Marine Hydrodynamics

13.
021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 1
13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 1
Introduction
Marine Hydrodynamics is the branch of Fluid Mechanics that studies the motion of incompressible uids (liquids) and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in them. Marine hydrodynamics is a large and diverse subject and only a limited number of topics can be covered in an introductory course. The topics that will be covered throughout the semester include: Model testing and similitude Interaction between bodies and ideal uids Viscosity and boundary layers Eect of waves on resistance and ship motion
Why study Marine Hydrodynamics?

Studying Marine Hydrodynamics provides a greater understanding of a wide range of phenomena of considerable complexity involving uids. Another benet is that it allows predictions to be made in many areas of practical importance.
Fluids vs. Solids

In brief, Fluid Mechanics studies the kinematics and dynamics of a group of particles without having to study each particle separately. Most of us have taken some courses on solids or related to solids. Even those who havent can get an intuitive feeling about some physical properties of a solid. Thus a comparison of solids and uids will give some guidelines as to which properties can be translated to uids and on what terms. Similarities 1. Fundamental laws of mechanics apply to both uids and solids Conservation of mass Conservation of momentum (Newtons law of motion) Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics)
2. Continuum hypothesis is used for both uids and solids

measured property
particle size local value
length scale variations due to varying flow
variations due to molecular fluctuations
O(10-10 10-8)m
e.g. The smallest measurement scales are in the order of M 105 m VM 1015 m3 . This corresponds to 3 1010 molecules of air in STP or 1013 molecules of water. 2
Dierences 1. Shape Solids have denite shape Fluids have no preferred shape
2. Constitutive laws Constitutive laws are empirical formulas that relate certain unknown variables. The constitutive laws used in 13.021 relate: dynamics (force, stress ...) to kinematics (position, displacement, velocity ...) Dierent constitutive laws are used for solids and dierent for uids. For solids Hookes law is used to relate stress and strain stress = f (strain) force/area relative displacement/length N/m2 [m/m]

For solid mechanics statics is a dominant aspect For uids stress is related to rate of strain stress = f (rate of strain) force/area velocity gradient [1/s] N/m2
Fluids at rest cannot sustain shear force. Fluids have to be moving to be non-trivial.
The branch of Fluid Mechanics that studies uids at rest is referred to as Hydrostatics . (Archimedes, c 200 BC) Hydrostatics study the trivial case where no stresses due to uid motion exist.
Sometimes distinction between liquids and solids is not a sharp one(honey, jelly, paint, . . . ). Fortunately most common uids, such as air and water are very close to ideal uids. 3
Liquids vs. Gasses

Liquids and gasses are two categories of uids. A uid is a body whose particles move easily among themselves. Fluid is a generic term, including liquids and gasses as species. Water, air, and steam are uids. [1] . A liquid is Being in such a state that the component parts move freely among themselves, but do not tend to separate from each other as the particles of gases and vapors do; neither solid nor aeriform.[1] A gas is The state of matter distinguished from the solid and liquid states by relatively low density and viscosity, relatively great expansion and contraction with changes in pressure and temperature, the ability to diuse readily, and the spontaneous tendency to become distributed uniformly throughout any container.[2] In brief, a liquid is generally incompressible and does not ll a volume by expanding into it while on the other hand, a gas is compressible and expands to ll any volume containing it. The science that studies the dynamics of liquids is referred to as Hydrodynamics, while the science that studies the dynamics of gasses is referred to as Aerodynamics. The main dierence between the study of Hydrodynamics and the study of Aerodynamics is the property of incompressibility. In general hydrodynamic ows are treated as incompressible while aerodynamic ows are treated as compressible.
[1] Webster Dictionary [2] American Heritage Dictionary
Why is a liquid ow incompressible? It can be shown that the ratio of the characteristic uid velocities U in a ow to the speed of sound C in the medium gives a measure of compressibility of the medium for that particular ow. This ratio is called the Mach number M . Although the speed of sound in water is of comparable magnitude to the speed of sound in air, the characteristic uid velocities in water are signicantly smaller. Thus in the case of water, the Mach number is very small, indicating that water is virtually incompressible. U : Characteristic uid ow velocity C : Speed of sound in the medium U M : Mach number C The average speed of sound in air and water is: Cair 300m/s = 984f t/sec = 583knots Cwater 1200m/s = 3, 937f t/sec = 2, 333knots Therefore the average ratio of the speed of sound in water to air is because the average water to air density ratio is move in water and therefore, typically, it is:
water air
103 kg/m3
1kg/m3
= 10 , it is harder to
Cwater Cair 3
4. Further on,
Uwater <<Uair giving thus typical values of Mach numbers in the order of: Mair O(1) COMPRESSIBLE ow Mwater <<1 INCOMPRESSIBLE ow Note: An incompressible ow does not mean constant density.
13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 2
Chapter 1 - Basic Equations

1.1 Description of a Flow
To dene a ow we use either the Lagrangian description or the Eulerian description. Lagrangian description: Picture a uid ow where each uid particle caries its own properties such as density, momentum, etc. As the particle advances its properties may change in time. The procedure of describing the entire ow by recording the detailed histories of each uid particle is the Lagrangian description. A neutrally buoyant probe is an example of a Lagrangian measuring device. The particle properties density, velocity, pressure, . . . can be mathematically represented as follows: p (t), vp (t), pp (t), . . . The Lagrangian description is simple to understand: conservation of mass and Newtons laws apply directly to each uid particle . However, it is computationally expensive to keep track of the trajectories of all the uid particles in a ow and therefore the Lagrangian description is used only in some numerical simulations.
p (t ) p
r
Lagrangian description; snapshot
Eulerian description: Rather than following each uid particle we can record the evolution of the ow properties at every point in space as time varies. This is the Eulerian description. It is a eld description. A probe xed in space is an example of an Eulerian measuring device. This means that the ow properties at a specied location depend on the location and on time. For example, the density, velocity, pressure, . . . can be mathematically represented as follows: v (x, t), p(x, t), (x, t), . . . The aforementioned locations are described in coordinate systems. In 13.021 we use the cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems. The Eulerian description is harder to understand: how do we apply the conservation laws? However, it turns out that it is mathematically simpler to apply. For this reason, in Fluid Mechanics we use mainly the Eulerian description.
y
r ( x, t )
( x, t )
x
Eulerian description; Cartesian grid
r r
1.2 Flow visualization - Flow lines

Streamline: A line everywhere tangent to the uid velocity v at a given instant (ow snapshot). It is a strictly Eulerian concept. Streakline: Instantaneous locus of all uid particles that have passed a given point (snapshot of certain uid particles). Pathline: The trajectory of a given particle P in time. The photograph analogy would be a long time exposure of a marked particle. It is a strictly Lagrangian concept.
Can you tell whether any of the following gures ( [1] Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion 1982 (p.52, 100)) show streamlines/streaklines/pathlines?
1.3 Some Quantities of Interest

Einstein Notation Range convention: Whenever a subscript appears only once in a term, the subscript takes all possible values. E.g. in 3D space: xi (i = 1, 2, 3) x1 , x2 , x3
Summation convention: Whenever a subscript appears twice in the same term the repeated index is summed over the index parameter space. E.g. in 3D space: ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (i = 1, 2, 3)
Non repeated subscripts remain xed during the summation. E.g. in 3D space j denotes three equations, one for each i = 1, 2, 3 and j is the dummy ai = xij n index. Note 1: To avoid confusion between xed and repeated indices or dierent repeated indices, etc, no index can be repeated more than twice. Note 2: Number of free indices shows how many quantities are represented by a single term. xi ) , the indices are not summed. Note 3: If the equation looks like this: (ui ) ( Comma convention: A subscript comma followed by an index indicates partial dierentiation with respect to each coordinate. Summation and range conventions apply to indices following a comma as well. E.g. in 3D space: ui u1 u2 u3 ui,i = = + + xi x1 x2 x3 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors Tensors (aij ) magnitude direction orientation density (x, t) velocity v (x, t) /momentum momentum ux pressure p (x, t) mass ux stress ij (x, t) Scalars magnitude Vectors (ai xi ) magnitude direction
1.4 Concept and Consequences of Continuous Flow

For a uid ow to be continuous, we require that the velocity v (x, t) be a nite and continuous function of x and t. v are nite but not necessarily continuous. i.e. v and t v Since v and t < , there is no innite acceleration i.e. no innite forces , which is physically consistent. 1.4.1 Consequences of Continuous Flow Material volume remains material. No segment of uid can be joined or broken apart. Material surface remains material. The interface between two material volumes always exists. Material line remains material. The interface of two material surfaces always exists.
Material surface fluid a fluid b
Material neighbors remain neighbors. To prove this mathematically, we must prove that, given two particles, the distance between them at time t is small, and the distance between them at time t + t is still small.
Assumptions At time t, assume a continuous ow ( v, v << ) with uid velocity t v (x, t). Two arbitrary particles are located at x and x + x(t), respectively. Result If x(t) x 0 then x(t + T ) 0, for all subsequent times t + T . Proof
v x
v x v v x + x
v r v x +{ ( x )t}
v x( t + t )
v v x + x + r v v r v {( ( x ) + x ( x ) )t}
After a small time t: The particle initially located at x will have travelled a distance v (x)t and at time t + t will be located at x + {v (x)t}. The particle initially located at x+x will have travelled a distance (v (x) + x v (x)) t. (Show this using Taylor Series Expansion about(x, t)). Therefore after a small time t this particle will be located at x + x + {(v (x) + x v (x))t}. The dierence in position x(t + t) between the two particles after a small time t will be: x(t + t) = x + x + {(v (x) + x v (x))t} (x + {v (x)t}) x(t + t) = x + (x v (x))t x Therefore x(t + t) x because v is nite (from continuous ow assumption). Thus, if x 0 , then x(t + t) 0. In fact, for any subsequent time t + T : t+T x vdt x, x(t + T ) x +
t
and x(t + T ) 0 as x 0. In other words the particles will never be an innite distance apart. Thus, if the ow is continuous two particles that are neighbors will always remain neighbors. 6
1.5 Material/Substantial/Total Time Derivative: D/Dt

A material derivative is the time derivative rate of change of a property following a uid particle p. The material derivative is a Lagrangian concept. By expressing the material derivative in terms of Eulerian quantities we will be able to apply the conservation laws in the Eulerian reference frame. Consider an Eulerian quantity f (x, t). The time rate of change of f as experienced by a particle p travelling with velocity vp is the substantial derivative of f and is given by:
r r f ( x p + pt , t + t ) r r x p (t ) + pt
f ( xp + vp t, t + t) f ( xp , t) Df ( xp (t), t) = lim (1) t0 Dt t
r f (xp , t) particle r x p (t )
Performing a Taylor Series Expansion about ( xp , t) and taking into account that vp t = x, we obtain: f (x, t) vp t, t + t) = f (x, t) + t + x f (x, t) + O( 2 )(higher order terms)(2) f ( xp + t From Eq.(1, 2) we see that the substantial derivative of f as experienced by a particle travelling with vp is given by: Df f = + vp f Dt t The generalized notation: D + vp Dt t Lagrangian Eulerian
Example 1: Material derivative of a uid property G(x, t) as experienced by a uid particle. Let p denote a uid particle. A uid particle is always travelling with the local uid velocity vp (t) = v (xp , t). The material derivative of a uid property G(x, t) as experienced by this uid particle is given by: DG Dt Lagragian rate of change = G t Eulerian rate of change + v G Convective rate of change
Example 2: Material derivative of the uid velocity v (x, t) as experienced by a uid particle. This is the Lagrangian acceleration of a particle and is the acceleration that appears in Newtons laws. It is therefore evident that its Eulerian representation will be used in the Eulerian reference frame. Let p denote a uid particle. A uid particle is always travelling with the local uid (x,t) as experienced by this uid velocity vp (t) = v (xp , t). The Lagrangian acceleration DvDt particle is given by: Dv Dt Lagragian acceleration = v t Eulerian acceleration + v v Convective acceleration
1.6 Dierence Between Lagrangian Time Derivative and Eulerian Time Derivative
Example 1: Consider an Eulerian quantity, temperature, in a room at points A and B where the temperature is dierent at each point.
T t
Point B: 1o
Point A: 10o
Point C:
At a xed in space point C, the temperature rate of change is derivative.
T t
which is an Eulerian time
Example 2: Consider the same example as above: an Eulerian quantity, temperature, in a room at points A and B where the temperature varies with time.
DT
Point A: 10o
T t
Dt
v + fly T
Point B: 1 o
Following a y from point A to B, the Lagrangian time derivative would need to include = T + vf ly T the temperature gradient as both time and position changes: DT Dt t
1.6.1 Concept of a Steady Flow ( t 0) A steady ow is a strictly Eulerian concept.
Assume a steady ow where the ow is observed from a xed position. This is like watching D = 0 . Be careful not to confuse this with Dt which is more like from a river bank, i.e. t D following a twig in the water. Note that Dt = 0 does not mean steady since the ow could speed up at some points and slow down at others.
=0 t
1.6.2 Concept of an Incompressible Flow ( D 0) Dt An incompressible ow is a strictly Lagrangian concept. Assume a ow where the density of each uid particle is constant in time. Be careful not to confuse this with = 0, which means that the density at a particular point in the ow t is constant and would allow particles to change density as they ow from point to point. Also, do not confuse this with = const , which for example does not allow a ow of two incompressible uids.
10
1.7 Stress Tensor

1.7.1 Stress Tensor ij The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a uid needs nine components to be completely specied, since each component of the stress must be dened not only by the direction in which it acts but also the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. The rst index i species the direction in which the stress component acts, and the second index j identies the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. Therefore, the ith component of the force acting on a surface whose outward normal points in the j th direction is ij .
X2
22 12 32 21 23 11 13 33 31
X1
X3
Figure 1: Shear stresses on an innitesimal cube whose surfaces are parallel to the coordinate
system.
X2
2
A1
A3 Q
3
X1
R area A0 X3 A2
Figure 2: Innitesimal body with surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any of the Cartesian
axis.
Consider an innitesimal body at rest with a surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any = n1 x of the Cartesian axis. The unit normal vector to the surface PQR is n 1 + n2 x 2 + n3 x 3 . The area of the surface = A0 , and the area of each surface perpendicular to Xi is Ai = A0 ni , for i = 1, 2, 3. Newtons law: Fi = (volume force)i for i = 1, 2, 3
on all 4 faces
Note: If is the typical dimension of the body : surface forces 2 : volume forces 3 An example of surface forces is the shear force and an example of volumetric forces is the gravity force. At equilibrium, the surface forces and volumetric forces are in balance. As the body gets smaller, the mass of the body goes to zero, which makes the volumetric forces equal to zero and leaving the sum of the surface forces equal zero. So, as 0, all4f aces Fi = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3 and i A0 = i1 A1 + i2 A2 + i3 A3 = ij Aj . But the area of each surface to Xi is Ai = A0 ni . Therefore i A0 = ij Aj = ij (A0 nj ), where ij Aj is the notation (represents the sum of all components). Thus i = ij nj for i = 1, 2, 3, where i is the component of stress in the ith direction on a surface with a normal n . We call i the stress vector and we call ij the stress matrix or tensor.
1.7.2 Example: Pascals Law for Hydrostatics In a static uid, the stress vector cannot be dierent for dierent directions of the surface normal since there is no preferred direction in the uid. Therefore, at any point in the uid, the stress vector must have the same direction as the normal vector n and the same magnitude for all directions of n .
no summation Pascals Law for hydrostatics: ij = (pi ) (ij ) 0 p1 0 = 0 p2 0 0 0 p3 where pi is the pressure acting perpendicular to the ith surface. If p0 is the pressure acting perpendicular to the surface PQR, then i = ni p0 , but: i = ij nj = (pi )ij nj = (pi )(ni ) Therefore po = pi , i = 1, 2, 3 and n is arbitrary.
1.7.3 Symmetry of the Stress Tensor To prove the symmetry of the stress tensor we follow the steps:
j
ij
ji
ji
o
ij
Figure 3: Material element under tangential stress. 1. The of surface forces = body forces + mass acceleration. Assume no symmetry. Balance of the forces in the ith direction gives: ( )(ij )T OP ( )(ij )BOT T OM = O( 2 ), since surface forces are 2 , where the O( 2 ) terms include the body forces per unit depth. Then, as 0, (ij )T OP = (ij )BOT T OM . 2. The of surface torque = body moment + angular acceleration. Assume no symmetry. Balance of moments about o gives: (ji ) (ij ) = O( 3 ), since the body moment is proportional to 3 . As 0 , ij = ji .
1.8 Mass and Momentum Conservation

Consider a material volume m and recall that a material volume is a xed mass of material. A material volume always encloses the same uid particles despite a change in size, position, volume or surface area over time. 1.8.1 Mass Conservation The mass inside the material volume is: M (m ) =
m(t)
Sm(t)
m ( t )
Figure 4: Material volume m (t) with surface Sm (t). Therefore the time rate of increase of mass inside the material volume is: d d M (m ) = dt dt d = 0,
m (t)
which is the integral form of mass conservation for the material volume m .
1.8.2 Momentum Conservation The uid velocity inside the material volume in the ith direction is denoted as ui . Linear momentum of the material volume in the ith direction is ui d
m(t)
Newtons law of motion: The time rate of change of momentum of the uid in the material control volume must equal the sum of all the forces acting on the uid in that volume. Thus: d (momentum)i =(body force)i + (surface force)i dt d ui d = Fi d + ij nj dS dt
m (t)
m (t)
Sm (t)
Divergence Theorems
For vectors:
vd = v.n dS
vj xj
vj nj
For tensors:
ij d = ij nj dS xj
S
Using the divergence theorems we obtain d dt ij xj
ui d =
m(t) m(t)
Fi +
which is the integral form of momentum conservation for the material volume m .
1.8.3 Kinematic Transport Theorems Consider a ow through some moving control volume (t) during a small time interval t. Let f (x, t) be any (Eulerian) uid property per unit volume of uid (e.g. mass, momentum, etc.). Consider the integral I (t): I (t) =
(t)
f (x, t) d
According to the denition of the derivative, we can write d I (t + t) I (t) I (t) = lim t0 dt t 1 f (x, t + t)d = lim t0 t
(t+t)
(t)
f (x, t)d
S(t+t)
( t + t )
( t )
S(t)
Figure 5: Control volume and its bounding surface S at instants t and t + t.
Next, we consider the steps 1. Taylor series expansion of f (x, t + t) about (x, t). f (x, t + t) = f (x, t) + t 2.
(t+t)
f (x, t) + O((t)2 ) t
d =
(t)
d +
d [Un (x, t)t] dS and Un (x, t) is the normal velocity of S (t).
where,
d =
S (t)
S(t+t)
S(t)
v U n ( x, t )t + O( t ) 2
dS
Figure 6: Element of the surface S at instants t and t + t. Putting everything together: d 1 I (t) = lim t 0 dt t (1)
df + t
(t) (t)
f + t t
dSUn f
S (t) (t)
df + O(t)2
From Equation (1) we obtain the Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT), which is equivalent to Leibnitz rule in 3D. d dt f (x, t) d + t
f (x, t)d =
(t) (t)
f (x, t)Un (x, t)dS

S (t)
For the special case that the control volume is a material volume it is (t) = m (t) and Un = vn , where v is the uid particle velocity. The Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT), then takes the form d dt f (x, t)d =
m (t) m (t)
f (x, t) d + t
f (x, t)(v n )dS

f (vi ni ) (Einstein Notation)
Sm (t)
Using the divergence theorem, d = n dS
xi i
i ni
we obtain the 1st Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT) d dt f (x, t) + (f v ) d, t

(f v i ) xi
f (x, t) d =
m (t) m (t)
where f is some uid property per unit volume.
1.8.4 Continuity Equation for Incompressible Flow Dierential form of conservation of mass for all uids Let the uid property per unit volume that appears in the 1st KTT be mass per unit volume ( f = ): 0 =
conservation of mass
d dt
d
m (t)
1st
=
KTT m (t)
+ (v ) d t
But since m is arbitrary the integrand must be 0 everywhere. Therefore: + (v ) = 0 t + [v + v ] = 0 t

D Dt
Leading to the dierential form of Conservation of Mass: D + v = 0 Dt
10
Continuity equation Conservation of mass for incompressible ow In general it is = (p, T, . . .), but we consider the special case of an incompressible ow, i.e. D = 0 (Lecture 2). Dt Note: For a ow to be incompressible, the density of the entire ow need not be constant ((x, t) = const). As an example consider a ow of more than one incompressible uids, like water and oil, as illustrated in the picture below.
Constant
fluid particle 2 fluid particle 1 oil water
Figure 7: Interface of two uids (oil-water) Since for incompressible ows D = 0, substituting into the dierential form of the Dt conservation of mass we obtain the Continuity Equation: v vi xi = 0
rate of volume dilatation
11
1.8.5 Eulers Equation (Dierential Form of Conservation of Momentum) 2nd Kinematic Transport Theorem 1st KTT + dierential form of conservation of mass for all uids. If G = uid property per unit mass, then G = uid property per unit volume d dt (G) + (Gv ) d t G + v t
=0 from mass conservation
Gd
m (t)
1st KT T
m (t)
G + + v G t
= DG Dt
=
m (t)
The 2nd Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT) follows: d dt Gd =

m m
DG d Dt
Note: The 2nd KTT is obtained from the 1st KTT (mathematical identity) and the only assumption used is that mass is conserved.
12
Eulers Equation We consider G as the ith momentum per unit mass (vi ). Then, Fi +
m (t)
ij xj
=
conservation of momentum
d dt
vi d
m (t)
2nd
=
KTT m (t)
Dvi d Dt
But m (t) is an arbitrary material volume, therefore the integral identity gives Eulers equation:
vi Dvi ij = Fi + + v vi Dt t xj
vj xi
v j
And in vector tensor form: Dv Dt v + v v t =F +
13
13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 4
Introduction
Governing Equations so far: Knowns density (x, t) Equations Continuity
(conservation of mass)
# 1
Unknowns velocities vi (x, t)
# 3
body force
Fi
Euler
(conservation of momentum)
3 stresses
ij (x, t)
4 3 of the 9 unknowns of the stress tensor are eliminated by symmetry
The number of unknowns (9) is > than the number of equations (4), i.e. we dont have closure. We need constitutive laws to relate the kinematics vi to the dynamics ij .
1.9 Newtonian Fluids

