
[2.1.4]
2
2 2
t
V
C
t z
I
c
c
=
c c
c
Equation [2.1.6] is a form of the wave equation. The solution to
[2.1.6] contains forward and backward traveling wave
components, which travel with a phase velocity.
An alternate treatment of propagation velocity is contained in the appendix.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 6
Characteristic Impedance (Lossless)
The input impedance (Z
1
) is the impedance of the first
inductor (Ldz) in series with the parallel combination
of the impedance of the capacitor (Cdz) and Z
2
.
Ldz
Cdx
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Ldz
Cdz
Ldz
Cdz
dz dz
V
1
V
3
V
2
to
a
f
e
d
c b
dz
dz = segment length
C = capacitance per segment
L = inductance per segment
[2.1.9]
( )
Cdz j Z
Cdz j Z
Ldz j Z
e
e
e
/ 1
/ 1
2
2
1
+
+ =
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 / 1 / 1 / 1
2 2 2 1
= + + lC j Z lC j Z lL j lC j Z Z e e e e
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 7
Characteristic Impedance (Lossless)
Assuming a uniform line, the input impedance should
be the same when looking into node pairs a-d, b-e, c-
f, and so forth. So, Z
2
= Z
1
= Z
0
.
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 / 1 / 1 / 1
0 0 0 0
= + + Cdz j Z Cdz j Z lLdz j Cdz j Z Z e e e e [2.1.10]
Cdz j
Ldz j
dz LZ j Z
Cdz j
Z
Cdz
Ldz
dz LZ j
Cdz j
Z
Z
e
e
e
e e
e
e
e
= = +
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
Allow dz to become very small, causing the frequency
dependent term to drop out:
0
0
2
0
=
C
L
dz LZ j Z e
[2.1.11]
0
2
0
=
C
L
Z
[2.1.12]
Solve for Z
0
:
C
L
Z =
0
[2.1.13]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 8
Visualizing Transmission Line Behavior
Water flow
Potential = Wave height [m]
Flow = Flow rate [liter/sec]
I
I
V
+++++++
- - - - - - -
Transmission Line
Potential = Voltage [V]
Flow = Current [A] =
[C/sec]
Just as the wave front of the water flows in the pipe, the
voltage propagates in the transmission line. The same
holds true for current.
Voltage and current propagate as waves in the transmission line.

h
f
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 9
Visualizing Transmission Line Behavior #2
Extending the analogy
The diameter of the pipe relates the flow rate and height of
the water. This is analogous to electrical impedance.
Ohms law and the characteristic impedance define the
relationship between current and potential in the
transmission line.
Effects of impedance discontinuities
What happens when the water encounters a ledge or a
barrier?
What happens to the current and voltage waves when the
impedance of the transmission line changes?
The answer to this question is a key to understanding
transmission line behavior.
It is useful to try visualize current/voltage wave propagation
on a transmission line system in the same way that we can
for water flow in a pipe.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 10
General Transmission Line Model (No Coupling)
Transmission line parameters are distributed (e.g.
capacitance per unit length).
A transmission line can be modeled using a network
of resistances, inductances, and capacitances, where
the distributed parameters are broken into small
discrete elements.
R L
G C
R L
G C
R L
G C
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 11
General Transmission Line Model #2
Parameter Symbol Units
Conductor Resistance R Ocm
-1
Self Inductance L nHcm
-1
Total Capacitance C pFcm
-1

Dielectric Conductance G O
-1
cm
-1
Parameters
Characteristic Impedance
Z
R j L
G j C
0
=
+
+
e
e
[2.1.14]
Propagation Constant
( )( ) | o e e j C j G L j R + = + + =
[2.1.15]
o = attenuation constant = rate of exponential attenuation
| = phase constant = amount of phase shift per unit length
|
e
v =
p Phase Velocity
[2.1.16]
In general, o and | are frequency dependent.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 12
Frequency Dependence
From [2.1.14] and [2.1.15] note that:
Z
0
and depend on the frequency content of the
signal.
Frequency dependence causes attenuation and edge
rate degradation.
Attenuation
Edge rate degradation
Output signal from lossy
transmission line
Signal at driven end of
transmission line
Output signal from
lossless transmission line
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 13
Frequency Dependence #2
R and G are sometimes negligible, particularly at low
frequencies
Simplifies to the lossless case: no attenuation & no
dispersion
In modules 2 and 3, we will concentrate on lossless
transmission lines.
Modules 5 and 6 will deal with lossy lines.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 14
Lossless Transmission Lines
Quasi-TEM Assumption
The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
the propagation velocity in the transverse planes.
x
z
y
H
E
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 15
Lossless Line Parameters
Lossless line characteristics are frequency independent.
As noted before, Z
0
defines the relationship between
voltage and current for the traveling waves. The units
are ohms [O].
u defines the propagation velocity of the waves. The
units are cm/ns.
Sometimes, we use the propagation delay, t
d
(units are ns/cm).
C
L
Z =
0
v
LC
=
1
Characteristic Impedance
Propagation Velocity
[2.1.17]
[2.1.18]
Lossless transmission lines are characterized by the
following two parameters:
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 16
Lossless Line Equivalent Circuit
The transmission line equivalent circuit shown on the
left is often represented by the coaxial cable symbol.
L
C
L
C
L
C
Z
0
, v , length
Z
0
, v, length
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 17
Homogeneous Media
A homogeneous dielectric medium is uniform in all
directions.
All field lines are contained within the dielectric.
For a transmission line in a homogeneous medium,
the propagation velocity depends only on material
properties:
v
LC
c cm ns
r r r
= = = =
1 1 30
0
c c c
/
[2.1.19]
0
c c c
r
=
Dielectric Permittivity
cm
F
x
14
0
10 854 . 8