1. Consider a uid at rest (vi 0). Then according to Pascals Law: ij = ps ij (Pascals Law) ps 0 0 = 0 ps 0 0 0 ps where ps is the hydrostatic pressure and ij is the Kroenecker delta function, equal to 1 if i = j and 0 if i = j . 2. Consider a uid in motion. The uid stress is dened as: ij pij
isotropic components on diagonal
ij
all non-isotropic components both on/o diagonal
where p is the thermodynamic pressure and ij are the dynamic stresses. It should be emphasized that pij includes all the isotropic components of the stress tensor on the diagonal, while ij represents all the non-isotropic components, which may or may not be on the diagonal (shear and normal stresses). The dynamic stresses ij is related to the velocity gradients by empirical relations. Experiments with a wide class of Newtonian uids showed that the dynamic stresses are proportional to the rate of strain.
ij
Newtonian Fluid Fluid
u k x m
ij linear function of the t
( rate of strain X x = X x t
u
velocity gradient) uk xm
i.e. ij
ijkm
34 =81 empirical coecients (constants for Newtonian uids)
uk xm
i, j, k, m = 1, 2, 3
For isotropic uids, this reduces to: ij = ui uj + xi xj + ul , xl

v
The uid properties in the previous relation are: - (coecient of) dynamic viscosity. - bulk elasticity, second coecient of viscosity For incompressible ow, we have shown that v = ui = 0. xi Therefore, for an incompressible, isotropic, Newtonian uid the dynamic or viscous ij are expressed as: stresses ij = ui uj + xi xj
1.9.1 Discussion on viscous stresses ij 1. Verify that for v = 0 we recover Pascals law. ui Proof: v = 0 =0 ij = 0 ij = pij + 0 hydrostatic conditions xj ji . 2. Verify that ij = ui uj Proof: ij = + xi xj
= ji symmetry of stress tensor
3. When ij , i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress and is given by: ii = 2 ui xi
The normal viscous stresses ii are the diagonal terms of the viscous stress tensor. The ii in general are not isotropic. 4. When ij , i = j the viscous stress is a shear stress and is given by: ij = ui uj + xi xj
The shear viscous stresses ij , i = j are the o diagonal terms of the viscous stress tensor. u 2 x 5. A 2D viscous tensor has the form: u v + y x u v + y x v 2 y
6. Notation 1: The viscous stresses ij are often referred to (somewhat confusingly) as shear stresses, despite the fact that when i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress. 7. Notation 2: Often ij ij and ij is used to denote
ui xj
uj xi
1.10 Navier-Stokes equations(for Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid)

Equations Continuity Euler Newtonian uid symmetry # 1 3 6 10 closure To form the Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids, we rst substitute the equation for the stress tensor for a Newtonian uid, i.e. ij ij = pij + into Eulers equation: Dui ij = Fi + Dt xj p ui uj + + = Fi xi xj xj xi 2 p ui uj + + = Fi 2 xi xj xi xj
Continuity = 0
Unknowns velocities vi (x, t) stresses ij (x, t) pressure p(x, t)
# 3 6 1 10
=
Newtonian Fluid
pij +
ui uj + xj xi
Therefore the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, Newtonian uid in cartesian coordinates are given as: ui ui 1 p 2 ui 1 Dui = + uj = + 2 + Fi xj Dt t xi xj Dv v 1 1 = + v v = p + 2 v + F Dt t where

Tensor form Vector form
denoted as the kinematic viscosity [ L2 /T ]. 5
Unknowns and governing equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids Equations Continuity Navier-Stokes # 1 3 4 Unknowns pressure p(x, t) velocities vi (x, t) # 1 3 4
Values of constants (density, dynamic and kinematic viscosity) used in 13.021 water density dynamic viscosity kinematic viscosity 103 103 106 air 1 102 105 units [kg/m3 ] [kg/ms] [m2 /s]
Notation 1: The Continuity and the Navier-Stokes equations form the Governing Equations for incompressible, Newtonian uids. Continuity + Navier-Stokes = Governing Equations
1 p 1 i Notation 2: Alternatively, we refer to each equation Dv = + 2 v i + Fi xi Dt th as the i Momentum Equation. In this case, the Continuity and the Momentum equations form the Navier-Stokes System of Equations.
Continuity + Momentum Equations = Navier-Stokes System of Equations Both notations are equivalent, and in this text it will be made clear from the context when the term Navier-Stokes refers to the Momentum Equations or to the System of Governing Equations.
1.11 Boundary Conditions

In the previous paragraphs we formulated the governing equations that describe the ow of an incompressible, Newtonian uid. The governing equations (N-S) are a system of partial dierential equations (PDEs). This 4 4 system of equations describes all the incompressible ows, from rain droplets to surface waves. One of the reasons this system of equations provides such dierent solutions lies on the variety of the imposed boundary conditions. To complete the description of this problem it is imperative that we specify appropriate boundary conditions. For the N-S equations we need to specify Kinematic Boundary Conditions and Dynamic Boundary Conditions. 1. Kinematic Boundary Conditions specify the boundary kinematics (position, velocity, . . . ). On an impermeable solid boundary, velocity of the uid = velocity of the body. i.e. velocity continuity. v = u no-slip + no-ux boundary condition where v is the uid velocity at the body and u is the body surface velocity vn =un = u t vt no ux continuous ow no slip nite shear stress
v v v u
2. Dynamic Boundary Conditions specify the boundary dynamics ( pressure, sheer stress, . . . ).
Stress continuity:
p = p + p interface ij = ij + ij , interface
The most common example of interfacial stress is surface tension.
p'
p
ij ' ij
p interface, ij interface
1.12 Surface Tension

Notation: [Tension force / Length] [Surface energy / Area]. Surface tension is due to the intermolecular attraction forces in the uid. At the interface of two uids, surface tension implies in a pressure jump across the interface. gives rise to p across an interface. For a water/air interface: = 0.07 N/m. This is a function of temperature, impurities etc. . . 2D Example: d d cos p Rd = 2sin 2 d 2 2 2
1
p =
d 2
Higher curvature implies in higher pressure jump at the interface.
p p=p+p d/2
3D Example: Compound curvature p = 1 1 + R1 R2
where R1 and R2 are the principle radii of curvature.
1.13 Body Forces Gravity

Conservative forces F = for some , where is the force potential. F dx = 0 or
2 1
F dx =
2 1
dx = (x1 ) (x2 )
. A special case of a conservative force is gravity F = gk In this case the gravitational potential is given by g = gz . Therefore: F = (g ) = (gz ) = ps
hydrostatic pressure ps Substitute in Navier-Stokes equation Dv = p + Dt + 2 v
F
body force
= p + (gz ) + 2 v Dene: total pressure hydrostatic pressure + hydrodynamic pressure p = ps + pd p = gz + pd = pd = p + gz Re-write Navier-Stokes: Dv = Dt + 2 v
Therefore:
p + gz p d = p + gz
Dv = pd + 2 v Dt
Presence of gravity body force is equivalent to replacing the total pressure by a dynamic pressure (pd = p ps = p + gz ) in the Navier-Stokes(N-S) equation. Solve the N-S equation with pd . To calculate the total pressure p simply add back the hydrostatic component p = pd + ps = pd gz .
10
Chapter 2 - Similitude
(Keyword: EQUAL RATIOS)
Similitude: Similarity of behavior for dierent systems with equal similarity parameters.
Prototype (real world)
Model (physical/ analytical/ numerical . . . experiments) Similarity Parameters (SPs) Length ratios, angles Displacement ratios, velocity ratios Force ratios, stress ratios, pressure ratios ,
Similitude Geometric Similitude Kinematic Similitude Dynamic Similitude . . . Internal Constitution Similitude Boundary Condition Similitude . . .
For similitude we require that the similarity parameters SPs (eg. angles, length ratios, velocity ratios, etc) are equal for the model and the real world. Example 1 Two similar triangles have equal angles or equal length ratios. In this case the two triangles have geometric similitude. Example 2 For the ow around a model ship to be similar to the ow around the prototype ship, both model and prototype need to have equal angles and equal length and force ratios. In this case the model and the prototype have geometric and dynamic similitude. 1
2.1 Dimensional Analysis (DA) to Obtain SPs

2.1.1 Buckinghams theory Reduce number of variables derive dimensionally homogeneous relationships. 1. Specify (all) the (say N) relevant variables (dependent or independent): x1 , x2 , . . . xN e.g. time, force, uid density, distance. . . We want to relate the xi s to each other I ( x1 , x2 , . . . xN ) = 0 2. Identify (all) the (say P) relevant basic physical units (dimensions) e.g. M,L,T (P = 3) [temperature, charge, . . . ].
N 1 2 3. Let = x 1 x2 . . . xN be a dimensionless quantity formed from the xi s. Suppose
xi = Ci M mi Lli T ti , i = 1, 2, . . . , N where the Ci are dimensionless constants. For example, if x1 = KE = 1 MV 2 = 2 1 M 1 L2 T 2 (kinetic energy), we have that C1 = 1 , m1 = 1, l1 = 2, t1 = 2. Then 2 2
N 1 2 = (C1 C2 . . . CN )M 1 m1 +2 m2 +...+N mN L1 l1 +2 l2 +...+N lN T 1 t1 +2 t2 +...+N tN
For to be dimensionless, we require N i mi = 0 i li = 0 P aP N system of Linear Equations i ti = 0 notation Since (1) is homogeneous, it always has a trivial solution, i 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , N (i.e. is constant) There are 2 possibilities: (a) (1) has no nontrivial solution (only solution is = constant, i.e. independent of xi s), which implies that the N variable xi , i = 1, 2, . . . , N are Dimensionally Independent (DI), i.e. they are unrelated and irrelevant to the problem. (b) (1) has J (J > 0) nontrivial solutions, 1 , 2, . . . , J . In general, J < N , in fact, J = N K where K is the rank or dimension of the system of equations (1). 2
(1)
2.1.2 Model Law Instead of relating the N xi s by I (x1 , x2 , . . . xN ) = 0, relate the J s by F (1 , 2 , . . . J ) = 0, where J = N K < N For similitude, we require (model )j = (prototype )j where j = 1, 2, . . . , J. If 2 problems have all the same j s, they have similitude (in the j senses), so s serve as similarity parameters. Note: If is dimensionless, so is const, const , 1/ , etc. . . If 1 , 2 are dimensionless, so is 1 2 ,
const1 1 , 1 2 const2 2 , etc. . .
In general, we want the set (not unique) of independent j s, for e.g., 1 , 2 , 3 or 1 , 1 2 , 3 , but not 1 , 2 , 1 2 . Example: Force on a smooth circular cylinder in steady, incompressible ow Application of Buckinghams Theory.
F U ,
Figure 1: Force on a smooth circular cylinder in steady incompressible uid (no gravity) A Fluid Mechanician found that the relevant dimensional quantities required to evaluate the force F on the cylinder from the uid are: the diameter of the cylinder D, the uid velocity U , the uid density and the kinematic viscosity of the uid . Evaluate the non-dimensional independent parameters that describe this problem.
xi : F, U, D, , N = 5 xi = ci M mi Lli T ti P = 3 N =5 P = 3 mi li ti F 1 1 -2 U D 0 0 1 1 -1 0 1 0 -3 2 0 -1
= F 1 U 2 D3 4 5 For to be non-dimensional, the set of equations i mi =0 i li =0 i ti =0 has to be satised. The system of equations above after we substitute the values for the mi s, li s and ti s assume the form: 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 2 0 3 = 2 1 0 0 1 4 0 5 The rank of this system is K = 3, so we have j = 2 nontrivial solutions. Two families of solutions for i for each xed pair of (4 , 5 ), exists a unique solution for (1 , 2 , 3 ). We consider the pairs (4 = 1, 5 = 0) and (4 = 0, 5 = 1), all other cases are linear combinations of these two.
1. Pair 4 = 1 and 5 = 0. 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 = 4 2 0 0 1 3 which has solution 1 1 2 = 2 2 3 1 = F 1 U 2 D3 4 5 =

1 Conventionally, 1 21 and 1 =
1 U 2 D2 2
U 2 D2 F Cd , which is the Drag coecient.
2. Pair 4 = 0 and 5 = 1. 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 = 2 1 0 0 1 3 1 0 2 = 1 3 1 2 = F 1 U 2 D3 4 5 =
1 Conventionally, 2 2 , 2 = UD
which has solution
UD Re , which is the Reynolds number.
Therefore, we can write the following equivalent expressions for the non-dimensional independent parameters that describe this problem: F (1 , 2 ) = 0 F (Cd , Re ) = 0 F UD F( , )=0 2 2 1/2 U D or or or 1 = f (2 ) Cd = f (Re ) F UD = f( ) 2 2 1/2 U D
Appendix A
Dimensions of some uid properties
Quantities Angle Length Area Volume Time Velocity Acceleration Angular velocity Density Momentum Volume ow rate Mass ow rate Pressure Stress Surface tension Force Moment Energy Power Dynamic viscosity L A t V V L Q Q p F M E P
Dimensions (M LT ) none (M 0 L0 T 0 ) L L2 L3 T LT 1 LT 2 T 1 M L3 M LT 1 L3 T 1 M T 1 M L1 T 2 M L1 T 2 M T 2 M LT 2 M L 2 T 2 M L 2 T 2 M L 2 T 3 M L1 T 1 L2 T 1
Kinematic viscosity
2.2 Similarity Parameters from Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions

In this paragraph we will see how we can specify the SPs for a problem that is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations. The SPs are obtained by scaling, non-dimensionalizing and normalizing the governing equations and boundary conditions. 1. Scaling First step is to identify the characteristic scales of the problem. For example: Assume a ow where the velocity magnitude at any point in space or time |v (x, t)| is about equal to a velocity U , i.e. |v (x, t)| = U , where is such that 0 O(1). Then U can be chosen to be the characteristic velocity of the ow and any velocity v can be written as: v = Uv where it is evident that v is: (a) dimensionless (no units), and (b) normalized (|v | O(1)). Similarly we can specify characteristic length, time, pressure etc scales: Characteristic scale Dimensionless and normalized quantity Velocity Length Time Pressure U L T po pv v x t p 1 Dimensional quantity in terms of characteristic scale v = Uv x = Lx t = Tt p = (po pv )p
2. Non-dimensionalizing and normalizing the governing equations and boundary conditions Substitute the dimensional quantities with their non-dimensional expressions (eg. substitute v with U v , x with Lx , etc) into the governing equations, and boundary conditions. The linearly independent, non-dimensional ratios between the characteristic quantities (eg. U , L, T , po pv ) are the SPs. (a) Substitute into the Continuity equation (incompressible ow) v = 0 U v = 0 L v = 0 Where all the () quantities are dimensionless and normalized (i.e., O(1)), v for example, x = O(1).
(b) Substitute into the Navier-Stokes (momentum) equations v 1 + (v ) v = p + 2 v g j t U v U2 + (v ) v L T t

divide through by
U2 L ,
p o pv U p + 2 ( )2 v g j 2 L U
i.e., order of magnitude of the convective inertia term
L v + (v )v U T t
p 2 gL o pv v j ( p ) + U 2 UL U2
The coecients ( ) are SPs.
Since all the dimensionless and normalized terms () are of O(1), the SPs ( ) measure the relative importance of each term compared to the convective inertia. Namely,
v L Eulerian inertia t S = Strouhal number (v )v UT convective inertia
The Strouhal number S is a measure of transient behavior. For example assume a ship of length L that has been travelling with velocity U for time T . If the T is much larger than the time required to travel a ship length, then we can assume that the ship has reached a steady-state. L << T U
L = S << 1 UT v ignore assume steady-state t po p v = cavitation number. 1 U 2 2 The cavitation number is a measure of the likelihood of cavitation. If >> 1, no cavitation. If cavitation is not a concern we can choose po as a characteristic pressure scale, and non-dimensionalize the pressure p as p = po p po 1 U 2 2 Eu = Euler number pressure force inertia force inertia force viscous force
UL Re = Reynolds number If Re >> 1, ignore viscosity.
1 U U2 2 inertia force = Fr = Froude number gravity force gL gL 3
(c) Substitute into the kinematic boundary conditions u = Uboundary u = Uboundary
(d) Substitute into the dynamic boundary conditions 1 1 p = pa + p = pa + + R R 1 2 p = pa + (po pv ) L

p
R=LR = p=(po pv )p
1 1 + R1 R2
2 / = pa + U 2L
U 2L inertial forces We = Weber number surface tension forces / Some SPs used in hydrodynamics (the table is not exhaustive): SP Reynolds number Froude number Euler number Re Fr Eu
UL U2 gL
Denition inertia viscous inertia gravity pressure inertia pressure inertia Eulerian inertia convective inertia inertia surface tension
po 1 U 2 2 po pv 1 U 2 2 L UT U 2L /
Cavitation number Strouhal number Weber number S We
2.3 Similarity Parameters from Physical Arguments

Alternatively, we can obtain the same SPs by taking the dimensionless ratios of signicant ow quantities. Physical arguments are used to identify the signicant ow quantities. Here we obtain SPs from force ratios. We rst identify the types of dominant forces acting on the uid particles. The SPs are merely the ratios of those forces. 1. Identify the type of forces that act on a uid particle: 2 3 = U 2 L2 1.1 Inertial forces mass acceleration (L ) U L u 1.2 Viscous forces area y
shear stress
U 2 L (L ) = U L (L3 )g
1.3 Gravitational forces mass gravity 1.4 Pressure forces (po pv )L2
2. For similar streamlines, particles must be acted on forces whose resultants are in the same direction at geosimilar points. Therefore, the following force ratios must be equal: inertia U 2 L2 UL = Re viscous U L inertia gravity 1/2 U 2 L2 gL3 1/2 U Fr = gL
1
2
inertia pressure
(po pv )L2 p o pv = 1 2 1 2 2 U L U 2 2
2.4 Importance of SPs

The SPs indicate whether dierent systems have similar ow properties. The SPs provide guidance in approximating complex physical problems. Example A hydrofoil of length L is submerged in a known uid (density , kinematic viscosity ). Given that the hydrofoil is travelling with velocity U and the gravitational acceleration is g , determine the hydrodynamic force F on the hydrofoil.
F
g L
SPs for this problem: S= L , UT = p o pv , 1 U 2 2 U 2L We = , /
,
U
U Fr = , gL
Re =
UL
We dene the dimensionless force coecient: CF F

1 U 2 L2 2
The force coecient must depend on the other SPs: 1 CF = CF (S, , We , Fr , Re ) or CF = CF S, 1 , We1 , Fr , Re Procedure We will rst study under what conditions each SP 0. We will estimate CF for the case that all of the SPs 0.
1. Signicance of the Strouhal number S = L/U T .

1 ) xed. Change S keeping all other SPs ( 1 , We1 , Fr , Re
CF
transient Steady-State
S-1 = UT / L
S~O(1) S~O( 1)
Exact position of the cut depends on the problem and the quantities of interest.
For S << 1, assume steady-state: t =0 For S >> 1, unsteady eect is dominant.
For example, for the case L = 10m and U = 10m/s we can neglect the unsteady eects when: S << 1 L << 1 UT T >> L U T >> 1s
Therefore for T >> 1s we can approximate S In the case of a steady ow: CF = C F S
1 and we can assume steady state.
1 0, 1 , We1 , Fr , Re
1 CF = CF 1 , We1 , Fr , Re 7
2. Signicance of the cavitation number = Change 1 keeping all other SPs (S
po pv . 1 U 2 2
1 0, We1 , Fr , Re ) xed.
Some comments on cavitation : Vapor pressure, the pressure at which water boils pv p o pv : State of uid changes from liquid to gas CAVITATION Consequences : Unsteady Vibration of structures, which may lead to fatigue, etc Unstable Sudden cavity collapses Large force acting on the structure surface Surface erosion
CF Strong cavitation
No cavitation
inception
For << 1, cavitation occurs. For >> 1 1 << 1, cavitation will not occur. In general cavitation occurs when we have large velocities, or when po pv
For example, assume a hydrofoil travelling in water of density = 103 kg/m3 . The characteristic pressure is po = 105 N/m2 and the vapor pressure is pv = 103 N/m2 . Cavitation will not occur when: 1 2 U p o pv 2 1 << 1 << 1 U << U << 14m/s 1 p o pv 2 Therefore for U << 14m/s it is >> 1 1 In the case of a steady, non-cavitating ow: CF = CF 0, 1 1 0, We1 , Fr , Re 0 and cavitation will not occur.
1 CF = CF We1 , Fr , Re
3. Signicance of the Weber number We = Change We1 keeping the other SPs (S
U 2L . / 0, 1
1 0, Fr , Re ) xed.
For We << 1, surface tension is signicant. For We >> 1 We1 << 1, surface tension is not signicant. For example, assume a hydrofoil travelling with velocity U = 1m/s near an air/water interface (water density = 103 kg/m3 , surface tension coecient = 0.07N/m). Surface tension can be neglected when: We1 << 1
U 2L
<< 1
L >>
U2
L >> 7 105 m
Therefore for L >> 7 105 m it is We >> 1We1 be neglected.
1 and surface tension eects can
So in the case of a steady, non-cavitating, non-surface tension ow: CF = CF 0, 0, We1 1 CF = CF Fr , Re 1 0, Fr , Re
10
U 4. Signicance of the Froude number Fr = , which measures the gravity eects. gh Change Fr keeping the other SPs (S 0, 1 0, We1
1 0, Re ) xed.
Gravity eects, hydrostatic pressure do not create any ow (isotropic) nor do they change the ow dynamics unless Dynamic Boundary Conditions apply. Gravity eects are not signicant when U << gh Fr Fr1 0. Physically, this is the case when the free surface is absent or far away or not disturbed, i.e., no wave generation. The following gures (i - iv) illustrate cases where gravity eects are not signicant. 0, or U >> gh
11
In any of those cases the gravity eects are insignicant and equivalently Fr is not important (i.e. Fr 0 or Fr1 0). So in the case of a steady, non-cavitating, non-surface tension, with no gravity eects ow: CF = CF 0, 0, 0, Fr 1 CF = CF Re 0 or Fr1 1 0, Re
A look ahead: Froudes Hypothesis Froudes Hypothesis states that CF = CF (Fr , Re ) = C1 (Fr ) + C2 (Re ) Therefore dynamic similarity requires (Re )1 = (Re )2 , and (Fr )1 = (Fr )2 Example: Show that if and g are kept constant, two systems (1, 2) can be both geometrically and dynamically similar only if: L1 = L2 , and U1 = U 2
12
5. Signicance of the Reynolds number Re = Change Re keeping the other SPs (S xed.
UL . 0, We1 0, Fr 0 or Fr1 0)
0, 1
Recall that for a steady, non-cavitating, non-surface tension, with no gravity eects ow: 1 CF = CF Re
CF
Sphere
Plate
Laminar
Re Re Re Re << 1, < (Re )cr , > (Re )cr , ,
(Re)cr Turbulent Re Transition
Stokes ow (creeping ow) Laminar ow Turbulent ow Ideal uid
For example, a hydrofoil of cord length L = 1m travelling in water (kinematic viscosity = 101 m2 /s) with velocity U = 10m/s has a Reynolds number with respect to L: Re = 1 = 107 ideal uid, and Re UL 13 0
Therefore for a steady, non-cavitating, non-surface tension, with no-gravity eects ow in an ideal uid: CF = CF (0, 0, 0, 0, 0) = constant = 0
DAlemberts Paradox No drag force on moving body in ideal uid.
14
Chapter 3 Ideal Fluid Flow