= c
Permittivity of free space
cm
H
x
8
0
10 257 . 1

=
Magnetic Permeability
0
~
Permeability of free space
c
r
is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
Note: only c
r

is required to
calculate v.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 18
Non-Homogeneous Media
A non-homogenous medium contains multiple
materials with different dielectric constants.
For a non-homogeneous medium, field lines cut
across the boundaries between dielectric materials.
In this case the propagation velocity depends on the
dielectric constants and the proportions of the
materials. Equation [2.1.19] does not hold:
c
1 1
= =
LC
v
In practice, an effective dielectric constant, c
r,eff
is
often used, which represents an average dielectric
constant.
H. Heck 2008 Section 2.1 19
Some Typical Transmission Line Structures
And useful formulas for Z
0
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 20
r
R
c
r
Coax Cable Impedance
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R/r
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Z
0


[

O
]

c
r
= 1
c
r
= 4
r
c = 3.5
c
r
= 3
c
r
= 2.5
r
c = 2
Z
0
, v , length
Z
0
, u, length
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
R
Z ln
2
1
0
c

t
[2.1.20]
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
R
C
ln
2tc
[2.1.21]
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
R
L ln
2t

[2.1.22]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 21
Centered Stripline Impedance
( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
w
t
w
h
Z
r
8 . 0 67 . 0
4
ln
60
2
0
t c
w
t
h
1
h
2
c
r
Source: Motorola
application note
AN1051.
35 . 0
2
<
t h
w
Valid for
25 . 0
2
<
h
t
0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015
w [in]
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Z
0

[
O
]

0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.025
0.020
h
2
t = 0.0007
c
r
= 4.0
[2.1.23]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 22
Dual Stripline Impedance
w
t
h
2
h
1
c
r
w
t
h
1
Z Y
YZ
Z
+
=
2
0
( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
w
t
w
h
Y
r
8 . 0 67 . 0
8
ln
60
1
t c
( )
( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
w
t
w
h h
Z
r
8 . 0 67 . 0
8
ln
60
2 1
t c
( )
( )
(

+
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

=
t w
t h
t h h
h
Z
r
8 . 0
2 9 . 1
ln
4
1 80
1
2 1
1
0
c
. 1 1
5 . 0 h w h s s
Source: Motorola
application note
AN1051.
OR
0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015
w [in]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Z
0


[

O
]

0.020
0.018
0.015
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.005
2h
1
+ h
2
+ 2t = 0.062
t = 0.0007
c
r
= 4.0
h
1
[2.1.24]
[2.1.27]
[2.1.25]
[2.1.26]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 23
Surface Microstrip Impedance
w
t
h
c
r
c
0
| | O
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
h
Z
eff
4
ln
2
1
0
c

t
t w d 67 . 0 536 . 0 + =
( )
0
67 . 0 475 . 0 c c c + =
r eff
Source: National AN-991.
Source: Motorola MECL
Design Handbook.
| | O
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
t w
h
Z
r
8 . 0
98 . 5
ln
41 . 1
87
0
c
0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015
w [in]
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Z
0

[
O
]

0.025
0.020
0.015
0.012
0.009
0.006
0.004
h
t = 0.0007
c
r
= 4.0
[2.1.28]
[2.1.29]
[2.1.30]
[2.1.31]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 24
Embedded Microstrip
t
h
1
c
r
c
0
w
h
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
t w
h K
Z
r
8 . 0
98 . 5
ln
2 805 . 0
1
0
c
65 60 where s s K
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ '
=
t w
h
Z
r
8 . 0
98 . 5
ln
41 . 1
87
1
0
c
| |
1 2
55 . 1
1
h h
r r
e