The structure of Lecture 7 has as follows: In paragraph 3.0 we introduce the concept of inviscid uid and formulate the governing equations and boundary conditions for an ideal uid ow. In paragraph 3.1 we introduce the concept of circulation and state Kelvins theorem (a conservation law for angular momentum). In paragraph 3.2 we introduce the concept of vorticity.
Ideal Fluid Flow
Inviscid Fluid
Incompressible Flow ( 1.1)
=0 D = 0 or v = 0 Dt
3.0 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions for Ideal Flow

Inviscid Fluid, Ideal Flow Recall Reynolds number is a qualitative measure of the importance of viscous forces compared to inertia forces, Re = UL inertia forces = viscous forces
For many marine hydrodynamics problems studied in 13.021 the characteristic lengths and velocities are L 1m and U 1m/s respectively. The kinematic viscosity in water is water = 106 m2 /s leading thus to typical Reynolds numbers with respect to U and L in the order of UL 106 >>> 1 0
Re =
1 viscous forces Re inertia forces
This means that viscous eects are << compared to inertial eects - or conned within very small regions. In other words, for many marine hydrodynamics problems, viscous eects can be neglected for the bulk of the ow. Neglecting viscous eects is equivalent to setting the kinematic viscosity = 0, but = 0 inviscid uid Therefore, for the typical marine hydrodynamics problems we assume incompressible ow + inviscid uid ideal uid ow which turns out to be a good approximation for many problems.
Governing Equations for Ideal Fluid Flow Continuity Equation: v =0 Momentum (Navier-Stokes Euler) equations: v 1 + v v = p g j t By neglecting the viscous stress term ( 2 v ) the Navier-Stokes equations reduce to the Euler equations. (Careful not to confuse this with the Euler equation in 1.6). The N-S equations are second order PDEs with respect to space (2nd order in 2 ), thus: (a) require 2 kinematic boundary conditions, and (b) produce smooth solutions in the velocity eld. The Euler equations are rst order PDEs, thus: (a) require 1 kinematic boundary condition, and (b) may allow discontinuities in the velocity eld. Boundary Conditions for Euler equations (Ideal Flow): KBC:
v n = un = Un given
no ux + free (to) slip
= U t does not apply. Note: No slip condition v t The no slip condition is required to ensure that the velocity gradients are nite ij are nite. and therefore the viscous stresses But since = 0 the viscous stresses are identically zero ( ij = = 0) and the velocity gradients can be innite. Or else the velocity eld need not be continuous.
u(dy)
u(0)
Viscousflow w <
u y < u y
Inviscidflow w 0
DBC: p = . . . Pressure given on the boundary Similarly to the argument for the KBC, viscous stresses ij cannot be specied on any boundary since = 0.
Summary of consequences neglecting viscous eects this far: Neglecting viscous eects is equivalent to setting the kinematic viscosity equal to zero: =0 Setting = 0 inviscid uid Setting = 0 the viscous term in the Navier-Stokes equations drops out and we obtain the Euler equations. The Euler equations are 1st order PDEs in space, thus (a) require only one boundary condition for the velocity and (b) may allow for velocity jumps. Setting = 0 all the viscous stresses ij = are identically 0. This may allow for innite velocity gradients. This aects (a) the KBC, allowing free slip, and (b) the DBC, where no viscous stresses can be specied on any boundary.
3.1 Circulation Kelvins Theorem

3.1.1 Instantaneous circulation around any arbitrary closed contour C.
v dx
v v
=
C
v dx
tangential velocity
The circulation is an Eulerian idea and is instantaneous, a snapshot.
3.1.2 Kelvins Theorem (KT) : For ideal uid under conservative body forces, d = 0 following any material contour C, dt i.e., remains constant under for Ideal Fluid under Conservative Forces (IFCF). This is a statement of conservation of angular momentum. (Mathematical Proof: cf JNN pp 103) Kinematics of a small deformable body: (a) Uniform translation Linear momentum (b) Rigid body rotation Angular momentum (c) Pure strain No linear or angular momentum involved (no change in volume (d) Volume dilatation For Ideal Fluid under Conservative body Forces: (a) Linear momentum Can change (b) Angular momentum By K.T., cannot change (c) Pure strain Can change (d) Volume dilatation Not allowed (incompressible uid) Kelvins Theorem is a statement of conservation of angular momentum under IFCF.
Example 1: Angular momentum of point mass.
v1
r1 m1 r2
v2
m2
Angular momentum of point mass: L = |r (mv )| = mvr = mr2 Conservation of angular momentum: L L
1 2 m 1 v 1 r1 = m 2 v 2 r2 = v1 r1 = v2 r2 or 2 2 1 = r 2 2 r1
m =m
Conservation of angular momentum does not imply constant angular velocity: Angular Momentum angular velocity
Example 2: Conservation of circulation around a shrinking circular material volume Vm .
1 r1
Vm
2
r2
Vm
1 =
0
dr1 v1 =
0
dr2 v2 = 2
Example 3: Conservation of circulation around a shrinking arbitrary material volume Vm , Cm . 1 = v1 dx = v2 dx = 2
C1
C2
3.2 Vorticity
3.2.1 Denition of Vorticity =v = w v i z y w u j+ x z v u x y k
Relationship of vorticity to circulation - Apply Stokes Theorem:
=
C
v dx =
( v ) ndS =
ndS Flux of vorticity out of S
any S covering C
any S covering C
3.2.2 What is Vorticity? For example, special case: 2D ow - w = 0; z =

z
= 0; y = x = 0 and
v u x y
(a) Translation: u = constant, v = constant
time t + t
+ ui j
+ ui j
+ ui j + ui j
time t
v u = 0, = 0 z = 0 no vorticity x y 9
(b) Pure Strain (no volume change):
Areat + t
Areat
No volume change
Areat = Areat + t
u v u v = ; u = -v; = 0; = 0 z = 0 x y y x
10
(c) Angular deformation
x= t u y dy

+ dy = u y dy i j y
time t + t
dy
time t
=0
r
dx
y = x dx t
r = u x dx i + x dx j
= 0 only if
u v = x = y ( for dx = dy) y x
11
(d) Pure rotation with angular velocity
time t + t
t
= dy i
time t
dy
t
=0
dx
r = dx j
v u = ; = ; z = 2 x y i.e. vorticity 2(angular velocity). 3.2.3 Irrotational Flow A ow is irrotational if the vorticity is zero everywhere or if the circulation is zero along any arbitrary closed contour: 0 everywhere 0 for any C Further on, if at t = to , the ow is irrotational, i.e., 0 for all C , then Kelvins theorem states that under IFCF, 0 for all C for all time t: once irrotational, always irrotational (Special case of Kelvins theorem)
12
13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 8 In Lecture 8, paragraph 3.3 we discuss some properties of vortex structures. In paragraph 3.4 we deduce the Bernoulli equation for ideal, steady ow.
3.3 Properties of Vortex Structures

3.3.1 Vortex Structures A vortex line is a line everywhere tangent to .
2
2 r
vortex line
r u2
1
1 r u1
A vortex tube (lament) is a bundle of vortex lines.

vortex tube
r u
vortex lines
A vortex ring is a closed vortex tube. A sketch and two pictures of the production of vortex rings from orices are shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3 below. (Figures 2,3: Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion 1982 p.66, 71)
side view
U
v u v u v u v u
v u

v v
cross section
U
Figure 1: Sketch of vortex ring production
3.3.2 No Net Flux of Vorticity Through a Closed Surface Calculus identity, for any vector v :
( v ) = 0
=0 n dS = 0
Divergence S vorticity ux Theorem
i.e. The net vorticity ux through a closed surface is zero. (a) No net vorticity ux through a vortex tube: (Vorticity Flux)in = (Vorticity Flux)out ( n )in Ain = ( n )out Aout
v )out ( n v =0 n
v )in ( n
(b) Vorticity cannot stop anywhere in the uid. It either traverses the uid beginning or ending on a boundary or closes on itself (vortex ring).
3.3.3 Conservation of Vorticity Flux 0 = 3 = v dx = ndS =0
C3
S3
1 C3 n
C1 C2
2 n
1 =
C1
v dx =
S1
n 1 dS =
S2
n 2 dS = 2
Therefore, circulation is the same in all circuits embracing the same vortex tube. For the special case of a vortex tube with small area: = 1 A1 = 2 A2
1 A1
2 A2
An application of the equation above is displayed in the gure below:
2 1 A1 A2 = 2A1 2 = 1/2
3.3.4 Vortex Structures are Material Structures Consider a material patch Am on a vortex tube at time t.
Am
Am
By denition, n = 0 on An Then, Am =
Am
v dx =
Am
nds =0
At time t + t, Am moves, and for an ideal uid under the inuence of conservative body forces, Kelvins theorem states that Am = 0 So, n = 0 on Am still, i.e., Am still on the vortex tube. Therefore, the vortex tube is a material tube for an ideal uid under the inuence of conservative forces. In the same manner it can be shown that a vortex line is a material line, i.e., it moves with the uid.
3.3.5 Vortex stretching Consider a small vortex lament of length L and radius R, where by denition is tangent to the tube.
=
Stokes Theorem
=
Kelvins Theorem
constant (in time)
But tube is material with volume = AL = R2 L = constant in time (continuity) A = = = constant Volume LA L
As a vortex stretches, L increases, and since the volume is constant (from continuity), A and R decrease, and due to the conservation of the angular momentum, increases. In other words, Vortex stretching L (conservation of angular momentum) A and R (continuity)
3.3.6 Summary on Vortex Structures
A
L = 2R A = r2 = AL =
continuity
Vortex ring length Cross sectional area Vortex ring volume
[L] [L2 ] const [L3 ]
Vorticity Circulation
=v = const
[T1 ] [L2 T1 ]
Kelvins theorem
A = const
[L2 T1 ]
vorticity ux through A
U r = const
[L2 T1 ]
Continuity relates length ratios A r L as L A
= LA = const
as L
Kelvins theorem + Continuity relate length ratios to , , U U r = const U r

r
/L
as L
A = const
A/L
as L
Example 1:
A2
Example 2:
A2 A1 2
A1 r
L1
L2
A1 < A2 1 > 2
L1 < L 2 A1 > A2 1 = 2 1 < 2 U1 < U 2
Given From continuity only From Kelvins theorem From Kelvins theorem + continuity From Kelvins theorem + continuity
3.4 Bernoulli Equation for Steady ( t = 0), Ideal( = 0), Rotational ow
p=f v p = f (|v |)
Viscous ow: Navier-Stokes Equations (Vector Equations) Ideal ow: Bernoulli Equation (Scalar equation)
Steady, inviscid Euler equation (momentum equation): v v = From Vector Calculus we have (u v ) = (u ) v + (v ) u + u ( v ) + v ( u) |v |2 ) = v v + v ( v ) ( 1 2 v2 v v = v ( v ) where v 2 v v = |v |2 2 From the previous identity and Equation (1) we obtain v (1) v v2 2 v v ( v ) = v
v 0
p + gy
(1)
p + gy
v momentum (1) energy Therefore, v i.e., In general,

v2 2 v2 2 v2 2 p
+ gy = 0 =
D Dt
v2 2
+ gy
streamline pathline p + + gy = constant on a streamline
+ gy = F () where is a tag for a particular streamline.
Assumptions: Ideal uid, Steady ow, Rotational in general.
3.4.1 Example: Contraction in Water or Wind Tunnel
Contraction Ratio: = R1 /R2 >> 1 ( = O(10) for wind tunnel ; = O(5) for water tunnel) 2 denote the average velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively. 1 and U Let U 2 U 2 2 2 R2 1 R1 =U = 1. From continuity: U U1 2. R1 R2
2
= 2 >> 1
Since
u = 0 , = 0 vortex ring. r 10
/L = constant
1 2 2 R2 1 = = << 1 2R1 2R2 1 R1 u since r u r <<

2
u r
i.e.,
Section 1
Section 2
1 (1 + 1 ) and U2 = U 2 (1 + 2 ) where 1 and 2 measure 3. Near the center, let U1 = U the relative velocity uctuations. Apply the Bernoulli equation along a reference average streamline 2 = P2 + 1 U 2 U P1 + 1 1 2 2 2 Apply Bernoulli Equation to a particular streamline 1 (1 + 1 ) U P1 + 1 2 From (2) and (3) we obtain 2 2 = 2 U 2 + O(2 ) 2 U1 1 << 1 1 U 1 2 2 2 1 4 U
2
(2)
2 (1 + 2 ) = P2 + 1 U 2
11
13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 9 Lecture 9 is structured as follows: In paragraph 3.5 we return to the full Navier-Stokes equations (unsteady, viscous momentum equations) to deduce the vorticity equation and study some additional properties of vorticity. In paragraph 3.6 we introduce the concept of potential ow and velocity potential. We formulate the governing equations and boundary conditions for potential ow and nally introduce the stream function.
3.5 Vorticity Equation

Return to viscous incompressible ow. The Navier-Stokes equations in vector form v p + v v = + gy + 2 v t By taking the curl of the Navier-Stokes equations we obtain the vorticity equation. In detail and taking into account u we have (Navier-Stokes) v + (v v ) = t v = ( v ) = t t t p + gy + 2 v
The rst term on the left side, for xed reference frames, becomes
In the same manner the last term on the right side becomes 2 v = 2 Applying the identity scalar = 0 the pressure term vanishes, provided that the density is uniform p ( + gy ) = 0 1
The inertia term v v , as shown in Lecture 8, 3.4, can be rewritten as 1 v v = (v v ) v ( v ) = 2 v2 2 v where v 2 |v |2 = v v
and then the second term on the left side can be rewritten as (v ) v = v2 (v ) = ( v ) 2 = (v ) ( ) v + ( v ) + v ( )
incompressible uid
=0
=0 since (v )=0
Putting everything together, we obtain the vorticity equation D = ( ) v + 2 Dt Comments-results obtained from the vorticity equation Kelvins Theorem revisited - from vorticity equation: If 0, then
D Dt
= ( ) v , so if 0 everywhere at one time, 0 always.
can be thought of as diusivity of vorticity (and momentum), i.e., once generated (on boundaries only) will spread/diuse in space if is present.
v
v Dv v = 2v + ... Dt
v D v = 2 + ... Dt
T Diusion of vorticity is analogous to the heat equation: = K 2 T , where K is the t heat diusivity.
2 Numerical example for 1 mm /s. For diusion time t = 1 second, diusion distance L O t O (mm). For diusion distance L = 1cm, the necessary diusion time is t O (L2 / ) O(10)sec.
In 2D space (x, y ), v = (u, v, 0) and 0 z
So, = v is to v ( is parallel to the z-axis). Then, ( ) v = x + z + y v 0, y z x

0 0 0
so in 2D we have D = 2 Dt = 0, i.e., in 2D following a particle the angular velocity is conserved. If = 0, D Dt Reason: In 2D space the length of a vortex tube cannot change due to continuity.
In 3D space, Di = Dt for example, u2 D2 = 1 + Dt x1

vortex turning
vi xj
2 i xj xj
diusion
vortex turning and stretching
u2 x2
+ 3
u2 + diusion x3
vortex stretching
vortex turning
z x3
z x3
dz
dy
u2 dz > 0 x3
u2 = 0
x x1
u2 >0 x2
y x2 u2 dy > 0 x2
D2 >0 Dt 1 4 24 3
u2 = 0
y x2
x x1
3 >0 u2 D2 > 0 >0 Dt x3 1 4 24 3
vortex stretching rate
vortex turning rate
3.5.1 Example: Pile on a River
Scouring
What really happens as length of the vortex tube L increases? IFCF is no longer a valid assumption. Why? Ideal ow assumption implies that the inertia forces are much larger than the viscous eects. The Reynolds number, with respect to the vortex tube diameter D is given by UD As the vortex tube length increases the diameter D becomes really small that big after all. Re Therefore IFCF is no longer valid.
Re is not
3.6 Potential Flow

Potential Flow (P-Flow) is an ideal and irrotational uid ow Inviscid Fluid =0 Ideal Flow + Incompressible Flow v =0 + Irrotational Flow = 0 or = 0
P-Flow
3.6.1 Velocity potential For ideal ow under conservative body forces by Kelvins theorem if 0 at some time t, then 0 irrotational ow always. In this case the ow is P-Flow. Given a vector eld v for which = v 0, there exists a potential function (scalar) - the velocity potential - denoted as , for which v = Note that = v = 0 for any , so irrotational ow guaranteed automatically. At a point x and time t, the velocity vector v (x, t) in cartesian coordinates in terms of the potential function (x, t) is given by v (x, t) = (x, t) = , , x y z
( x)
x
x u >0 >0
u=0
x u
<0 <0
from low to high
The velocity vector v is the gradient of the potential function , so it always points towards higher values of the potential function. 3.6.2 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions for Potential Flow (a) Continuity v = 0 = 2 = 0 Number of unknowns Number of equations 2 = 0
Therefore we have closure. In addition, the velocity potential and the pressure p are decoupled. The velocity potential can be solved independently rst, and after is obtained we can evaluate the pressure p. p = f (v ) = f () Solve for , then nd pressure. 7
(b) Bernoulli equation for P-Flow This is a scalar equation for the pressure under the assumption of P-Flow for steady or unsteady ow. Euler equation: v + t v2 2 v = p + gy
Substituting v = and = 0 into Eulers equation above, we obtain or which implies that 1 p + ||2 + + gy = f (t) t 2 everywhere in the uid for unsteady, potential ow. The equation above can be written as p = 1 + ||2 + gy + F (t) t 2 p 1 + ||2 + + gy t 2 = 0, t + 1 ||2 2 = p + gy
which is the Bernoulli equation for unsteady or steady potential ow.
DO NOT CONFUSE WITH BERNOULLI EQUATION FROM 3.4, USED FOR STEADY, ROTATIONAL FLOW
Summary: Bernoulli equationS for ideal ow. (a) For steady rotational or irrotational ow along streamline: p = 1 2 v + gy + C ( ) 2
(b) For unsteady or steady irrotational ow everywhere in the uid: p = 1 + ||2 + gy + F (t) t 2
(c) For hydrostatics, v 0, t = 0:
p = gy + c hydrostatic pressure (Archimedes principle)

= 0, g 0): (d) Steady and no gravity eect ( t
v 2 + c = ||2 + c Venturi pressure (created by velocity) 2 2 (e) Inertial, acceleration eect: p=

Eulerian inertia
p p
t v t
+ +
u p
x
9
p+
p x x
(c) Boundary Conditions KBC on an impervious boundary vn =

n
un no ux across boundary = Un given n Un given
DBC: specify pressure at the boundary, i.e., 1 + ||2 + gy t 2 = given
Note: On a free-surface p = patm .
10
3.6.3 Stream function Continuity: v = 0; Irrotationality: v = = 0 Velocity potential: v = , then v = () 0 for any , i.e., irrotationality is satised automatically. Required for continuity: v = 2 = 0 Stream function dened by v = Then v = 0 for any , i.e., satises continuity automatically. Required for irrotationality: v = 0 = 2 = 0 still 3 unknown
=(x ,y ,z )
(1)
For 2D and axisymmetric ows, is a scalar (stream functions are more useful for 2D and axisymmetric ows). For 2D ow: v = (u, v, 0) and i j k
z
0.
v = =
x y z
z i + z j+ y x
; y
y x k x y
Set x = y 0 and z = , then u = So, for 2D: =
v = x
x + y + z 0 x y z 2 = 0 and satises Laplaces
Then, from the irrotationality (see (1)) equation. 11
2D polar coordinates: v = (vr , v ) and
0.
y r
r
x
v = = Again let
1 r
e r
re e z

vr
vz
z 1 1 z e r e + r r r
r r e z r
r = 0 and z = , then vr = 1 and v = r r
For 3D but axisymmetric ows, also reduces to (read JNN 4.6 for details).
12
Physical Meaning of . In 2D u= We dene

x x
and v = y x
(x, t) = (x0 , t) +
x0
v nd
= (x0 , t) +
x0
(udy vdx)
total volume ux from left to right accross a curve C between x and x0
v x
C
v t
v xo
For to be single-valued, =
C C
must be path independent. = 0 vn d =

C C S
or
C
v
=0,
continuity
ds = 0
Therefore, is unique because of continuity.
13
Let x1 , x2 be two points on a given streamline (v n = 0 on streamline)
streamline
x2
(x2 ) = (x1 ) +
2 1 x1
vn d
along a streamline
=0
Therefore, 1 = 2 , i.e., is a constant along any streamline. For example, on an impervious stationary body v n = 0, so = constant on the body is the = Un appropriate boundary condition. If the body is moving v n = 0 + Un d
given
on the boddy
= constant
u=0
=0 n
= given
14
Flux = v x = uy . Therefore, u = and v = x y
(x, y + y)
u -v streamline (x,y)
streamline (x +x, y)
15
Summary of velocity potential formulation vs. stream-function formulation for ideal ows use For irrotational ow For incompressible ow use For P-Flow use or velocity potential denition continuity v = 0 irrotationality v = 0
2D: w = 0, z =0
stream-function v = automatically satised = 2 = 0
v = 2 = 0 automatically satised
continuity irrotationality
2 = 0 automatically satised
automatically satised z : 2 = 0
Cauchy-Riemann equations for (, ) = (real, imaginary) part of an analytic complex function of z = x + iy Cartesian (x, y) u= v= vr = v =
x y r 1 r
u=
v = x vr =
1 r
Polar (r,)
v = r
Given or for 2D ow, use Cauchy-Riemann equations to nd the other: e.g. If = xy , then = ? u= =y= x y v= =x= y x 1 = y 2 + f1 (x) 2
1 = (y 2 x2 ) + const 2 1 = x2 + f2 (y ) 2 16
3.7 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions for P-Flow

3.7.1 Governing Equations for P-Flow (a) Continuity 2 = 0 1 2 (b) Bernoulli for P-Flow (steady or unsteady) p = t + || + gy + C (t) 2 3.7.2 Boundary Conditions for P-Flow Types of Boundary Conditions: (c) Kinematic Boundary Conditions - specify the ow velocity v at boundaries. = Un n
or pressure p at ow boundary. (d) Dynamic Boundary Conditions - specify force F 1 p = t + ()2 + gy + C (t) (prescribed) 2
The boundary conditions in more detail: Kinematic Boundary Condition on an impermeable boundary (no ux condition)
v n = U n =
uid velocity
Un
nornal boundary velocity
= Given
v =
boundary velocity
n = Un (n1 + n2 + n3 ) = Un x1 x2 x3 = n Un
v U
v n = (n1 , n 2 , n 3 ) v
Dynamic Boundary Condition: In general, pressure is prescribed 1 2 p = t + () + gy + C (t) = Given 2
3.7.3 Summary: Boundary Value Problem for P-Flow The aforementioned governing equations with the boundary conditions formulate the Boundary Value Problem (BVP) for P-Flow. The general BVP for P-Flow is sketched in the following gure.
KBC : (Lecture 19) Free surface DBC : ( + 1 ( ) 2 + gy ) + C (t ) = GIVEN t 23 21 non linear
2 = 0 1 2 p = (t + ( ) + gy ) + C (t ) 2
Solid boundary KBC :
= U n = GIVEN n
It must be pointed out that this BVP is satised instantaneously.
3.8 Linear Superposition for Potential Flow In the absence of dynamic boundary conditions, the potential ow boundary value problem is linear. Potential function .
2 = 0 in V
= U n =f on B n
Stream function .
2 = 0 in V
=g on B
Linear Superposition: if 1 , 2 , . . . are harmonic functions, i.e., 2 i = 0, then = i i , where i are constants, are also harmonic, and is the solution for the boundary value problem provided the kinematic boundary conditions are satised, i.e., = (1 1 + 2 2 + . . .) = Un on B. n n The key is to combine known solution of the Laplace equation in such a way as to satisfy the kinematic boundary conditions (KBC). The same is true for the stream function . The K.B.C specify the value of on the boundaries.
3.8.1 Example Let i x denote a unit-source ow with source at xi , i.e., 1 i x source x, xi = ln x xi (in 2D) 2 1 = 4 x x i (in 3D), then nd mi such that =
i
mi i (x) satises KBC on B
Caution: must be regular for x V , so it is required that x / V.

v x 2 v x 1
2 = 0 in V
v v x 3 x 4
=f n
Figure 1: Note: xj , j = 1, . . . , 4 are not in the uid domain V .
3.9 - Laplace equation in dierent coordinate systems (cf Hildebrand 6.18) 3.9.1 Cartesian (x,y,z) v= u, v, w
j i k
= =
, , x y z
2 =
2 2 2 + + 2 x2 y 2 z
z e
P ( x, y , z )
y e
x
x e
3.9.2 Cylindrical (r,,z)
r 2 = x2 + y 2 , = tan1 (y /x) e 1 e r e z v = vr , v , vz = , , r r z
2 1 1 2 2 + + 2 2 + 2 r2 r r z r 1 r r r ( r ) 1 1 2 2 2 = r + 2 2 + 2 r r r r z 2 =
z e
P (r , , z )
x
x e
y e
3.9.3 Spherical (r,,)
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , = cos1 (z/r) z = r (cos ) = tan1 (y/x)
v = =
e e r e vr , v , v
1 1 , , r r r(sin )
2 2 2 1 1 = + + sin + 2 r2 r r r2 sin2 2 r sin 1 (r2 r ) r 2 r 1 1 1 2 2 2 = 2 r + 2 sin + 2 2 r r r r sin r sin 2

2
z e
P (r , , )
r
y
y e
x
x e
3.10 Simple Potential ows

1. Uniform Stream 2 (ax + by + cz + d) = 0 1D: 2D: = U x + constant = U y + constant; = U x + V y + constant = U y V x + constant;

v = (U, 0, 0)
v = (U, V, 0)
3D: = U x + V y + W z + constant 2. Source (sink) ow 2D, Polar coordinates 1 = r r

2
v = (U, V, W )
1 2 r + 2 2 , with r = x2 + y 2 r r
An axisymmetric solution: = a ln r + b. Verify that it satises 2 = 0, except at r = x2 + y 2 = 0. Therefor, r = 0 must be excluded from the ow. Dene 2D source of strength m at r= 0: = m ln r 2
m m e r = e r vr = , v = 0 r 2r 2r
source (strength m)
Net outward volume ux is

C
v n ds =
2 0 S
vds =
vds m source strength
v n ds =
vr r d =
m 2r
y
n
C S S x
If m < 0 sink. Source m at (x0 , y0 ): m = ln (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 2 m m = ln r (Potential function) = (Stream function) 2 2
m 2
Vr = m 2
=0
10
3D: Spherical coordinates 1 = 2 r r

2
r r
2
, , , where r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 a + b. Verify 2 = 0 except at r = 0. r
A spherically symmetric solution: =
Dene a 3D source of strength m at r = 0. Then = m m vr = = , v = 0, v = 0 4r r 4r2
Net outward volume ux is m 2 vr dS = 4r = m (m < 0 for a sink ) 2 4r
11
3. 2D point vortex 1 = r r
2
1 2 r + 2 2 r r
Another particular solution: = a + b. Verify that 2 = 0 except at r = 0. Dene the potential for a point vortex of circulation at r = 0. Then 1 vr = = 0, v = = and, 2 r r 2r 1 (rv ) = 0 except at r = 0 z = r r
Stream function: = Circulation:
ln r 2
v dx =
C2

v dx +

v dx =
0
rd = 2r
C1
C1 C2 R R z dS =0
S
vortex strength
12
4. Dipole (doublet ow) A dipole is a superposition of a sink and a source with the same strength.
2D dipole: m 2 2 2 2 = ln (x a) + y ln (x + a) + y 2 2 2 lim = ln (x ) + y a0 2 =0 = 2ma constant x x = = 2 x2 + y 2 2 r 2 2D dipole (doublet) of moment at the origin oriented in the +x direction.
NOTE: dipole = (unit source)
13

unit source
x
x cos + y sin cos cos + sin sin = 2 2 2 x +y 2 r
= 3D dipole: = lim m 4
1 where = 2ma xed a0 2 2 2 2 2 2 (x a) + y + z (x + a) + y + z 1 x x = = = 4 4 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2 4 r 3 (x )2 + y 2 + z 2

=0
3D dipole (doublet) of moment at the origin oriented in the +x direction.
14
5. Stream and source: Rankine half-body It is the superposition of a uniform stream of constant speed U and a source of strength m.
U
m
2D: = U x +
m 2 ln x + y 2 2
v stagnation point v = 0
Dividing Streamline
m x =U+ 2 x 2 x + y 2 m u|y=0 = U + , v |y=0 = 0 2x = (u, v ) = 0 at x = xs = m , y = 0 V 2U u= For large x, u U , and U D = m by continuity D = 15 m . U
3D: = U x
m x2 + y 2 + z 2
stagnation point div. streamlines
m x =U+ 2 2 x 4 (x + y + z 2 )3/2 m x u|y=z=0 = U + , v |y=z=0 = 0, w|y=z=0 = 0 4 |x |3 m V = (u, v, w) = 0 at x = xs = , y=z=0 4U u= For large x, u U and U A = m by continuity A = m . U
16
6. Stream + source/sink pair: Rankine closed bodies
+m
a
-m
dividing streamline (see this with PFLOW)
To have a closed body, a necessary condition is to have 2D Rankine ovoid: m = U x+ 2
min body = 0
m (x + a)2 + y 2 2 2 2 2 ln (x + a) + y ln (x a) + y = U x+ ln 4 (x a)2 + y 2
3D Rankine ovoid: = Ux m 4 1 (x + a) +
2
y2 + z2 1 (x a) +
2
y2 + z2
17
For Rankine Ovoid, m x+a xa u= =U+ x 4 (x + a)2 + y 2 + z 2 3/2 (x a)2 + y 2 + z 2 3/2 m 1 1 u|y=z=0 =U + 4 (x + a)2 (x a)2 m (4ax) =U + 4 (x2 a2 )2 2 m u|y=z=0 =0 at x2 a2 = 4ax 4U At x = 0, u=U+ m 2a where R = y 2 + z 2 4 (a2 + R2 )3/2
Determine radius of body R0 :

R0
2
0
uRdR = m
18
7. Stream + Dipole: circles and spheres
r U
x 2D: = U x + 2r2
x=r cos
cos U r + 2r = cos U . r 2r2

. 2U
The radial velocity is then ur =
Setting the radial velocity vr = 0 on r = a we obtain a = for a stationary circle of radius a. Therefore, for = 2U a2 the potential = cos U r + 2r is the solution to ideal ow past a circle of radius a. Flow past a circle (U, a).
This is the K.B.C.
19
= U cos r + V =
1 r
V |r=a
2 = U sin 1 + a 2 r = 0 at = 0, stagnation points = 2U sin 3 = 2U at = 2 , 2 maximum tangential velocity
a2 r
2U
2U
Illustration of the points where the ow reaches maximum speed around the circle.
3D: = U x +
cos = U r cos 1 + 4 r 2 4r3
U z
The radial velocity is then vr = = cos U r 2r3
20
Setting the radial velocity vr = 0 on r = a we obtain a = for a stationary sphere of radius a. Therefore, choosing = 2U a3 the potential = cos U r + 2r is the solution to ideal ow past a sphere of radius a.
2U
. This is the K.B.C.
Flow past a sphere (U, a). a3 = Ur cos 1 + 3 2r 1 a3 v = = U sin 1 + 3 r 2r 3U = 0 at = 0, v |r=a = sin U at = = 32 2 2
3/ 2
3/ 2
21
8. 2D corner ow Velocity potential = r cos ; Stream function = r sin 2 1 1 2 (a) 2 = r + + =0 2 r r r2 2 (b) = r1 cos r 1 u = = r1 sin r u = 0 { or = 0} on = n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ur =
2 i.e., on = 0 = 0, , , . . . (0 2 )
i. Interior corner ow stagnation point origin: > 1. For example, = 1, 0 = 0, , 2, u = 1, v = 0

y
x =0
22
3 = 2, 0 = 0, , , ,2 u = 2x, v = 2 y 2 2 o
(90 corner) =0
=0
=2/3, = 0
= 3 2 , 0 = 0,
(120o corner)
2 4 , ,2 3 3
120o
120o 120
o
=0, = 0 =2, = 0
=4/3, = 0
23
ii. Exterior corner ow, |v | at origin: <1 0 = 0, only Since we need 0 2 , we therefore require

2, i.e., 1/2 only.
1/2 < 1 0 = 0, For example, = 1/2, 0 = 0, 2 (1/2 innite plate, ow around a tip)
=0, = 0 =2, = 0
= 2/3, 0 = 0, 32 (90o exterior corner)
=0, = 0
=3/2, = 0
24
Appendix A1: Summary of Simple Potential Flows

Cartesian Coordinate System
Flow Streamlines Potential (x, y, z ) Stream function (x, y )
Uniform ow
U x + V y + W z
U y V x
2D Source/Sink (m) at (xo , yo )
m 2
ln((x xo )2 + (y yo )2 )
m 2
y yo arctan( x ) x o
3D Source/Sink (m) at (xo , yo , zo )
m q 4
(xxo )2 +(y yo )2 +(z zo )2
NA
Vortex () at (xo , yo )
y yo arctan( x ) x o
ln((x x )2 + (y y )2 ) 2 o o
2D Dipole () at (xo , yo ) at an angle
(xxo ) cos +(y yo ) sin (xxo )2 +(y yo )2
(y yo ) cos +(xxo ) sin 2 (xxo )2 +(y yo )2
3D Dipole (+x) () at (xo , y0 , zo )
(xxo ) ((xxo )2 +(y yo )2 +(z zo )2 )3/2
NA
25
Appendix A2: Summary of Simple Potential Flows

Cylindrical Coordinate System
Flow Streamlines Potential (r, , z ) Stream function (r, )
Uniform ow
U r cos + V r sin + W z
U r sin V r cos
2D Source/Sink (m) at (xo , yo )
m 2
ln r
m 2
3D Source/Sink (m) at (xo , yo , zo )
4m r
NA
Vortex () at (xo , yo )
ln r 2
2D Dipole () at (xo , yo ) at an angle
cos cos +sin sin 2 r
sin cos +cos sin 2 r
3D Dipole (+x) () at (xo , yo , zo )
cos 4 2 r
NA
26
Appendix A3: Combination of Simple Potential Flows
Stream + Source = Rankine Half Body
(2D)
= U x +
m 2
ln r
m xs = 2U
D=
m U
(3D)
= U x
m 4
1 x2 + y 2 + z 2
xs =
m 4U
A=
m U
Stream + Source + Sink = Rankine Closed Body
(2D)
= U x +
m 2
ln((x + a)2 + y 2 ) ln((x a)2 + y 2 )
(3D)
= U x +
m 1 4 ( (x+a)2 +y 2 +z 2
1 ) (xa)2 +y 2 +z 2
Stream + Dipole = Circle (Sphere) R = a
(2D)
= U x +
x 2r 2
if = 2a2 U
= U cos (r +
a2 r )
(3D)
= U x +
cos 4r 2
if = 2a3 U
= U cos (r +
a3 2r 2 )
2D Corner Flow
(2D)
= Cr cos()
= Cr sin()
0 = 0, n
27
Appendix B: Far Field Behavior of Simple Potential Flows

Far eld behavior r >> 1 (2D) Source (3D) 1 r v = 1 r 1 r2
ln r
(2D) Dipole (3D)
1 r 1 r2
1 r2 1 r3
Vortex
(2D)
1 r
28
3.11 - Method of Images

Potential for single source: = m ln 2
m m
x2 + y 2
Potential for source near a wall: =
m 2
ln
x2 + (y b)2 + ln
x2 + (y + b)2
m m
d =0 dy
y b x
b
m
Added source for symmetry
Note: Be sure to verify that the boundary conditions are satised by symmetry or by calculus for (y ) = (y ). 1
Vortex near a wall (ground eect): = Ux +
tan1 (
yb y+b ) tan1 ( ) x x
U b y x b - Added vortex for symmetry
Verify that
d = 0 on the wall y = 0. dy a2 a2 + x2 + (y b)2 x2 + (y + b)2
Circle of radius a near a wall: = Ux 1 +
y U y b x b
This solution satises the boundary condition on the wall ( n = 0), and the degree it satises the boundary condition of no ux through the circle boundary increases as the ratio b/a >> 1, i.e., the velocity due to the image dipole small on the real circle 1 for b >> a. For a 2D dipole, d , d12 .
More than one wall:
Example 1:
b U b' U b' b' b
Example 2:
b b' b' b b b b' b'
Example 3:
b b b' b' b b
-
b' b'
3.12 Forces on a body undergoing steady translation DAlemberts paradox

3.12.1 Fixed bodies & translating bodies - Galilean transformation.
y
y
o z
Fixed in space
x
z
Fixed in translating body
x = x` + Ut
Reference system O: v, , p
Reference system O: v , , p
U O
2 = 0 v n =
n
O
2 = 0
=U n = (U, 0, 0) (nx , ny , nz )
= U nx on Body v 0 as |x| 0 as |x| Galilean transform:
v n =
=0
v (U, 0, 0) as |x | U x as |x | v (x, y, z, t) = v (x = x U t, y, z, t) + (U, 0, 0) (x, y, z, t) = (x = x U t, y, z, t) + U x
U x + (x = x + U t, y, z, t) = (x , y, z, t) Pressure (no gravity) p = 1 v 2 + Co = Co = 1 v 2 + Co = Co 1 U 2 2 2 2 Co = Co 1 U 2 2 In O: unsteady ow 1 v 2 +Co ps = 2 t

U2 t
In O: steady ow 1 2 v 2 +Co = Co ps = t
0 0
=(
x + t t
0 2
) ( + U x ) = U 2
ps = U
U 1 U 2 2
+ Co = 1 U 2 + Co 2 ps p = 1 U 2 stagnation pressure 2 4
p s p = 1 U 2 stagnation pressure 2
3.12.2 Forces
B
Total uid force for ideal ow (i.e., no shear stresses): F =

B
pndS
For potential ow, substitute for p from Bernoulli: F =

B
gy +c(t) ndS
1 + ||2 + 2 t
hydrodynamic force
hydrostatic force
For the hydrostatic case v 0 : Fs =

B
(gyn ) dS
()
B
(gy ) d = g j
Archimedes principle
where =
B
Gauss outward theorem normal
We evaluate only the hydrodynamic force: F d =

B
1 + ||2 n dS t 2
For steady motion
0 : 1 Fd = 2 v 2 ndS
B
3.12.3 Example Hydrodynamic force on 2D cylinder in a steady uniform stream.
n
U S a B x
Fd =
||2 nd =
a 2 2 0
2 0
2 ad ||r =a n
i= Fx = F =
a 2 2 0
d ||2 i r =a n
cos
2 ||r =a cos d
Velocity potential for ow past a 2D cylinder: a2 = U r cos 1 + 2 r Velocity vector on the 2D cylinder surface: r
0 r=a
|r=a = ( vr |r=a , v |r=a ) =
1 r
r =a
2U sin
Square of the velocity vector on the 2D cylinder surface: ||2

r=a
= 4U 2 sin2
Finally, the hydrodynamic force on the 2D cylinder is given by a Fx = 2

2
1 d 4U 2 sin2 cos = U 2 2
ps p
(2a) 2
diameter or projection
d sin2 cos = 0
0
even odd 3 w.r.t , 2 2
Therefore, Fx = 0 no horizontal force ( symmetry fore-aft of the streamlines). Similarly, 1 Fy = U 2 (2a)2 2

2
d sin2 sin = 0
0
In fact, in general we nd that F 0, on any 2D or 3D body.
DAlemberts paradox: No hydrodynamic force acts on a body moving with steady translational (no circulation) velocity in an innite, inviscid, irrotational uid.
The moment as measured in a local frame is not necessarily zero.
3.13 Lift due to Circulation

3.13.1 Example Hydrodynamic force on a vortex in a uniform stream. = Ux + = U r cos + 2 2
Consider a control surface in the form of a circle of radius r centered at the point vortex. Then according to Newtons law: F = (FV + FCS ) + MN ET Where, F FCS MN ET
d L dt CV
d steady ow LCV dt = 0 F FV = FCS + MN ET
= Hydrodynamic force exerted on the vortex from the uid. = Surface force (i.e., pressure) on the uid control surface. = Net linear momentum ux in the control volume through the control surface. = Rate of change of the total linear momentum in the control volume.
y
FV = F = Hydrodynamic force exerted on the uid in the control volume from the vortex.
Fy Fx
Control volume
The hydrodynamic force on the vortex is F = FCS + MIN 8
a. Net linear momentum ux in the control volume through the control surfaces, MN ET . Recall that the control surface has the form of a circle of radius r centered at the point vortex. a.1 The velocity components on the control surface are u = U v = sin 2r
cos 2r
The radial velocity on the control surface is therefore, given by ur = U x = U cos = V n r

2r
v =
a.2 The net horizontal and vertical momentum uxes through the control surface are given by
2 2
(MN ET )x =
0 2
druvr =
0 2
dr U
sin U cos = 0 2r
(M N ET )y =
0
drvvr =
0 2
dr U 2
cos U cos 2r
U 2
cos2 d =
0
b. Pressure force on the control surface, FCS . b.1 From Bernoulli, the pressure on the control surface is 1 p = |v |2 + C 2 b.2 The velocity |v |2 on the control surface is given by |v |2 =u2 + v 2 =
2 2 2
sin 2r 2r
2
cos 2r
=U U sin + r
2 0 2 0
b.3 Integrate the pressure along the control surface to obtain FCS (FCS )x = (FCS )y = drp( cos ) = 0
2
drp( sin ) = 2
U (r) r 0
d sin2 = 1 U 2
c. Finally, the force on the vortex F is given by Fx = (FCS )x + (Mx )IN = 0 Fy = (FCS )y + (My )IN = U i.e., the uid exerts a downward force F = U on the vortex. Kutta-Joukowski Law 2D : F = U 3D : F = U Generalized Kutta-Joukowski Law:
n
F = U
i=1
where F is the total force on a system of n vortices in a free stream with speed U . 10
3.14 Lifting Surfaces

3.14.1 2D Symmetric Streamlined Body No separation, even for large Reynolds numbers.
stream line
Viscous eects only in a thin boundary layer. Small Drag (only skin friction). No Lift.
3.14.2 Asymmetric Body (a) Angle of attack ,

chord line
(b) or camber (x),
chord line
mean camber line
(c) or both
amount of camber chord line mean camber line
angle of attack
Lift to U and Drag
to U
3.15 Potential Flow and Kutta Condition

From the P-Flow solution for ow past a body we obtain
P-Flow solution, innite velocity at trailing edge. Note that (a) the solution is not unique - we can always superimpose a circulatory ow without violating the boundary conditions, and (b) the velocity at the trailing edge . We must therefore, impose the Kutta condition, which states that the ow leaves tangentially the trailing edge, i.e., the velocity at the trailing edge is nite. To satisfy the Kutta condition we need to add circulation.
Circulatory ow only. Superimposing the P-Flow solution plus circulatory ow, we obtain
Figure 1: P-Flow solution plus circulatory ow.
3.15.1 Why Kutta condition? Consider a control volume as illustrated below. At t = 0, the foil is at rest (top control volume). It starts moving impulsively with speed U (middle control volume). At t = 0+ , a starting vortex is created due to ow separation at the trailing edge. As the foil moves, viscous eects streamline the ow at the trailing edge (no separation for later t), and the starting vortex is left in the wake (bottom control volume).
t=0
=0
S
t=0 + U
starting vortex due to separation (a real fluid effect, no infinite vel of potetial flow)
S
for later t U
S
starting vortex left in wake
no
Kelvins theorem: d = 0 = 0 for t 0 if (t = 0) = 0 dt After a while the S in the wake is far behind and we recover Figure 1. 4
3.15.2 How much S ? Just enough so that the Kutta condition is satised, so that no separation occurs. For example, consider a at plate of chord and angle of attack , as shown in the gure below.
chord length
Simple P-Flow solution = lU sin L = U = U 2 l sin CL = |L|