= ' c c
67 . 0 475 . 0 017 . 1 + =
r
c t
Or
0.003 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.015
w [in]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Z
0

[
O
]

0.015
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.005
0.003
h
2
- h
1
= 0.002
t= 0.0007
c
r
=4.0
h
1
[2.1.32]
[2.1.33]
[2.1.34]
[2.1.35]
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 25
Summary
System level interconnects can often be treated as
lossless transmission lines.
Transmission lines circuit elements are distributed.
Voltage and current propagate as waves in
transmission lines.
Propagation velocity and characteristic impedance
characterize the behavior of lossless transmission
lines.
Coaxial cables, stripline and microstrip printed
circuits are the typical transmission line structures in
PCs systems.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 26
References
S. Hall, G. Hall, and J. McCall, High Speed Digital System
Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (Wiley Interscience), 2000, 1
st

edition.
H. Johnson and M. Graham, High-Speed Signal Propagation:
Advanced Black Magic, Prentice Hall, 2003, 1
st
edition, ISBN
0-13-084408-X.
W. Dally and J. Poulton, Digital Systems Engineering,
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
R.E. Matick, Transmission Lines for Digital and
Communication Networks, IEEE Press, 1995.
R. Poon, Computer Circuits Electrical Design, Prentice Hall,
1
st
edition, 1995.
H.B.Bakoglu, Circuits, Interconnections, and Packaging for
VLSI, Addison Wesley, 1990, ISBN 0-201-060080-6.
B. Young, Digital Signal Integrity, Prentice-Hall PTR, 2001,
1
st
edition, ISBN 0-13-028904-3.
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 27
Phase Constant (Lossless Case)
Recall the basic voltage divider circuit:
R
1
R
2
V
1
+
V
2
-
I
We want to find the ratio of the input voltage, V
1
, to
the output voltage, V
2
.
Now, we apply it to our transmission line equivalent
circuit...
0
2 1 1
= IR IR V
2 1
1
R R
V
I
+
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
2 1
2
1 2 2
R R
R
V IR V
2
1
2
2 1
2
1
1
R
R
R
R R
V
V
+ =
+
=

T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 28
Phase Constant (Lossless Case) #2
The analogous transmission line circuit looks like this:
The phase shift is the ratio of V
1
to V
2
:
Substitute the expressions for Z
C
, Z
L
, and Z
0
:
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
+
+ = + =
+
=
0 0
0
0 0
0
2
1
1 1
1 1 1
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
V
V
C
L
C
C L
C
L
C
C L
L
Z R =
1
0
0
0 2
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z R
C
C
C
+
= =
Cdz j
Z
C
e
1
=
Ldz j Z
L
e =
C
L
Z =
0
LC dz j LC dz j
Ldz j
Cdz j
Cdz j Ldz j
Z Z
Z
V
V
C
L
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 2
1
1 1
1 1
1 e e
e
e
e e + + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
LC dz j LC dz
V
V
e e + =
2 2
2
1
1
Ldz
Cdz V
1
+
V
2
-
Z
0
I
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 29
Phase Constant (Lossless Case) #3
The amplitude of the phase constant is:
The phase angle, denoted as tan|
l
, is:

Now, we make the assumption that dz is small enough
that the applied frequency, e, is much smaller than the
resonant frequency, , of each subsection, so that:
( ) LC dz LC dz
V
V
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
1 e e + =
LC dz
LC dz
l
2 2
1
tan
e
e
|

=
LC dz
1
1
2 2
<< LC dz e
The phase angle becomes:

LC dz
l
e | = tan
Since , tan|
l
is, very small. Therefore:
LC dz
l l
e | | = ~ tan
1
2 2
<< LC dz e
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

L
i
n
e

T
h
e
o
r
y

E
E

5
6
4

H. Heck 2008
Section 2.1 30
Phase Constant (Lossless Case) #4
The phase shift per unit length is:
|
e
v =
p
|
l
represents the amount by which the input voltage, V
1
,
leads the output voltage, V
2
.
We can simplify the amplitude ratio by using the
condition of small |
l
:
So, there is no decrease in the amplitude of the voltage
along the line, for the lossless case. Only a shift in phase.
From our definition of phase velocity in equation [2.1.16]
we get

LC
dz
l
e
|
| = =
( ) 1 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
~ + = LC dz LC dz
V
V
e e
C
L
p
= =
|
e
v