1 U 2 l 2
=2 sin 2 for small

only for small
However, notice that as increases, separation occurs close to the leading edge.
Excessive angle of attack leads to separation at the leading edge.
When the angle of attack exceeds a certain value (depends on the wing geometry) stall occurs. The eects of stalling on the lift coecient (CL = 1 U 2 Lspan ) are shown in the 2 following gure.
L This region independent of R, used only to get Kutta condition stall location f(R)
stall
O(5 o )
In experiments, CL < 2 for 3D foil - nite aspect ratio (nite span). With sharp leading edge, separation/stall to early.
sharp trailing edge round leading edge to forstall stalling to develop circulation
3.16 Thin Wing, Small Angle of Attack

Assumptions Flow: Steady, P-Flow. Wing: Let yU (x), yL (x) denote the upper and lower vertical camber coordinates, respectively. Also, let x = /2, x = /2 denote the horizontal coordinates of the leading and trailing edge, respectively, as shown in the gure below.
y=yU(x)
For thin wing, at a small angle of attack it is yU yL , << 1 dyU dyL , << 1 dx dx The problem is then linear and superposition applies. Let (x) denote the camber line 1 (x) = (yU (x) + yL (x)), 2 and t(x) denote the half-thickness 1 t(x) = (yU (x) yL (x)). 2
Camber line t(x)
t(x)
(x)
For linearized theory, i.e. thin wing at small AoA, the lift on the wing depends only on the camber line but not on the wing thickness. Therefore, for the following analysis we approximate the wing by the camber line only and ignore the wing thickness. 7
Denitions In general, the lift on the wing is due to the total circulation around the wing. This total circulation can be given in terms due to a distribution of circulation (x) (Units: [LT 1 ]) inside the wing, i.e., =
/2 /2
(x)dx
( x)
Noting that superposition applies, let the total potential for this ow be expressed as the sum of two potentials = Ux +
Free stream potential
Disturbunce potential
The ow velocity can by expressed as v = = (U + u, v ) where (u, v ) are given by = (u, v ) and denote the velocity disturbance, due to the presence of the wing. For linearized wing we can assume u, v << U u v , << 1 U U
Consider a ow property q , such as velocity, pressure etc. Then let qU = q (x, 0+ ) and qL = q (x, 0 ) denote the values of q at the upper and lower wing surfaces, respectively.
Lift due to circulation Applying Bernoulli equation for steady, inviscid, rotational ow, along a streamline from to a point on the wing, we obtain 1 p p = |v |2 U 2 2 1 1 p p = (u U )2 + v 2 U 2 = (u2 + v 2 2uU ) 2 2 1 u v v + 2) p p = uU ( 2 U U u
<<1 <<1 1 u Dropping terms of order U , for thin wing at small AoA v U
<< 1 we obtained the linearized Bernoulli equation p p = uU
Integrating the pressure along the wing surface, we obtain an expression for the total lift L on the wing L = (p p )ny dS =
l/2 l/2 l/2
p(x, 0 ) p p(x, 0+ ) p dx
l/2
L =
l/2
p(x, 0 ) p(x, 0+ ) dx = U
u(x, 0 ) u(x, 0+ ) dx
(1)
l/2
To obtain the total lift on the wing we will seek an expression for u(x, 0 ). Consider a closed contour on the wing, of negligible thickness, as shown in the gure below. ( x)
u ( x,0 + )
t0 u ( x,0 )
In this case we have (x)x = |u(x, 0+ )|x + u(x, 0 )x (x) = |u(x, 0+ )| + u(x, 0 ) For small u/U we can argue that u(x, 0+ ) = u(x, 0 ), and obtain u(x, 0 ) = (x) 2 (2)
From Equations (1), and (2) the total lift can be expressed as l/2 L = U (x)dx = U l/2
=
The same result can be obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski law (for nonlinear foil) /2 U (x)x = U L = U = U (x)x L =
/2
L = U = U ( x) x
t0
= ( x) x x
10
Moment, with respect to mid-chord, due to circulation
l 2
xcp
l 2
L(x) = U (x)x M = xL(x) = U x (x)x /2 U x (x)dx M =

/2
CM =
1 U 2 2 2
The center of pressure xcp , can be obtained by M = Lxcp /2 x (x)dx M /2 = /2 xcp = L (x)dx
/2
11
3.17 Simple Closed-Form Solutions for Theory

1. Flat plate at angle of attack , i.e., = x.
/2 /2 (x)dx
from Linear
Linear lifting theory gives (x), which can be integrated to give the lift coecient CL , L/span = U CL = CL
/2
/2
(x)dx = = U 2
L/span 1 U 2 2 = 2 ( exact nonlinear hydrofoil CL = 2 sin )
the moment coecient CM , M/span = U CM = CM =

/2
/2
x (x)dx = = 1 U 2 2 4
1 2
M/span 1 U 2 2 2
and the center of pressure xcp xcp =

1 4
i.e., at quarter chord
12
2. Parabolic camber = 0 {1 ( 2lx )2 }, at zero AoA = 0.
Linear lifting theory gives (x), which can be integrated to give the lift coecient CL , L/span = U CL = 4 the moment coecient CM , M/span = 0 (from symmetry) CM = 0 and the center of pressure xcp 0
/2
/2
(x)dx = = 2U 2 0 0 camber ratio
, where
xcp = 0
13
2 2x . 3. Linear superposition: Both AoA and camber = x + 0 1
CL = CL + CL = 2 + 4
We can also write the previous relation in a more general form CL () = 2 + CL ( = 0) 4 l0
Lift coecient CL as a function of the angle of attack and
0 . l
In practice even if the camber is not parabolic, we still make use of the previous relations, i.e., CL ( = 0) = 40 / . Also note that the angle of attack for any camber is dened as ( /2) ( /2) = yU yL
and 0 is determined from , where = x.
14
3.18 Unsteady Motion - Added Mass

DAlembert: ideal, irrotational, unbounded, steady. Example Force on a sphere accelerating (U = U (t), unsteady) in an unbounded uid that is at at rest at innity.
3D Dipole
r a
U(t)
n
U(t)
K.B.C on sphere:
= U (t) cos
r =a
Solution: Simply a 3D dipole (no stream) = U (t) Check: r = U (t) cos

r =a
a3 cos 2r2
Hydrodynamic force: Fx =
B
1 + ||2 nx dS t 2
On r = a, t
3 1 a cos | = U r =a = U a cos 2 2r 2 1 1 1 = , , = U cos , U sin , 0 r r r sin 2 1 = U 2 cos2 + U 2 sin2 ; n = e r , nx = cos 4
r =a
|r=a ||2
r =a
dS =
B 0
(ad) (2a sin )
ad
a sin
Finally,
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 Fx = () 2a d (sin ) cos U a cos + 2 U cos + U sin 4 2 0

nx
t
||2
(a3 ) Fx = U
0
d sin cos2
2/3
+ (U 2 )a2
0
d sin cos cos2 +
1 2 sin 4
= 0, Dalembert revisited
Fx
Hydrodynamic Force
(t) = U
Acceleration
Fluid Density
2 3 a 3
Volume =1/2sphere
Thus the Hydrodynamic Force on a sphere of diameter a moving with velocity U (t) in an unbounded uid of density is given by (t) 2 a3 Fx = U 3 Comments: = 0 Fx = 0, i.e., steady translation no force (DAlemberts Condition ok). If U with a () sign, i.e., the uid tends to resist the acceleration. Fx U [ ] has the units of (uid) mass ma Equation of Motion for a body of mass M that moves with velocity U : ma = F = + FB = U M U FH + FB
Body mass Hydrodynamic force S
pn dS
All other forces on body
Fluid mass
= FB (M + ma ) U i.e., the presence of uid around the body acts as an added or virtual mass to the body.
3.19 General 6 Degrees of Freedom Motions

3.19.1 Notation Review (3D) U1 , U2 , U3 : Translational velocities U4 1 , U5 2 , U6 3 : Rotational velocities
2
5
6 3
(2D) U1 , U2 : Translational velocities U6 3 : Rotational velocity U3 = U 4 = U 5 = 0
2
6
3.19.2 Added Mass Tensor (matrix) mij ; i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 mij : associated with force on body in i direction due to unit acceleration in j direction. For example, for a sphere: m11 = m22 = m33 = 1/2 = (mA ) all other mij = 0
3.19.3 Added Masses of Simple 2D Geometries Circle

2
a
m11 = m22 = = a2
Ellipse
2
a b
1
m11 = a2 , m22 = b2
Plate
2
2a
m11 = a2 , m22 = 0
Square
2
2a
2a
m11 = m22 4.754a2
A reasonable approximation to estimate the added mass of a 2D body is to use the displaced mass () of an equivalent cylinder of the same lateral dimension or one that rounds o the body. For example, consider a square and approximate with an (a) inscribed circle: mA = a2 = 3.14a2 .
2a
(b) circumscribed circle: mA =
2a
= 6.28a2 .
(2)a
Arithmetic mean of (a) + (b) 4.71a2 .
3.19.4 Generalized Forces and Moments In this paragraph we are looking at the most general case where forces and moments are induced on rigid body moving with 6 DoF motions, in an unbounded uid that is at rest at innity. Body xed reference frame, i.e., OX1 X2 X3 is xed on the body.
x2
v U( t )
o x3
v ( t )
x1
U (t) = (U1 , U2 , U3 ) , translational velocity (t) = (1 , 2 , 3 ) (U4 , U5 , U6 ) , rotational velocity with respect to O Consider a body with a 6 DoF motion (U , ), and a xed reference frame OX1 X2 X3 . Then the hydrodynamic forces and moments with respect to O are given by the following relations (JNN 4.13) Forces i mji Ejkl Ui k mli Fj = U
1. 2.
with and
i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 j, k, l = 1, 2, 3
Moments i mj +3,i Ejkl Ui k ml+3,i Ejkl Uk Ui mli Mj = U

3. 2. 3.
with and
i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 j, k, l = 1, 2, 3
Einsteins notation applies. 0 1 1 if any j, k, l are equal ifj, k, l are in cyclic order, i.e., (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), or (3, 1, 2) ifj, k, l are not in cyclic order i.e., (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (3, 2, 1)
Ejkl = alternating tensor =
Note: i mji (as expected by denition of mij ). (a) if k 0 , Fj = U i 0, then Fj = 0 for any Ui , no force in steady translation. Also if U (b) Bl Ui mli added momentum due to rotation of axes. Then all the terms marked as 2. are proportional to B where B is linear momentum (momentum from i coordinate into new xj direction). i mj +3,i mij (c) If k 0 : Mj = U
even with
Ejkl Uk Ui mli
=0, Mj =0 U
due to this term
Moment on a body due to pure steady translation Munk moment.
3.19.5 Example Generalized motions, forces and moments. A certain body has non-zero added mass coecients only on the diagonal, i.e. mij = ij . For a body motion given by U1 = t, U2 = t, and all other Ui , i = 0, the forces and moments on the body in terms of mi are: F1 = Solution: mij = ij U1 = t 1 = 1 U U2 = t 2 = 1 U Ui = 0 i = 0 U i = 3, 4, 5, 6 i = 3, 4, 5, 6 k = 0 k = 1, 2, 3 , F2 = , F3 = , M1 = , M2 = , M3 =
Use the relations from (JNN 4.13):

k i mij Ejkl Ui k mil Fj = U i mij Fj = U
=0
k i mi(j +3) Ejkl Ui k mi(l+3) Ejkl Uk Ui mli Mj = U i mi(j +3) Ejkl Uk Ui mli Mj = U
=0
where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and j, k, l = 1, 2, 3 For F1 , F2 , F3 use the previous relationship for Fj with j = 1, 2, 3 respectively: F1 F2 F3 =
Check
1 m11 U 2 m21 U 3 m31 U 4 m41 U 5 m51 U 6 m61 F1 = m11 U

=1 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0
= =
2 m22 F2 = m22 U
=1
Check
3 m33 F3 = 0 U
=0
For M 1, M2 , M3 use the previous relationship for Mj with j = 1, 2, 3 respectively: i mi(1+3) E1kl Uk Ui mli M1 = U i mi4 E1kl Uk Ui mli = U 1 m14 U 2 m24 U 3 m34 U 4 m44 U 5 m54 U 6 m64 = U
=0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0
E123 U2 U1 m13 +U2 m23 + U3 m33 + U4 m43 +U5 m53 +U6 m63
=0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0
E132 U3
=0
U1 m12 + U2 m22 + U3 m32 +U4 m42 +U5 m52 +U6 m62

=0 =1 =0 =0 =0 =0
M1 = 0
i mi5 E2kl Uk Ui mli M2 = U 5 m55 E231 U3 Ui m1i E213 U1 Ui m3i = U = E213 U1 U3 m33 M2 = 0 i mi6 E3kl Uk Ui mli M3 = U 6 m66 E312 U1 Ui m2i E321 U2 Ui m1i = U
+1 1
= U1 U2 m22 + U2 U1 m11 M3 = t2 (m22 m11 )

t t t t
10
3.19.6 Example Munk Moment on a 2D submarine in steady translation

2
1
(out of page)
U1 =U cos U2 = U sin = 0; k = 0. Then Consider steady translation motion: U M3 = E3kl Uk Ui mli For a 2D body, m3i = mi3 = 0, also U3 = 0, i, k, l = 1, 2. This implies that:
M3 = E312 U1 (U1 m21 + U2 m22 ) E321 U2 (U1 m11 + U2 m12 )

=1 =1
= U1 U2 (m22 m11 )
>0
= U 2 sin cos m22 m11 Therefore, M3 > 0 for 0 < < /2 (Bow up). Therefore, a submarine under forward motion is unstable in pitch (yaw). For example, a small bow-up tends to grow with time, and control surfaces are needed as shown in the following gure.
11
B G
Restoring moment (gH )sin. critical speed Ucr given by:

2 sin cos (m22 m11 ) (g ) H sin Ucr
Ucr
2 Usually m22 >> m11 , m22 . For small , cos 1. So, Ucr gH or Fcr U cr 1. Otherwise, control ns are required. gH
12
3.20 Some Properties of Added-Mass Coecients

1. mij = [function of geometry only] , ] F, M = [linear function of mij ] [function of instantaneous U, U
not of motion history
2. Relationship to uid momentum.
F(t)
where we dene to denote the velocity potential that corresponds to unit velocity U = 1. In this case the velocity potential for an arbitrary velocity U is = U . The linear momentum L in the uid is given by L=
V
vdV =
V
dV
=
Greens theorem
+
B
ndS
0 at
Lx (t = T ) =
B
U nx dS = U
B
nx dS
) = mA U . The force exerted on the uid from the body is F (t) = (mA U 1
dt [F (t)] =
0 0
dt = mA U ]T mA U 0
mA U
Newtons Law
Lx (t = T )Lx (t = 0) = U
B
nx dS
Therefore, mA = total uid momentum for a body moving at U = 1 (regardless of how we get there from rest) = uid momentum per unit velocity of body. K.B.C.
n
= n = (U, 0, 0) n = U nx , mA =
= U nx dS n
U n
= U nx
= nx n
For general 6 DOF:
mji
j force/moment idirection of motion
=
B
nj dS =
B
potential due to body moving with Ui =1
j dS = j uid momentum due to n i body motion
3. Symmetry of added mass matrix mij = mji . j n
mji =
B
dS =
B
)dS i (j n
=
Divergence Theorem
(i j ) dV
=
V
i j + i 2 j dV
=0
Therefore, mji =
V
i j dV = mij
4. Relationship to the kinetic energy of the uid. For a general 6 DoF body motion Ui = (U1 , U2 , . . . , U6 ), = Ui i ; i = potential for Ui = 1
notation
1 K.E. = 2
dV = 1 2
V
Ui i Uj j dV
1 = Ui Uj 2
m UU i j dV = 1 2 ij i j
V
K.E. depends only on mij and instantaneous Ui . 5. Symmetry simplies mij . From 36 that some mij = 0 by symmetry.
symmetry
21 ?. Choose such coordinate system
Example 1 Port-starboard symmetry.
m11 m12 0 m22 0 m33 mij = U1 U2 U3
0 0 m34 m44
0 0 m35 m45 m55 2
m16 m26 0 0 0 m66 3 3
Fx Fy Fz Mx My Mz
12 independent coecients
Example 2 Rotational or axi-symmetry with respect to x1 axis.
m11 0 0 m22 0 m22 mij =
0 0 0 0
0 0 m35 0 m55
0 m35 0 0 0 m55
where m22 = m33 , m55 = m66 and m26 = m35 , so 4 dierent coecients
Exercise How about 3 planes of symmetry (e.g. a cuboid); a cube; a sphere?? Work out the details.
3.21 Slender Body Approximation

Denitions (a) Slender Body = a body whose characteristic length in the longitudinal direction is considerably larger than the bodys characteristic length in the other two directions. (b) mij = the 3D added mass coecient in the ith direction due to a unit acceleration in the j th direction. The subscripts i, j run from 1 to 6. (c) Mkl = the 2D added mass coecient in the k th direction due to a unit acceleration in the lth direction. The subscripts k, l take the values 2,3 and 4.
x2
x5
L
x2
x4
x6
x4
x1
x3
x3
Goal To estimate the added mass coecients mij for a 3D slender body. Idea Estimate mij of a slender 3D body using the 2D sectional added mass coecients (strip-wise Mkl ). In particular, for simple shapes like long cylinders, we will use known 2D coecients to nd unknown 3D coecients. mij =
3D
[Mkl (x) contributions]

2D
Discussion If the 1-axis is the longitudinal axis of the slender body, then the 3D added mass coecients mij are calculated by summing the added mass coecients of all the thin slices which are perpendicular to the 1-axis, Mkl . This means that forces in 1-direction cannot be obtained by slender body theory.
Procedure In order to calculate the 3D added mass coecients mij we need to: 1. Determine the 2D acceleration of each crossection for a unit acceleration in the ith direction, 2. Multiply the 2D acceleration by the appropriate 2D added mass coecient to get the force on that section in the j th direction, and 3. Integrate these forces over the length of the body. Examples Sway force due to sway acceleration 3 = 1 and all other uj , u Assume a unit sway acceleration u j = 0, with j = 1, 2, 4, 5, 6. It then follows from the expressions for the generalized forces and moments (Lecture 12, JNN 4.13) that the sway force on the body is given by 3 = m33 m33 = f3 = f3 = m33 u
L
F3 (x)dx
A unit 3 acceleration in 3D results to a unit acceleration in the 3 direction of each 3 = u 2D slice (U 3 = 1). The hydrodynamic force on each slice is then given by 3 = M33 (x) F3 (x) = M33 (x)U Putting everything together, we obtain m33 =
L
M33 (x)dx =
M33 (x)dx
Sway force due to yaw acceleration Assume a unit yaw acceleration u 5 = 1 and all other uj , u j = 0, with j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. It then follows from the expressions for the generalized forces and moments that the sway force on the body is given by f3 = m35 u 5 = m35 m35 = f3 =
L
F3 (x)dx
For each 2D slice, a distance x from the origin, a unit 5 acceleration in 3D, results 3 = xu to a unit acceleration in the -3 direction times the moment arm x (U 5 = x). The hydrodynamic force on each slice is then given by 3 = xM33 (x) F3 (x) = M33 (x)U 6
Putting everything together, we obtain m35 = xM33 (x)dx
Yaw moment due to yaw acceleration Assume a unit yaw acceleration u 5 = 1 and all other uj , u j = 0, with j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. It then follows from the expressions for the generalized forces and moments that the yaw force on the body is given by f5 = m55 u 5 = m55 m55 = f5 = F5 (x)dx
For each 2D slice, a distance x from the origin, a unit 5 acceleration in 3D, results 3 = xu to a unit acceleration in the -3 direction times the moment arm x (U 5 = x). The hydrodynamic force on each slice is then given by 3 = xM33 (x) F3 (x) = M33 (x)U However, each force F3 (x) produces a negative moment at the origin about the 5 axis F5 (x) = xF3 (x) Putting everything together, we obtain m55 = x2 M33 (x)dx
In the same manner we can estimate the remaining added mass coecients mij - noting that added mass coecients related to the 1-axis cannot be obtained by slender body theory.
In summary, the 3D added mass coecients are shown in the following table. The empty boxes may be lled in by symmetry.
m22 = M22 dx m23 = M23 dx m24 = M24 dx m25 = xM23 dx m26 = xM22 dx L L L L L m33 = M33 dx m34 = M34 dx m35 = xM33 dx m36 = xM32 dx L L L L m44 = M44 dx m45 = xM34 dx m46 = xM24 dx L L L m55 = x2 M33 dx m56 = x2 M32 dx L L m66 = x2 M22 dx L
3.22 Buoyancy Eects Due to Accelerating Flow

Example Force on a stationary sphere in a uid that is accelerated against it.
(r, , t) = U (t) r + t a3 2r 2
dipole for sphere
cos
r =a
|r=a 1 ||2 2 Then,

r =a
3a cos =U 2 3 = 0, U sin , 0 2 9 2 2 = U sin 8
Fx = () 2r2
0 3 0
3a cos + 9 U 2 sin2 d sin ( cos ) U 2 8

2 2 9 2
3a =U
d sin cos +U
=2/3
d cos sin3
0 =0
2a Fx = U
4 a3 + 2 a3 3 3 =
Part of Fx is due to the pressure gradient which must be present to cause the uid to accelerate: U U U U 1 p +U +v +w = (ignore gravity) t x y z x
0
x-momentum, noting U = U (t) :
dp for uniform (1D) accelerated ow = U dx Force on the body due to the pressure eld F =
B
pndS =
VB
pdV ;
Fx =
VB
p dV = U x
Buoyancy force due to pressure gradient = U
10
Analogue: Buoyancy force due to hydrostatic pressure gradient. Gravitational accelera = uid acceleration. tion g U ps = gy ps = g j F s = g j Archimedes principle Summary: Total force on a xed sphere in an accelerated ow Fx = U + m(1)
Buoyancy added mass 1 2
3 = 3U m(1) =U 2
In general, for any body in an accelerated ow: m(1) , Fx = Fbuoyany + U where m(1) is the added mass in still water (from now on, m) m for body acceleration with U Fx = U
Added mass coecient

cm = m
in the presence of accelerated ow Cm = 1 + cm
11
Appendix A: More examples on symmetry of added mass tensor

Symmetry with respect to Y (= X-Z plane symmetry) 12 non-zero, independent coefficients
Symmetry with respect to X and Y (= Y-Z and X-Z plane symmetry)
7 non-zero, independent coefficients
12
Axisymmetric with respect to X-axis
Axisymmetric with respect to X axis and X (=Y-Z plane symmetry)
13
Chapter 4 - Real Fluid Eects ( = 0)

Potential Flow Theory Drag = 0. Observed experiment (real uid << 1 but = 0) Drag = 0.
In particular the total drag measured on a body is regarded as the sum of two components: the pressure or form drag, and the skin friction or viscous drag. Total Drag Prole Drag = Pressure Drag or Form Drag Drag Force due to Pressure pn ds
S
Skin Friction Drag or Viscous Drag Drag Force due to Viscous Stresses tds
S
are the normal and tangential unit vectors on the body surface respectively. where n and t The pressure and the viscous stresses on the body surface are p and respectively. The form drag is evaluated by integrating the pressure along the surface of the body. For blu bodies that create large wakes the form drag is total drag. The skin friction drag is evaluated by integrating the viscous stresses on and along the body boundary. For streamlined bodies that do not create appreciable wakes, friction drag is dominant.
4.1 Form Drag

4.1.1 Form Drag on a Blu Body Consider a sphere of diameter d:
U D (Drag)
If no DBC apply then we have seen from Dimensional Analysis that the drag coecient is a function of the Reynolds number only: CD = CD (Re ) The drag coecient CD is dened with respect to the bodys projected area S : CD = D
1 U 2 S 2
1 U 2 2
D d2 /4
Projected area
The Reynolds number Re is dened with respect to the bodys diameter d: Ud The following graph shows the dependence of CD on Re as measured from numerous experiments on spheres. Re =
CD
0.5 0.25 Re
3x105
Figure 1: Drag coecient (CD ) for a sphere for Re > 102 . 2
i) Blu Body Form Drag For a blu body (examples: sphere, cylinder, at plate, etc.) there is appreciable ow separation and a wake is formed downstream of the body. The pressure within the wake is signicantly smaller than that upstream of the body. Therefore the integral of the pressure along the body boundary (= form drag) does not evaluate to zero as predicted by P-Flow. In general, for blu bodies form drag >> friction drag
Flow separation
Real Flow
Potential Flow
Assume: pressure in the wake p (pressure at innity) pressure on the upstream boundary of the body ps (stagnation pressure) Then: D= CD (Projected/frontal area)(ps p )
S
=
Bernoulli
Friction Coecient to be determined
CD S
1 2 U 2
ii) CD = CD (Re ) Regime Dependence In general, for typical blu bodies such as spheres, it is found that CD = CD (Re ) has a form similar to that shown in Figure (1). This means that CD has a regime dependence on Re . There are two main regimes of interest: Laminar regime: Re no separation < Re < Re critical = ( 3 105 )
for a smooth sphere with smooth inow
Laminar boundary layer Separation pt
Drag Stagnation pt
No Stagnation pt
Wake Width ~ Diameter
Wide wake Early separation Large CD =O(1)
Separation pt Laminar boundary layer
Turbulent regime:
Re > Re critical
Turbulent boundary layer Separation pt No Stagnation pt Stagnation pt Separation pt Turbulent boundary layer Wake Width ~ Diameter/2
Narrow wake Delayed separation Smaller CD
iii) Cylinder The drag coecient for a cylinder is dened as: CD =

D
D/L
1 U 2 d 2
CD
1.2 0.6 Re
3x105
Figure 2: Drag coecient (CD ) for a cylinder for Re > 102 iv) Bodies with Fixed Separation Points For bodies with xed separation points, the drag coecient is roughly constant, i.e., does not depend on Re . For example, for a at plate or disc CD 1.2
Separation pt
Separation pt
4.1.2 Boundary Layers L UT v t 2 v + v v = ... + UL

1 Re L
For most ows of interest to us ReL >> 1, i.e., viscosity can be ignored if U, L govern the problem, thus potential ow can be assumed. In the context of potential ow theory, drag = 0! Potential ow (no ij ) allows slip at boundary, but in reality, the no-slip condition applies on the boundaries. Otherwise, if = 0 and a free-slip KBC is imposed then at the boundary. u y Prandtl: There is a length scale (boundary layer thickness << L) over which velocity goes from zero on the wall to the potential ow velocity U outside the boundary layer.
U u=U U L <<L x
u=0
Estimate : Inside the boundary layer, viscous eects are of the same order as the inertial eects. U 2 2U U U2 2 2 U 2 y UL x L L L 1 = << 1 As ReL , UL ReL
Generally: ReL >> 1, L << 1, thus potential ow is good outside a very thin boundary layer (i.e., provided no separation - a real uid eect). For Reynolds number not >> 1(Re O(1)), then thick boundary layer ( O(L)) and Prandtls boundary layer idea not useful. If separation occurs, then boundary layer idea is not valid.
4.1.3 Boundary Layers and Flow Separation Boundary layers help understand ow separation. Example for ow past a circle. Outside the boundary layer P-Flow is valid. Let capital U denote the potential ow tangential velocity on the circle and let x denote the distance along the circle surface (i.e., x = body coordinate). From the steady inviscid x-momentum equation (steady Euler) along the body boundary (y = 0, V = 0), we obtain :
dU 1 dp = dx dx
(1)
Note 1: Equation (1) is used frequently in boundary layer theory. dp Note 2: From Equation (1) for ow past a at plate dx = 0 along the plate.
P Flow solution on body y =0 : U dU 1 dp = dx dx
y
U0
U = U max
boundary layer : u,
x
U =0
U =0
dU >0 dx dp <0 dx
dU <0 dx dp >0 dx
dU dx dp dx
>0 <0
Acceleration Favorable pressure gradient
dU dx dp dx
<0 >0
Deceleration Adverse pressure gradient
X2 X1
X3 X4 X5
X=X1
X2 > X1
P p
P p
U1 P>p
u U2 > U1 Flow is being pushed to attach
X3 > X2
X4 > X3
P p u
U3 U2 3 > 0
u v = 0, = 0 y
U4 U3
4 = 0 X4 is defined as the point of separation
X5 > X4
U5
U4
Separated Flow 5 < 0 Flow reversal
A better way to think about separation is in terms of diusion of vorticity.
=0 outside B.L.
(y)
4 = 0
3 removed from fluid by diffusion
(y)
added to fluid
Think of vorticity as heat; (y ) is equivalent to a temperature distribution. Note: DV D = ... + 2 = ... + 2 V and Dt Dt
13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 16 4.1.4 Vortex Shedding and Vortex Induced Vibrations Consider a steady ow Uo over a blu body with diameter D.
Fy (lift)
U0
D
Fx (drag)
We would expect the average forces to be: However, the measured oscillatory forces are:
F Fx
Average F Average Fx
Fy
Fy
The measured drag Fx is found to oscillate about a non-zero mean value with frequency 2f . The measured lift Fy is found to oscillate about a zero mean value with frequency f. f = /2 is the frequency of vortex shedding or Strouhal frequency.
Reason: Flow separation leads to vortex shedding. The vortices are shed in a staggered array, within an unsteady non-symmetric wake called von Karman Street. The frequency of vortex shedding is the Strouhal frequency and is a function of Uo , D, and .
Fy Von Karman Street Fx
Uo
Strouhal frequency
i) Strouhal Number We dene the (dimensionless) Strouhal number S
f D . U0
The Strouhal number S has a regime dependence on the Re number S = S (Re ). For a cylinder: Laminar ow S 0.22 Turbulent ow S 0.3
0.3 0.22
S(Re)
105
106
107 Re
ii) Drag and Lift The drag and lift coecients CD and CL are functions of the correlation length. For correlation length: If the cylinder is xed, CL O(1) comparable to CD . If the cylinder is free to move, as the Strouhal frequency fS approaches one of the cylinders natural frequencies fn , lock-in occurs. Therefore, if one natural frequency is close to the Strouhal Frequency fn fS , we have large amplitude motions Vortex Induced Vibration (VIV). 2
4.2 Drag on a Very Streamlined Body

UL
1 U 2 2
R eL Cf
Uo
D b L
D (Lb)
area one side of plate
S =wetted
Cf = Cf (ReL , L/b) Unlike a blu body, Cf is a strong function of ReL since D is proportional to See an example of Cf versus ReL for a at plate in the gure below.
Cf
0.01 Laminar Turbulent
= u . y
0.001 105 106 Re
Skin friction coecient as a function of the Re for a at plate
ReL depends on plate smoothness, ambient turbulence, . . . In general, Cf s are much smaller than CD s (Cf /CD O(0.1) to O(0.01)). Therefore, designing streamlined bodies allows minimal separation and smaller form drag at the expense of friction drag. In general, for streamlined bodies CTotal Drag is a combination of CD (Re ) and Cf (ReL ), 1 2 and the total drag is D = 2 U CD S + C f Aw , where CD has a regime
frontal area wetted area
dependence on Re and Cf is a continuous function ReL .
4.3 Known Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations

4.3.1 Boundary Value Problem Navier-Stokes: v 1 1 + ( v ) v = p + 2 v+ f t Conservation of mass: v=0 Boundary conditions on solid boundaries no-slip: v=U Equations very dicult to solve, analytic solution only for a few very special cases (usually when v = 0. . . ) v
4.3.2 Steady Laminar Flow Between 2 Long Parallel Plates: Plane Couette Flow
y U h x z
Steady, viscous, incompressible ow between two innite plates. The ow is driven by a pressure gradient in x and/or motion of the upper plate with velocity U parallel to the x-axis. Neglect gravity.
Assumptions i. Steady Flow: ii. (x, z ) >> h: iii. Pressure:

t v x
Governing Equations Continuity: =0 NS:

u x v t
Boundary Conditions v = (0, 0, 0) on y = 0 v = (0, 0, 0) on y = h
=0 =
v z
v y
w z
=0
1 + v v = p + 2 v
independent of z
Continuity u v w v + + =0 = 0 v = v (x, z ) v = 0 x y z y BC: v (x,0,z )=0

=0,
from assumption ii
(1)
Momentum x
2 u u u u 1 p u 2u 2u +u + v +w = + + + 2 t x y z x x2 y 2 z =0, (1)
=0,
i
=0,
ii
=0,
ii
=0,
ii
=0,
ii
u 1 p = 2 y x
(2)
Momentum y v 1 p + v v = + 2 v t y
=0, =0,
(1)
=0,
(1)
p =0 y
assumption iii
p = p(x) and
p dp = x dx
(3)
Momentum z
2 w w u w 1 p w 2w 2w +u + v +w = + + + 2 t x y z z x2 y 2 z =0, (1)
=0, 2
i
=0,
ii
=0,
ii
=0,
iii
=0,
ii
=0,
ii
w = 0 w = ay + b y 2
w(x,0,z )=0 w(x,h,z )=0
w=0
(4)
From Equations (1), (4) v = (u, 0, 0). Also
assumption ii
u = u(y ) and
u du = y dy
(5)
From Equations (2), (3, and (5) d2 u 1 d2 p 1 dp 2 = u= y +C1 y +C2 dy 2 dx2 2 dx

=
u(x,0,z )=0 w(x,h,z )=U
1 u= 2
dp y (h y )y + U dx h
Special cases for Couette ow y dp dp u(y ) = 21 (h y )y ( dx )+Uh , where ( dx )= I. U = 0,

dp dx
Px Px+L L
>0
II. U = 0,
dp dx
=0
dp )>0 dx
u ( h) = U = 0
dp )=0 dx
u ( h) = U
p
u ( 0) = 0
h
u ( y) u ( 0) = 0 u ( y)
Parabolic profile
Linear profile
Velocity u(y ) =
1 (h 2 dp y )y ( dx ) y u(y ) = U h
Max velocity umax = u(h/2) =

dp h2 ( dx ) 8
umax = U
Volume ow rate h dp h3 Q = 0 u(y )dy = 8 ( dx ) Average velocity u =

Q h dp h2 ( dx ) 6
Q= h U 2
U 2
u =
Viscous stress on bottom plate (skin friction) dp du w = dy =h dx > 0 w = 2

y =0
du dy
y =0
= U h
III. U = 0,
dp dx
= 0
u ( h) = U
h
U > 0, (
U
back flow
u ( h) = U
w
dp ) > 0, G > 0 dx
w
U > 0, ( dp ) < 0, G < 0 dx
dp dx
>0
dp dx
<0
Viscous stress on bottom plate (skin friction) dp w = h dx + U 2 h

< w = 0 >
dp < 2U when ( )= 2 , in which case the ow is dx > h
attached insipient separated
For the general case of U = 0 and
dp dx
= 0,
h dp U + 2 dx h We dene a Dimensionless Pressure Gradient G w = G such that G > 0 denotes a favorable pressure gradient G < 0 denotes an adverse pressure gradient G = 1 denotes an incipient ow G < 1 denotes a separated or back-ow h2 dp 2U dx
u ( h) = U
h
U > 0, ( dp ) > 0, G > 0 dx
U
back flow
u ( h) = U
u ( h) = U
U > 0, (
dp ) < 0, G < 0 dx
U > 0, (
dp ) < 0, G = 1 w = 0 dx
Lessons learned in 4.3.2: 1. Reviewed how to simplify the Navier-Stokes equations. 2. Obtained one solution to the Navier-Stokes equations. 3. Realized that once the Navier-Stokes are solved we know everything. In the next paragraph we are going to study one more solution to the Navier-Stokes equation, in polar coordinates. 9
4.3.3 Steady Laminar Flow in a Pipe: Poiseuille Flow x

y
z L
r=a Vx(r)
Steady, laminar pipe ow. (r2 = y 2 + z 2 , v = (vx , vr , v )) Assumptions i. Steady Flow: ii. (x, z ) >> h:
t v x
KBC: vx (a) = 0 (no slip) and dvx dr (0) = 0 (symmetry). Governing Equations Boundary Conditions =0 vx (r = a) = 0 no-slip
dvx dr |r=0
=0 =
v
Continuity: =0 NS:
1 rvr r r
1 v r
vx x
In polar coordinates (see SAH pp.74)
= 0 symmetry
v = v (r) iii. Pressure: independent of
Following a procedure similar to that for plane Couette ow (left as an exercise ) we can show that 1 dp 1 d dvx vr = v = 0, vx = vx (r), p = p(x), and = r dx r dr dr
r component of 2 in cylindrical coordinates
After applying the boundary conditions we nd: 1 dp 2 a r2 vx (r) = 4 dx Therefore the volume ow rate is given by 2 a 4 dp Q= d rdrvx (r) = a 8 dx 0 0 and the skin friction evaluates to vr vx vx a dp w = x (r) = xy = ( + ) = w = x r r=a r r=a 2 dx 10
4.4 Boundary Layer Growth Over an Innite Flat Plate for Unsteady Flow
Boundary layer thickness is related to the area where the viscosity and vorticity eects are diused. For a ow over an innite at plate, the boundary layer thickness increases unless it is constrained in the y direction and/or by time (unsteady ow). 1. Steady ow, constrained in y For a steady ow past a at plate, the boundary layer thickness increases with x. If the ow is constrained in y , eventually the viscous eects are diused along the entire cross section and the ow becomes invariant in the streamwise direction. In paragraphs 4.3.2 and 4.3.3, we studied two cases of steady laminar viscous ows, where the viscous eects had diused along the entire cross section.
y U0
h
x
boundary layer thickness increases with x
Couette flow for x >> h
Steady
Couette Poiseuille
ow, we assumed that viscous eects diused through entire
h a
11
2. Unsteady ow, unconstrained in y Consider the simplest example of an innite plate in unsteady motion.
y
U(t) x
Assumptions p = 0,
v x
v z
=0 v = v (y, t)
Can show v = w = 0 and u = u(y, t). Finally, from u momentum (Navier-Stokes in x) we obtain
2 2 2
u u u u 1 p u u u +u + v +w = + 2 + 2 + 2 x t x y z x y z =0
=0 =0 =0 =0 =0
u 2u = 2 t y Equation (6) is:
momentum diusion equation

velocity (heat)
(6)
rst order PDE in time requires 1 Initial Condition second order PDE in y requires 2 Boundary Conditions - u(y, t) = U (t) at y = 0, for t > 0 - u(y, t) 0 as y From Equation (6), we observe that the ow over a moving at plate is due to viscous dissipation only. 12
4.5.1 Sinusoidally Oscillating Plate i. Evaluation of the Velocity Prole for Stokes Boundary Layer The ow over an oscillating at plate is referred to as Stokes Boundary Layer. Recall that ei = cos + i sin where is real. Assume that the plate is oscillating with U (t) = Uo cos t = Real {Uo eit }. From linear theory, it is known that the uid velocity must have the form (7) u (y, t) = Real f (y ) eit , where f(y) is the unknown complex (magnitude & phase) amplitude of oscillation. To obtain an expression for f (y ), simply substitute (7) in (6). This leads to: if = d2 f dy 2 (8)
Equation (8) is a 2nd order ODE for f (y ). The general solution is (1+i) /2 y (1+i) /2 y f (y ) = C1 e + C2 e
(9)
The velocity prole is obtained from Equations (7), (9) after we apply the Boundary Conditions. u(y, t) must be bounded as y C1 = 0 u (y, t) = Uo (ey 2 ) cos y + t u(y = 0, t) = U (t) f (y = 0) = Uo C2 = Uo 2 Stokes Boundary Layer
13
ii. Some Calculations for the Stokes Boundary Layer Once the velocity prole is evaluated, we know everything about the ow.
y
= 2
1/ e
1
1/ e
u(y ) Uo
u( y) Uo
Stokes Boundary Layer. Velocity ratio
as a function of the distance from the plate y .
Observe:
u(y, t) = Uo
cos y + t 2 Exponentially decaying (e

y
2
(10)
envelope
Oscillating component
SBL thickness
u The ratio U is composed of an exponentially decaying part thickness of SBL decays o exponentially with y . We dene various parameters that can be used as measures of the SBL thickness:
We dene 1/e as the distance y from the plate where U1o/e = 1 . Substituting e into (10), we nd that 1/e = 2 () The oscillating component has wave length = 2 2 = 2 . At , uU = 0.002. o We dene 1% as the distance y from the plate, where u(1% ) 4.6 . into (10), we nd that 1% = ln( Uo ) 2 = 14
u(1% ) Uo
u(
= 1%. Substituting
Numerical examples: For oscillating plate in water ( = 106 m2 /s= 1mm2 /s) we have 4.6 1% = T = 2.6 T
in mm in sec
T = 1s
1% 3mm 1cm
10s Excursion length and SBL The plate undergoes a motion of amplitude A.
= A cos(t) = Uo X = A sin(t) U = X A
Uo
Comparing the SBL thickness with A, we nd / A/Uo 1 = = A A A Uo A ReA Uo

=
A
Skin friction The skin friction on the plate is given by u w = sin t cos t = . . . = Uo y y=0 2 The maximum skin friction on the wall is |w |max = Uo and occurs at t =
3 7 , 4 , 4
15
4.5.2 Impulsively Started Plate

U(t) Uo
Recall Equation (6) that describes the the ow u(y, t) over an innite at plate undergoing unsteady motion. u 2u = 2 t y For an impulsively started plate, the Boundary Conditions are: u(o, t) = Uo for t > 0, i.e. u(y, 0) = 0 u(, t) = 0 Notice that the problem stated by Equation (6) with the above Boundary Conditions has no explicit time scale. In this case it is standard procedure to (a) use Dimensional Analysis to nd the similarity parameters of the problem, and (b) look for solution in terms of the similarity parameters: y u u =f = f ( ) Uo Uo 2 t
similarity parameter
u = f (Uo , y, t, )
DA
Self similar solution
The velocity prole is thus given by : u 2 = erfc ( ) = 1 erf ( ) = 1 Uo

Complementary error function
e d
0
2
16
Hints on obtaining the solution: y = 2 t 2 u = u d(u/Uo ) d2 (u/Uo ) t y 2 y = = = . . . t t 4t t d d 2 2 2 2nd order ODE 2 1 2 = y 2 = 4t 2 y 2
Boundary layer thickness In the same manner as for the SBL, we dene various parameters that can be used to measure the boundary layer thickness: ( ) 2 t. At y = uU = 0.16. o 1% = 1.82 . Excursion length and boundary layer thickness L At time t, the plate has travelled a distance L = Uo t t = U . o Comparing the boundary layer thickness with L, we nd L/Uo t 1 = = L L L Uo L ReL Skin friction The skin friction on the plate is given by u Uo w = = . . . = y y=0 t
17
4.6 Laminar Boundary Layers

y L
U potential flow u, v viscous flow x
Uo
4.6.1 Assumptions 2D ow: w, Steady ow: 0 and u (x, y ) , v (x, y ) , p (x, y ) , U (x, y ). z 0. t
For << L, use local (body) coordinates x, y , with x tangential to the body and y normal to the body. u tangential and v normal to the body, viscous ow velocities (used inside the boundary layer). U, V potential ow velocities (used outside the boundary layer). 1
4.6.2 Governing Equations Continuity u v + =0 x y Navier-Stokes: u u u 1 p +v = + x y x v v 1 p u +v = + x y y 2u 2u + x2 y 2 2v 2v + x2 y 2 (1)
(2) (3)
4.6.3 Boundary Conditions KBC Inside the boundary layer: No-slip u(x, y = 0) = 0 No-ux v (x, y = 0) = 0 Outside the boundary layer the velocity has to match the P-Flow solution. Let y y/ , y y/L, and x x/L. Outside the boundary layer y but y 0. We can write for the tangential and normal velocities u(x , y ) = U (x , y 0) u(x , y ) = U (x , 0), and v (x , y ) = V (x , y 0) v (x , y ) = V (x , 0) = 0
No-ux P-Flow
In short: u(x, y ) = U (x, 0) v (x, y ) = 0 DBC As y , the pressure has to match the P-Flow solution. The x-momentum equation at y = 0 gives U U 1 dp 2U dp U U +V = + = U 2 dx dx x y x y
0
0
4.6.4 Boundary Layer Approximation Assume that ReL >> 1, then (u, v ) is conned to a thin layer of thickness (x) << L. For ows within this boundary layer, the appropriate order-of-magnitude scaling / normalization is: Variable Scale u x y v U L V =? Normalization u = U u x = Lx y = y v = V v
Non-dimensionalize the continuity, Equation (1), to relate V to U U L u x
V +
v y
= 0 = V = O
U L
Non-dimensionalize the x-momentum, Equation (2), to compare with L U2 L u u x
UV +
O(U 2 /L)
u v y
1 p U = + 2 x
2 2 L
2u x2
2u y 2
ignore
The inertial eects are of comparable magnitude to the viscous eects when: U2 U 2 = L L The pressure gradient
p x
1 = << 1 UL R eL
must be of comparable magnitude to the inertial eects p U2 =O x L
Non-dimensionalize the y -momentum, Equation (3), to compare UV L

O( U L
2 ) L
p y
to
p x
v x
V2
O( U L
2 ) L
v y
1 p + y
V L2
O( U L
2 3 ) L3
2v x2
V 2
O( U L
2 ) L
2v y 2
The pressure gradient
p y
must be of comparable magnitude to the inertial eects p U2 =O y L L
Comparing the magnitude of
p x
to
p y
we observe while = p U2 =O x L p 0 y = =
p U2 = O y L L p p << y x p = p(x) Note:
- From continuity it was shown that V /U O(/L) v << u, inside the boundary layer.
p = 0, p = p(x) inside the boundary layer. This means that - It was shown that y the pressure across the boundary layer is constant and equal to the pressure outside the boundary layer imposed by the external P-Flow.
4.6.5 Summary of Dimensional BVP Governing equations for 2D, steady, laminar boundary layer u v + =0 x y u u x-momentum : u +v = x y
Continuity : y - momentum :
1 dp dx
2u y 2
U dU/dx, y =0
p =0 y
Boundary Conditions KBC : u(x, 0) = 0 v (x, 0) = 0 At y/ : u(x, y/ ) = U (x, 0) v (x, y/ ) = 0 At y=0 DBC
IN the b.l. dp U 1 = U or p(x) = C U 2 (x, 0) dx x 2 Bernoulli for the P-Flow at y =0
4.6.6 Denitions
Displacement thickness
0
u dy U
Momentum thickness
u u 1 dy U U
Physical Meaning of and Assume a 2D steady ow over a at plate. Recall for steady ow over at plate
dp dx
= 0 and pressure p = const.
Choose a control volume ([0, x] [0, y/ ]) as shown in the gure below.
y / Uo
Q
4
CV
Uo
3
Uo
P - Flow
Boundary Layer
u(y)
2
0
CV for steady ow over a at plate.
Control Volume book-keeping Surface 1 2 3 4 n i j i j v i Uo 0 vn Uo 0 v (v n )

2 i Uo
pn i p j p i p j p
0 u2 (x, y ) i + u(x, y )v (x, y ) j i + v 2 (x, y ) v (x, y )Uo j
i + v (x, y ) u(x, y ) j u(x, y ) i + v (x, y ) j Uo v (x, y )
Conservation of mass, for steady CV v ndS =0

0 0 0
1234
Uo dy +
0
u(x, y )dy +
0 0
v (x , y )dx = 0
Q
Q=
Uo dy
udy =
(Uo u)dy = Uo
u dy Q = U0 Uo
where () are the dummy variables. Conservation of momentum in x, for steady CV u( v n )dS =
0 0 0
1234 0 0 0 0 2 Uo
Fx u2 (x, y )dy +
x 0
2 Uo dy +
v (x , y )Uo dx =
x 0
pdy
pdy +
Fx,f riction
2 Uo dy +
u2 (x, y )dy + Uo
v (x , y )dx =
Q
Fx,f riction
2 Uo dy +
u2 (x, y )dy + Uo
(Uo u)dy = Fx,f riction
Fx,f riction
2 2 + u 2 + Uo Uo u dy = Uo 0
u2 u dy = 2 Uo Uo
2 Uo 0
Fx,f riction u u 1 dy Uo Uo
2 Fx,f riction = Uo
Fx,f riction =
4.7 Steady Flow over a Flat Plate: Blasius Laminar Boundary Layer
y
Uo
Steady ow over a at plate: BLBL
4.7.1 Derivation of BLBL Assumptions Steady, 2D ow. Flow over at plate U = U0 , V = 0, LBL governing equations u v + =0 x y u u 2u u +v = 2 x y y Boundary conditions u = v = 0 on y = 0 dp =0 dx
y >> 1 Solution Mathematical solution in terms of similarity parameters. v V = 0, u Uo outside the BL, i.e., u U and y y Uo = y= x x Rx u (x, y ) = F ( ) Uo self similar solution 8 x Uo
Similarity solution must have the form
We can obtain a PDE for F by substituting into the governing equations. The PDE has no-known analytical solution. However, Blasius provided a numerical solution. Once again, once the velocity prole is evaluated we know everything about the ow. 4.7.2 Summary of BLBL Properties: , 0.99 , , , o , D, Cf u (x, y ) = Uo F
evaluated numerically
( ) ;
=y
Uo ; x
x ; Uo
y = x
Rx
local R#
x Uo x , i.e., .99 Uo
.99 = 4.9 = 1.72 = 0.664
= 4.9 x, 1 x
Uo
x , i.e., = 1.72 Uo x Uo
1 = Uo x Rx
2 o w = 0.332Uo
Uo x
1/2
2 = 0.332 Uo Rx
1/2
local R#
1 o x 3/2 o U o
Total drag on plate L x B

L
D= B
width
2 o dx (BL) = 0.664 Uo 0
Uo L
ReL
1/2
L,
D U 3/2
1/2
Friction (drag) coecient: Cf =

1 2
1.328 1 D Cf , = 2 (Uo ) (BL) R eL L
1 Cf U
Cf
0.008
Blasius Laminar Boundary Layer 1.328 Cf Re L Turbulent Boundary Layer
103
3 105
Turbulent Boundary Layer C f for flat plate (JNN 2.3)
5 Re x ~ 3 10 Transition at Re ~ 600
Re L
Skin friction coecient as a function of Re .
A look ahead: Turbulent Boundary Layers Observe form the previous gure that the function Cf, laminar (Re ) for a laminar boundary layer is dierent from the function Cf, turbulent (Re ) for a turbulent boundary layer for ow over a at plate. Turbulent boundary layers will be discussed in proceeding Lecture.
10
4.8 Laminar Boundary Layers for Flow Over a Body of General Geometry
The velocity prole given in BLBL is the exact velocity prole for a steady, laminar ow over a at plate. What is the velocity prole for a ow over any arbitrary body? In general it is dp/dx = 0 and the boundary layer governing equations cannot be easily solved as was the case for the BLBL. In this paragraph we will describe a typical approximative procedure used to solve the problem of ow over a body of general geometry.
1. Solve P-Flow outside B B0 2. Solve boundary layer equations (with P term) get (x) 3. From B0 + B 4. Repeat steps (1) to (3) until no change
x L
P 0 U const.
B0
von Karmans zeroth moment integral equation d 0 dU = U 2 (x)(x) + (x)U (x) dx dx (4)
Approximate solution method due to Polthausen for general geometry (dp/dx = 0) using von Karmans momentum integrals. The basic idea is the following: we assume an approximate velocity prole (e.g. linear, 4th order polynomial, . . .) in terms of an unknown parameter (x). From the velocity prole we can immediately calculate , and o as functions of (x) and the P-Flow velocity U (x). Independently from the boundary layer approximation, we obtain the P-Flow solution outside the boundary layer U (x), dU . dx Upon substitution of , , o , U (x), dU in von Karmans moment integral equation(s) dx we form an ODE for in terms of x. 11
Example for a 4th order polynomial Polthausen velocity prole Polthausen proles - a family of proles as a function of a single parameter (x) (shape function factor). Assume an approximate velocity prole, say a 4th order polynomial: u (x, y ) y y = a (x) + b (x) U (x, 0)
2
+ c (x)
+ d (x)
(5)
There can be no constant term in (5) for the no-slip BC to be satised y = 0, i.e, u(x, 0) = 0. We use three BCs at y = u u 2u = 1, = 0, = 0, at y = U y y 2 (6)
From (6) in (5), we re-write the coecients a(x), b(x), c(x) and d(x) in terms of (x) a = 2 + /6, b = /2, c = 2 + /2, d = 1 /6
u(x,y ) in terms of a single unknown To specify the approximate velocity prole U (x,0) parameter we use the x-momentum equation at y = 0, where u = v = 0
u u U 2u +v =U + 2 x y x y
0 1 dp dx
b=
y =0
1 2
dU 2 dx
(x) =
dU 2 (x) dx
2bU 2
Observe:
dU dx
> 0 : favorable pressure gradient < 0 : adverse pressure gradient y 3 + 1 y 2 y 4 + y 2 1 y + 2
Putting everything together: u (x, y ) y = 2 2 U (x, 0) dU 2 1 + dx 6 12
1 y 6
u(x,y ) Once the approximate velocity prole U is given in terms of a single unknown (x,0) parameter (x), then , and o are evaluated
=
0
u dy = U
3 1 dU 2 10 120 dx 37 1 dU 2 1 dU 2 315 945 dx 9072 dx 1 dU 2 6 dx

2
=
0
u u 1 dy = U U u y =
y =0
o = Notes:
2+
- Incipient ow (o = 0) for = 12. However, recall that once the ow is separated the boundary layer theory is no longer valid. - For dU = 0 = 0 Pohlhausen prole diers from Blasius LBL only by a dx few percent. we substitute everything into After we solve the P-Flow and determine U (x), dU dx von Karmans momentum integral equation (4) to obtain d 1 dU d2 U/dx2 = g ( ) + h( ) dx U dx dU/dx where g, h are known rational polynomial functions of . 2 This is an ODE for = (x) where U, dU , d U are specied from the P-Flow dx dx2 solution. General procedure: 1. Make a reasonable approximation in the form of (5), 2. Apply sucient BCs at y = , and the x-momentum at y = 0 to reduce (5) as a function a single unknown , 3. Determine U (x) from P-Flow, and 4. Finally substitute into Von Karmans equation to form an ODE for (x). Solve either analytically or numerically to determine the boundary layer growth as a function of x. 13
4.9 Turbulent Flow Reynolds Stress

Assume a ow v with a time scale T . Let denote a time scale << T . We can then write for each component of the velocity ui = u i + ui where by denition u i = It immediately follows that ui = ui u u i = u i u i = 0, also u i = etc. i x x Substitute Eq. (1) into continuity and average over , i.e., take ( ) u i ui ui = + = 0, xi xi xi
0 0
(1)
ui dt
u i =0 xi ui =0 xi
but
ui =0= xi
0
u i xi
, just shown
ui , xi
Substitute Eq. (1) into the momentum equations and take ( ) ui ui 1 ij 1 p + uj = = + 2 ui xi t xj xj ui u i ui = + ; similarly t t t
0
2 2 ui = ui
p xi
( p+ xi
p)=
p xi
etc.
uj
ui u i u i u = u j + uj ( ui + u i ) = u j + uj +u j i +uj u xj xj xj xj xj xj i
0 0
but from continuity we have uj ui = u u ui xj xj j i uj xj

0by continuity
and thus we nally obtain u i 1 p u i +u j = + 2 u i uu t xj xi xj i j

1 xj ij
Reynolds averaged N-S equation: Reynolds stress: Rij ui uj
u i u i 1 +u j = ij ui uj t xj xj
4.10 Turbulent Boundary Layer Over a Smooth Flat Plate

We have already seen that the function of the friction coecient Cf (ReL ) diers for laminar and turbulent ows. In this paragraph we will discuss the case of a turbulent boundary layer. Following a procedure similar to that for ow past a body of general geometry, we will use an approximate velocity prole, obtain the P-Flow solution and eventually substitute everything into von Karmans momentum integral equation. The velocity proles used in practice are either empirical ((1/7)th power) or semi-empirical (logarithmic) laws.
log
u Uo
U
o
1/7
Uo
log
4.10.1 (1/7)th Power Velocity Prole Law Let the velocity prole be determined by the following empirical law y u = Uo where = (x) is to be determined. From equation (2) we can obtain directly and = 8 7 = = 0.0972 72
1/7
(2)
However, we need to use an additional empirical law to determine the skin friction. From Blasius law of friction for pipes we obtain an expression for o o = 0.0227 2 Uo 3 Uo
1/ 4
From P-Flow for ow past a at plate we have U (x) = U0 = const, and dp/dx = 0 Substituting , , o , Uo into von Karmans moment equation o d = () = 0.0227 2 dx Uo Uo
1/ 4
7 d 72 dx
This is a 1s t order ODE for . One BC is required. We assume that the the ow is tripped at x = 0, i.e., at x = 0 the ow is already turbulent. Further on, we assume that the turbulent boundary layer starts at x = 0, i.e., (0) = 0. It follows that (x) = 0.373x Compare: Laminar Boundary Layer Turbulent Boundary Layer (1/7th power law) (x) x4/5 (x) x 1/5 x x4 0 . 047 = = 1.72 U Uo o Once the prole has been determined we can evaluate the friction drag
2 1/5 D = 0.036 Uo BL Re L
Uo x
1/5
1/5 = 0.373Re x x
Thus, the friction coecient for turbulent (tripped and/or ReL > 5 105 ) ow over a at plate is D 1/5 = 0.073Re Cf = L 1 U 2 BL 2 o 4.10.2 Logarithmic Velocity Prole Law If the velocity prole is determined by the semi-empirical logarithmic velocity prole law, following an approach similar to that for the 1/7th power law, we obtain Schoenherrs formula for the friction coecient 0.242 = log10 (ReL Cf ) Cf 4
4.10.3 Summary of Boundary Layer Over a Flat Plate Turbulent BL (1/7th power law) 1/5 Re x x x
1/5 = 0.047xRe x4/5 x 2 1/4 o = 0.0227Uo Re 2 1/2 o = 0.332Uo Rex 2 1/2 D = 0.664U0 (BL)Re L 2 1/5 o = 0.02297Uo Rex 2 1/5 D = 0.03625U0 (BL)Re L
Laminar BL (Blasius) 1/2 Re x x

1/2 = 1.72xRe x
Cf
D
2 (BL) Uo
1/2 = 1.328Re L
Cf
D
2 (BL) Uo
1/5 = 0.0725Re L
For o , the cross-over is at Rex 3.4 x 103 , i.e., (o )laminar > (o )turbulent for Rex < 3.4 103 (o )laminar (o )turbulent for Rex 3.4 103 (o )laminar < (o )turbulent for Rex > 3.4 103
Cf
C f L ~ RL
C fT ~ RL
Therefore, for most prototype scales: (Cf )turbulent > (Cf )laminar (o )turbulent > (o )laminar
~ 0.01 ln (RL) RL ~ 1.6 x 104
Turbulent Boundary Layers: Roughness Eects

So far, we have assumed a hydraulically smooth surface. In practice, it is rarely so, due to fouling, rust, rivets, etc. . . .
Viscous sublayer Uo v k = characteristic roughness height
To account for roughness we rst dene an equivalent sand roughness coecient k (units: [L]), a measure of the characteristic roughness height. The parameter that determines the signicance of the roughness k is the ratio k We thus distinguish the following two cases, depending of the value of the ratio actual surface - e.g., ship hull.
k
on the
1. Hydraulically smooth surface For k < v << , where v is the viscous sub-layer thickness, k does not aect the turbulent boundary layer signicantly. k << 1 Cf Cf , smooth Cf = Cf (ReL ) 1
2. Hydraulically rough surface For k >> >> v , the ow will resemble what is sketched in the following gure.
separation
k v
In terms of sand grains: each sand grain can be thought of as a blu body. The ow, thus separates downstream of each sand grain. Recalling that drag due to separation = form drag >> viscous drag we can approximate the friction drag as the resultant drag due to the separation behind each sand grain. k k >> 1 Cf Cf , rough Cf = Cf ( , ReL ) L
weak dependence
k/l Cf k/l = constant
C D F (Re L )
C f rough
RL
C f smooth
Cf , rough has only a weak dependence on ReL , since for blu bodies CD = F (ReL )
In summary The important parameter is k/ : k << 1 : hydraulically smooth (x) k >> 1 : rough (x) Therefore, for the same k , the smaller the , the more important the roughness k .
4.11.1 Corollaries 1. Exactly scaled models (e.g. hydraulic models of rivers, harbors, etc. . . ) Same relative roughness: k const for model and prototype L k kL k = ReL 1/5 L L k for ReL For Re model << Re prototype : k k < m p (Cf )m < (Cf )p
2. Roughness Allowance. Often, the model is hydraulically smooth while the prototype is rough. In practice, the roughness of the prototype surface is accounted for indirectly.
Cf
Uk = Rk = constant
Cf remains constant with Rl
RL
C f smooth
Uk . For a given Rek , the friction coecient Cf is increased by almost a constant for Uk = Rek = const over a wide range of ReL . If the model is hydraulically smooth, can we account for the roughness of the prototype? Notice that Cf = Cf (Rek ) has only a weak dependence on ReL . We can therefore, run an experiment using hydraulically smooth model, and add Cf to the nal friction coecient for the prototype For the same ship (Re same), dierent k gives dierent Rek = Cf (ReL ) = Cf smooth + Cf (Rek ) not (ReL )
Gross estimate: For ships, we typically use Cf = 0.0004. Reality: k = R ek Rek = = /L ReL R eL 4 / 5
k as ReL , i.e., Cf smaller for larger ReL . Hughes Method Adjust for ReL dependence of Cfrough . Cfrough = Cfsmooth (1 + ) = Cf = Cfsmooth (ReL ) i.e., As ReL , Cf . 4
ReL 1/5
Chapter 5 - Model Testing.

5.1 Steady Flow Past General Bodies
- In general, CD = CD (Re ). - For blu bodies Form drag >> Friction drag CD const CP (within a regime) Recall that the form drag (CP ) has only regime dependence on Reynolds number, i.e, its NOT a function of Reynolds number within a regime. - For streamlined bodies CD (Re ) = Cf (Re ) + CP 5.1.1 Steps followed in model testing: (a) Perform an experiment with a smooth model at ReM (ReM << ReS ) and obtain the model drag CDM . (b) Calculate CP M = CDM Cf M (ReM ) = CP S = CP ; CDM measured, Cf M (ReM ) calculated. (c) Calculate CDS = CP + Cf S (ReS ) (d) Add Cf for roughness if needed.
CP measured CD predicted
Cf (Rship)
Cf (Rm) calculated Cf (Rship) calculated
Rm
Rship
Caution: In an experiment, the boundary layer must be in the same regime (i.e., turbulent) as the prototype. Therefore turbulence stimulator(s) must be added.
TBL LBL CP turbulent regime U MODEL
TBL
Laminar Cf
Turbulent Cf
Turbulent boundary layer to be triggered here
5.1.2 Drag on a ship hull For bodies near the free surface, the Froude number Fr is important, due to wave eects. Therefore CD = CD (Re , Fr ). In general the ragL3 Re tio = . It is impossible to easily scale both Re and Fr . For example Fr Re Lm 1 m gm = constant and = = 0.032 or = 1000! p Lp 10 gp Fr This makes ship model testing seem unfeasible. Froudes Hypothesis proves to be invaluable for model testing CD (Re , Fr ) Cf (Re ) +
calculate measure indirectly
Cf for at plate of equivalent wetted area
CR (Fr )
residual drag
In words, Froudes Hypothesis assumes that the drag coecient consists of two parts, Cf that is a known function of Re , and CR , a residual drag that depends on Fr number only and not on Re . Since Cf (Re ) Cf (Re )at plate , we need to run experiments to (indirectly) get CR (Fr ). Thus, for ship model testing we require Froude similitude to measure CR (Fr ), while Cf (Re ) is estimated theoretically.
5.1.3 OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE FOR FROUDE MODEL TESTING (S SHIP M MODEL; in general S = M , and S = M ) 1. Given US , calculate: FrS = US / gLS = FrM 2. For Froude similitude, tow model at: 3. Measure total resistance (drag) of model: UM = FrS gLM
Measure DM DM 2 SM 0.5M UM wetted area 0.075 (log10 ReM 2)2
4. Calculate total drag coecient for model: CDM =
5. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReM ): 6. Calculate residual drag of model: 7. Froudes Hypothesis: 8. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReS ): 9. Calculate total drag coecient for ship:
Cf (ReM ) =
CRM = CDM Cf (ReM ) CRM (ReM , Fr ) = CRM (Fr ) = CRS (Fr ) = CR (Fr ) Cf (ReS ) = 0.075 (log10 ReS 2)2 Cf = 0.0004
CDS = CR (Fr ) + Cf (ReS ) +
typical value
10. Calculate the total drag of ship:
2 DS = CDS 0.5S US SS wetted area PS = DS US
11. Calculate the power for the ship: 12. Repeat for a series of US 7
Chapter 6 - Water Waves

6.1 Exact (Nonlinear) Governing Equations for Surface Gravity Waves, Assuming Potential Flow
y
Free surface definition y = ( x, z , t ) or F ( x, y, z , t ) = 0
y
x
z
B ( x, y , z , t ) = 0
Unknown variables Velocity eld: Position of free surface: Pressure eld: Governing equations Continuity: Bernoulli for P-Flow: Far way, no disturbance: 2 = 0 y < or F < 0
t
v (x, y, z, t) = (x, y, z, t) y = (x, z, t) or F (x, y, z, t) = 0 p (x, y, z, t)
+1 ||2 + 2
ppa
+ gy = 0; y < or F < 0 pa
atmospheric
/t, 0 and p =
gy
hydrostatic
Boundary Conditions 1. On an impervious boundary B (x, y, z, t) = 0, we have KBC: vn = n = = U (x, t) n (x, t) = Un on B = 0 n
Alternatively: a particle P on B remains on B , i.e., B is a material surface. For example if P is on B at t = t0 , P stays on B for all t. B (xP , t0 ) = 0, then B (xP (t), t) = 0 for all t, so that, following P B is always 0. DB B = + ( ) B = 0 on B = 0 Dt t
For example, for a at bottom at y = h B = y + h = 0 DB = Dt y (y + h) y

=1
=0
= 0 on B = y + h = 0 y
2. On the free surface, y = or F = y (x, z, t) = 0 we have KBC and DBC. KBC: free surface is a material surface, no normal velocity relative to the free surface. A particle on the free surface remains on the free surface for all times. DF D =0= (y ) = Dt Dt y
vertical velocity
z z t x x
slope of f.s. slope of f.s.
on y =
still unknown
DBC: p = pa on y = or F = 0. Apply Bernoulli equation at y = : + t 1 ||2 2

non-linear term
+ g
still unknown
= pa on y =
6.2 Linearized (Airy) Wave Theory

Assume small wave amplitude compared to wavelength, i.e., small free surface slope A << 1
Wave height H SWL H = A/2
crest
Wave amplitude A
Water depth h
trough
wavelength
Wave period T
Consequently 2 /T We keep only linear terms in , . ()| + . . . Taylor series y y=0

discard
<< 1
For example: ()|y= = ()y=0 +

keep
6.2.1 BVP In this paragraph we state the Boundary Value Problem for linear (Airy) waves.
2 =0 +g y t 2
y=0
2 = 0
y = -h
=0 y
Finite depth h = const GE: BKBC: FSKBC: FSDBK:

t
Innite depth 2 = 0, y < 0
2 = 0, h < y < 0
y
= 0, y = h
0, y 2 y = t , y = 0 2 + g y = 0 t + g = 0, y = 0
Introducing the notation {} for innite depth we can rewrite the BVP: Constant nite depth h 2 = 0 , h < y < 0 = 0, y = h y 2 + g = 0, y = 0 y t2 Given calculate: (x, t) = p pa = 1 g t (x, t) =
y =0
{Innite depth} 2 = 0, y < 0 { 0, y } 2 + g = 0, y = 0 t2 y
(1) (2) (3)
1 g t
(4)
y =0
gy t
p pa =
dynamic
hydrostatic
gy t
(5)
dynamic
hydrostatic
6.2.2 Solution Solution of 2D periodic plane progressive waves, applying separation of variables. We seek solutions to Equation (1) of the form eit with respect to time. Using the KBC (2), after some algebra we nd . Upon substitution in Equation (4) we can also obtain . = gA cosh k (y + h) sin (kx t) cosh kh = A cos (kx t)
using (4)
gA = sin (kx t) eky = A cos (kx t)

using(4)
where A is the wave amplitude A = H/2. Exercise Verify that the obtained values for and satisfy Equations (1), (2), and (4). 6.2.3 Review on plane progressive waves (a) At t = 0 (say), = A cos kx periodic in x with wavelength: = 2/k Units of : [L]
k = wavenumber = 2 / x K
[L-1]
(b) At x = 0 (say), = A cos t periodic in t with period: T = 2/ Units of T : [T ]

T
t
(c) = A cos k x t k
= frequency = 2 /T
[T-1], e.g. rad/sec
Units of
Following a point with velocity , i.e., xp = t + const, the phase of does k k not change, i.e., = Vp phase velocity. k T 5
: k
L T
6.2.4 Dispersion Relation So far, any , k combination is allowed. However, recall that we still have not made use of the FSBC Equation (3). Upon substitution of in Equation (3) we nd that the following relation between h, k , and must hold: 2 + g =0 t2 y 2 cosh kh + gk sinh kh = 0 2 = gk tanh kh
= gA sin ( kx t)f (z )
This is the Dispersion Relation 2 = gk tanh kh 2 = gk (6) Given h, the Dispersion Relation (6) provides a unique relation between and k , i.e., = (k ; h) or k = k ( ; h). Proof
C kh
C
tanh kh
2h g
= (kh) tanh (kh)

from (6)
C kh
= tanh kh obtain unique solution for k
kh kh =f(c)
Comments - General As then k , or equivalently as T then . g - Phase speed Vp = = tanh kh Vp = T k k g k
Therefore as T or as , then Vp , i.e., longer waves are faster in terms of phase speed. - Water depth eect For waves the same k (or ), at dierent water depths, as h then Vp , i.e., for xed k Vp is fastest in deep water. - Frequency dispersion Observe that Vp = Vp (k ) or Vp ( ). This means that waves of dierent frequencies, have dierent phase speeds, i.e., frequency dispersion. 6
6.2.5 Solutions to the Dispersion Relation : 2 = gk tanh kh Property of tanh kh:

long waves shallow water
tanh kh =
sinh kh 1 e2kh = = cosh kh 1 + e2kh
kh for kh << 1. In practice 1 for kh > 3. In practice
h < /20 h> 2

short waves deep water
Shallow water waves or long waves kh << 1 h < /20 2 = gk kh = gh k = gh T
Intermediate depth or wavelength Need to solve 2 = gk tanh kh given , h for k (given k, h for - easy!)
Deep water waves or short waves kh >> 1 h > /2
(a) Use tables or graphs (e.g.JNN g.6.3) 2 = gk g 2 2 = gk tanh kh = gk = T 2 k Vp (in ft.) 5.12T 2 (in sec.) = tanh kh = = k Vp (b) Use numerical approximation
(hand calculator, about 4 decimals )
i. Calculate C = 2 h/g ii. If C > 2: deeper kh C (1 + 2e2C 12e4C + . . .) If C < 2: shallower kh C (1 + 0.169C + 0.031C 2 + . . .) No frequency dispersion Vp = gh Frequency dispersion g tanh kh Vp = k Frequency dispersion g Vp = 2
6.3 Characteristics of a Linear Plane Progressive Wave

y
2 k= 2 = T H = 2A Dene U A Linear Solution: = A cos (kx t) ; 6.3.1 Velocity eld =
Vp A
MWL
(x,t) = y
Ag cosh k (y + h) sin (kx t) , where 2 = gk tanh kh cosh kh
Velocity on free surface v (x, y = 0, t) u(x, 0, t) Uo = A 1 cos (kx t) tanh kh v (x, 0, t) Vo = A sin (kx t) = t
Velocity eld v (x, y, t) u= Agk cosh k (y + h) cos (kx t) = cosh kh x cosh k (y + h) cos (kx t) = A sinh kh
U
v=
Agk sinh k (y + h) = sin (kx t) y cosh kh sinh k (y + h) = A sin (kx t) sinh kh

U
u = Uo
eky cosh k (y + h) cosh kh 1
deep water shallow water
v = Vo
ky sinh k (y + h) e sinh kh 1+
y h
deep water shallow water
u is in phase with 8
v is out of phase with
Shallow water
Velocity eld v (x, y ) Intermediate water
Deep water
6.3.2 Pressure eld Total pressure p = pd gy . Dynamic pressure pd = . t Dynamic pressure on free surface pd (x, y = 0, t) pdo Pressure eld Shallow water pd = g Intermediate water pd = gA cosh k (y + h) cos (kx t) cosh kh cosh k (y + h) = g cosh kh pd u same picture as U o p do pd (h) 1 = cosh kh pdo Deep water pd = geky
pd (h) = 1 (no decay) p do p= g ( y )

hydrostatic approximation
pd (h) = eky p do p = g eky y
V p = gh
y
V p = g
y
y
x
y
x
kh >> 1
kh << 1
pd
p ( h)
pd o
p ( h)
pd o
p ( h)
pd o
p ( h)
Pressure eld in shallow water
Pressure eld in deep water
10
6.3.3 Particle Orbits (Lagrangian concept) Let xp (t), yp (t) denote the position of particle P at time t. Let ( x; y ) denote the mean position of particle P. The position P can be rewritten as xp (t) = x + x (t), yp (t) = y + y (t), where (x (t), y (t)) denotes the departure of P from the mean position. In the same manner let v v ( x, y, t) denote the velocity at the mean position and vp v (xp , yp , t) denote the velocity at P.
P (x , y ) P P
( x' , y ' )
vp = v ( x + x ,y + y , t) =
TSE
(x, y)
vp = v ( x, y, t) + vp =v
v v ( x, y, t) x + ( x, y, t) y + . . . x y
ignore - linear theory
To estimate the position of P, we need to evaluate (x (t), y (t)): x = dt u ( x, y, t) = dt A cosh k ( y + h) cos (kx t) sinh kh
= A y = = A
cosh k ( y + h) sin (kx t) sinh kh dt A
dt v ( x, y, t) =
y + h) sinh k ( cos (kx t) sinh kh
sinh k ( y + h) sin (kx t) sinh kh
Check: On y = 0, y = A cos (kx t) = , i.e., the vertical motion of a free surface particle (in linear theory) coincides with the vertical free surface motion. It can be shown that the particle motion satises x2 y2 ( xp x )2 (yp y )2 + = 1 + =1 b2 b2 a2 a2 cosh k ( y + h) sinh k ( y + h) where a = A and b = A , i.e., the particle orbits form sinh kh sinh kh closed ellipses with horizontal and vertical axes a and b. 11
crest
Vp
ky
A
A
(a) deep water kh >> 1: a = b = Ae ky circular orbits with radii Ae decreasing exponentially with depth
trough Ae
ky
A
(b) shallow water kh << 1: a= y A = const. ; b = A(1+ ) kh h decreases linearly with depth
Vp =
gh
A/kh
Vp
(c) Intermediate depth
Vp
Q
A
Q S S R
6.3.4 Summary of Plane Progressive Wave Characteristics
f (y )
Deep water/ short waves kh > (say)
Shallow water/ long waves kh << 1
e.g.pd
cosh k(y +h) cosh kh
= f1 ( y )
eky
e.g.u, a
cosh k(y +h) sinh kh
= f2 ( y )
eky
1 kh
e.g. v, b
sinh k(y +h) sinh kh
= f3 (y )
eky
1+
y h
13
C (x) = cos (kx t)
S (x) = sin (kx t)
(in phase with )
(out of phase with )
= C (x)
u A
= C (x) f2 (y )
v A
= S (x) f3 (y )
pd gA
= C (x) f1 (y )
y A
= C (x) f3 (y )
x A
= S (x) f2 (y )
a A
= f2 (y )
b A
= f3 (y )
b a
14
6.4 Superposition of Linear Plane Progressive Waves

1. Oblique Plane Waves
v k
kz z Vp x kx
v k = (k x , k z )
(Looking up the y-axis from below the surface)
Consider wave propagation at an angle to the x-axis

kx
=A cos(kx cos + kz sin t) = A cos (kx x + kz z t) gA cosh k (y + h) = sin (kx cos + kz sin t) cosh kh 2 + k2 2 =gk tanh kh; kx = k cos , kz = k sin , k = kx z
2. Standing Waves
+ Same A, k, , no phase shift
y
=A cos (kx t) + A cos (kx t) = 2A cos kx cos t 2gA cosh k (y + h) = cos kx sin t cosh kh
90o at all times
y
2A amplitude
t = 0, T, 2T,
x node
t=
T 3T , ,L 2 2
antinode
t=
T 3T 5T , , L 4 4 4
n n = sin kx = 0 at x = 0, = x x k 2 = 0. To obtain a standing wave, it is necessary to have perfect x x=0 reection at the wall at x = 0. AR Dene the reection coecient as R ( 1). AI Therefore,
y
A I = AR AR R= =1 AI
3. Oblique Standing Waves
I =A cos (kx cos + kz sin t) R =A cos (kx cos ( ) + kz sin ( ) t)
z
R
R = I
Note: same A, R = 1.
kx x kz z t
T = I + R = 2A cos (kx cos ) cos (kz sin t)

standing wave in x propagating wave in z
and x = Check: sin (kx cos ) = 0 on x = 0 x x 2 ; k cos VPx = 0; z = 2 ; k sin VPz = k sin
4. Partial Reection
I R
I =AI cos (kx t) = AI Re ei(kxt) R =AR cos (kx + t + ) = AI Re R ei(kx+t) R: Complex reection coecient R = |R| ei , |R| = AR AI T =I + R = AI Re ei(kxt) 1 + Re2ikx
2 |T |2 =A2 I 1 + |R| + 2 |R| cos (2kx + )
| T | AI
free surface wave envelope

2
1+ | R |2
node
antinode
At node, |T | = |T |min = AI (1 |R|) at cos (2kx + ) = 1 or 2kx + = (2n + 1) At antinode, |T | = |T |max = AI (1 + |R|) at cos (2kx + ) = 1 or 2kx + = 2n 2kL = 2 so L = |R | = 2
|T |max |T |min = |R (k )| |T |max + |T |min 4
5. Wave Group 2 waves, same amplitude A and direction, but and k very close to each other.
VP1
1 = 2 =
VP2
Aei(k1 x1 t) Aei(k2 x2 t)
1,2 =1,2 (k1,2 ) and VP1 VP2
T = 1 + 2 =
Aei(k1 x1 t) 1 + ei(kxt)
with k = k2 k1 and = 2 1
Vg
2A
g =
2 k
VP1 VP2
T=
Tg = 2 = 1 2 k1
|T |max = 2 |A| when kx t = 2n |T |min = 0 when kx t = (2n + 1)
xg = Vg t, kVg t( ) t = 0 then Vg =
In the limit, k, 0, Vg = and since d dk ,

k1 k2 k
2 = gk tanh kh 1 2kh Vg = 1+ k 2 sinh 2kh

Vp n
(a) deep water kh >> 1 n=

Vg Vp
1 2
(b) shallow water kh << 1

Vg Vp
Vg
n= = 1 (no dispersion) (c) intermediate depth 1 <n<1

2
Vg Vp
Appear
VP
Disappear
6.5 Wave Energy - Energy Associated with Wave Motion.

For a single plane progressive wave: Energy per unit surface area of wave Potential energy PE
0
Kinetic energy KE KEwave =

h
PE without wave =
h
gydy = 1 gh2 2
dy 1 ( u2 + v 2 ) 2
1 gA2 4
KE const in x,t
PE with wave
h
gydy = 1 g ( 2 h2 ) 2 =
1 gA2 2
Deep water = = Finite depth =
to leading order
PEwave =
1 g 2 2
cos (kx t)
Average energy over one period or one wavelength PEwave = 1 gA2 4 Total wave energy in deep water: E = PE + KE = 1 gA2 cos2 (kx t) + 2 E= 1 gA2 [ 2
1 2 1 2
KEwave = 1 gA2 at any h 4
Average wave energy E (over 1 period or 1 wavelength) for any water depth: +
PE KE
1 2
]= 1 gA2 = Es , 2
Es Specic Energy: total average wave energy per unit surface area. Linear waves: PE = KE = 1 2 Es (equipartition). Nonlinear waves: KE > PE.
1 x
E Es
Vp x
Vp
PE = Es cos2 (kx t)
PE = 1 E 2
PE
1 KE KE = E 2
Recall: cos2 x =
1 2
+1 cos 2x 2
6.6 Energy Propagation - Group Velocity

S x
E = E s per area
Vp
Consider a xed control volume V to the right of screen S. Conservation of energy: dW dE = = J dt dt rate of work done on S rate of change of energy in V energy ux left to right where
J -=
h
pu dy with p =
1 gA2 2 E
d + gy dt
2kh sinh 2kh n
and u =
J -=
k
Vp
1 2
1+
= E (nVp ) = EVg
Vg
e.g. A = 3m, T = 10 sec J - = 400KW /m
6.7 Equation of Energy Conservation

x
1
F1 1
2
F2 2
x
E = E (x ), F = F ( x )
h = h(x)
J -1 J -2 t = E x -1 + J -2 = J J x + x 1
E J + = 0, but J - = Vg E t x E + Vg E = 0 t x 1. E = 0, Vg E = constant in x for any h(x). t
2. Vg = constant (i.e., constant depth, k << k ) + Vg t x E = 0, so E = E (x Vg t) or A = A (x Vg t)
i.e., wave packet moves at Vg .
6.8 Steady Ship Waves, Wave Resistance

D
2A
1 E=2 gA2
Vp = U
E = 0 ahead of ship
F = Vg E = ( 1 U) 1 gA2 2 2
L
x=0 C.V.
Ship wave resistance drag Dw Rate of work done = rate of energy increase d -= EL = EU Dw U + J dt
deep water
1 Dw = (EU EU 2 ) = 1 E= 1 gA2 Dw A2 2 4 U force / length energy / area Amplitude of generated waves The amplitude A depends on U and the ship geometry. Let
L
eective length.
+ L l
To approximate the wave amplitude A superimpose a bow wave (b ) and a stern wave (s ). b = a cos (kx) and s = a cos (k (x + )) T = b + s 1 A = |T |max = 2a sin 2 k envelope amplitude Dw =
1 gA2 4
= ga2 sin2
1 k 2
Dw = ga2 sin2
1 g 2 U2
Wavelength of generated waves To obtain the wave length, observe that the phase speed of the waves must equal U . For deep water, we therefore have Vp = U deep = U water k 10 g U2 = U , or = 2 k g
Summary Steady ship waves in deep water. U = ship speed g U2 g = U ; so k = 2 and = 2 k U g L =ship length, L 1 g ga2 sin2 Dw =ga2 sin2 1 = ga2 sin2 2 U2 = 2Fr2L Vp =
1 2Fr2L
Fl =
Dw ga 2
max at:
0.56
U hull 0.56 gl 0.56 gL U hull L
Fl =
1
Small speed U Short waves Significant wave cancellation Dw ~ small
Increasing U
U , where l L gl
11
6.9 Wave Forces on a Body
UP
U = A A U Re = = UT AT A Kc = = = 2
CF =
F gA
=f
A ,
, Re ,
h , roughness, . . .
Wave Diraction steepness parameter
6.9.1 Types of Forces 1. Viscous forces Form drag, viscous drag = f (Re , Kc , roughness, . . .). Form drag (CD ) Associated primarily with ow separation - normal stresses.
Friction drag (CF ) Associated with skin friction w , i.e., F

body (wetted surface)
w dS .
b.l.
2. Inertial forces Froude-Krylov forces, diraction forces, radiation forces. Forces arising from potential ow wave theory, F = pndS , where p = 1 + gy + ||2 t 2
=0, for linear theory, small amplitude waves
body (wetted surface)
For linear theory, the velocity potential and the pressure p can be decomposed to = p = I
Incident wave potential (a)
D
Diracted wave potential (b.1)
R
Radiated wave potential (b.2)
I t
D t
R t
+ gy
(a) Incident wave potential Froude-Krylov Force approximation When << , the incident wave eld is not signicantly modied by the presence of the body, therefore ignore D and R . Froude-Krylov approximation: I I p + gy t FF K =
body surface
I can calculate knowing (incident) + gy ndS wave kinematics (and body geometry) t pI
Mathematical approximation After applying the divergence theorem, the FF K can be rewritten as FF K = pI ndS = pI d.
body surface body volume
If the body dimensions are very small comparable to the wave length, we can assume that pI is approximately constant through the body volume and pull the pI out of the integral. Thus, the FF K can be approximated as FF K = p I
at body center body volume
d =
body volume
p I
at body center
The last relation is particularly useful for small bodies of non-trivial geometry for 13.021, that is all bodies that do not have a rectangular cross section. 3
(b) Diraction and Radiation Forces (b.1) Diraction or scattering force When < , the wave eld near the body will be aected even if the body is stationary, so that no-ux B.C. is satised.
( + ) == =
FD =
body surface
D t
ndS
(b.2) Radiation Force - added mass and damping coecient Even in the absence of an incident wave, a body in motion creates waves and hence inertial wave forces.

FR =
body surface
R t
j dij Uj ndS = mij U

added mass wave radiation damping
6.9.2 Important parameters (1)Kc =

UT
= 2
(2)diraction parameter
Interrelated through maximum wave steepness A 0.07 A 0.07
If Kc 1: no appreciable ow separation, viscous eect conned to boundary layer (hence small), solve problem via potential theory. In addition, depending on the value of the ratio , If << 1, ignore diraction , wave eects in radiation problem (i.e., dij 0, mij mij innite uid added mass). F-K approximation might be used, calculate FF K . If
>> 1/5, must consider wave diraction, radiation ( A
0.07 /
0.035).
If Kc >> 1: separation important, viscous forces can not be neglected. Further on if 0.07 so << 1 ignore diraction, i.e., the Froude-Krylov approximation is valid. A/ 1 F = 2
2
U (t) |U (t)|CD (Re )

relative velocity
Intermediate Kc - both viscous and inertial eects important, use Morrisons formula. 1 Cm (Re , Kc ) F = 2 U (t)|U (t)|CD (Re ) + 3 U 2
Summary
I
Limiting case: wave breaking occurs
II
III
I. Use: CD and F K approximation. II. Use: CF and F K approximation. III. CD is not important and F K approximation is not valid.

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13.

021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 1

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 1

Why study Marine Hydrodynamics?

Fluids vs. Solids

2. Continuum hypothesis is used for both uids and solids

particle size local value

length scale variations due to varying flow

variations due to molecular fluctuations

Liquids vs. Gasses

[1] Webster Dictionary [2] American Heritage Dictionary

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 2

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 2

Chapter 1 - Basic Equations

Lagrangian description; snapshot

1.2 Flow visualization - Flow lines

1.3 Some Quantities of Interest

1.4 Concept and Consequences of Continuous Flow

Material surface fluid a fluid b

1.5 Material/Substantial/Total Time Derivative: D/Dt

f ( xp + vp t, t + t) f ( xp , t) Df ( xp (t), t) = lim (1) t0 Dt t

At a xed in space point C, the temperature rate of change is derivative.

which is an Eulerian time

1.6.1 Concept of a Steady Flow ( t 0) A steady ow is a strictly Eulerian concept.

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 3

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 3

1.7 Stress Tensor

1.8 Mass and Momentum Conservation

Using the divergence theorems we obtain d dt ij xj

Figure 5: Control volume and its bounding surface S at instants t and t + t.

d [Un (x, t)t] dS and Un (x, t) is the normal velocity of S (t).

f (x, t)Un (x, t)dS

f (x, t)(v n )dS

Using the divergence theorem, d = n dS

we obtain the 1st Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT) d dt f (x, t) + (f v ) d, t

where f is some uid property per unit volume.

But since m is arbitrary the integrand must be 0 everywhere. Therefore: + (v ) = 0 t + [v + v ] = 0 t

Leading to the dierential form of Conservation of Mass: D + v = 0 Dt

fluid particle 2 fluid particle 1 oil water

rate of volume dilatation

The 2nd Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT) follows: d dt Gd =

And in vector tensor form: Dv Dt v + v v t =F +

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 4

13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 4

Unknowns velocities vi (x, t)

4 3 of the 9 unknowns of the stress tensor are eliminated by symmetry

1.9 Newtonian Fluids

ij linear function of the t

For isotropic uids, this reduces to: ij = ui uj + xi xj + ul , xl

= ji symmetry of stress tensor

3. When ij , i = j the viscous stress is a normal stress and is given by: ii = 2 ui xi

1.10 Navier-Stokes equations(for Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid)

Unknowns velocities vi (x, t) stresses ij (x, t) pressure p(x, t)

Tensor form Vector form

denoted as the kinematic viscosity [ L2 /T ]. 5

1.11 Boundary Conditions

The most common example of interfacial stress is surface tension.

1.12 Surface Tension

Higher curvature implies in higher pressure jump at the interface.

3D Example: Compound curvature p = 1 1 + R1 R2

where R1 and R2 are the principle radii of curvature.

1.13 Body Forces Gravity

hydrostatic pressure ps Substitute in Navier-Stokes equation Dv = p + Dt + 2 v

13.021 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004 Lecture 5