Aspects of Buddhism in Indian History

By

L. M. Joshi, Ph.D.
Reader in Buddhist Studies Punjabi University, Patiala

Buddhist Publication Society Kandy Sri Lanka

The Wheel Publication

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Sir Baron Jayatilleke Memorial Lecture for the year 1973 February 13, 1973 Y. M. B. A. all, !olombo. B"S #nline $%ition & '(() For free %i*tribution. +hi* ,ork may be re-ubli*he%, reformatte%, re-rinte%, an% re%i*tribute% in any me%ium. o,e.er, any *uch re-ublication an% re%i*tribution i* to be ma%e a.ailable to the -ublic on a free an% unre*tricte% ba*i* an% tran*lation* an% other %eri.ati.e ,ork* are to be clearly marke% a* *uch.

'ontents
A*-ect* of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ian i*tory................................................................................................3 /. 0i*co.ery of the Bu%%hi*t erita1e................................................................................................3 //. +he Br2hma3ical Attitu%e to,ar%* Bu%%hi*m.............................................................................4 ///. $arly Bu%%hi*m an% $arly Br2hma3i*m.....................................................................................5 /6. +he Bu%%hi*t !ontribution to /n%ian !i.ili7ation...................................................................13 Art an% Architecture.......................................................................................................................13 "olity.................................................................................................................................................1) $%ucation.........................................................................................................................................15 Lan1ua1e 8 Literature...................................................................................................................15 Social Life.........................................................................................................................................'1

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Aspects of Buddhism in Indian History

I! (isco)ery of the Buddhist Herita*e
+o%ay /n%ia i* a1ain a--earin1 on the Bu%%hi*t ma- of the ,orl%. /n%ian* are a,akenin1 to their Bu%%hi*t -a*t. /n the *econ% half of the nineteenth century9thank* to ,e*tern an% /n%ian archaeolo1i*t* an% orientali*t*9/n%ian* be1an to be *ur-ri*e% at the %i*co.ery of the Bu%%hi*t le1acy. +o talk of a :re.i.al of Bu%%hi*m; in mo%ern /n%ia i* ri1ht in thi* *en*e of the %i*co.ery of the Bu%%hi*t herita1e by /n%ian*. $.en to%ay, 199 year* after the foun%ation of the A*iatic Society, 51 year* after the foun%ation of the Mah2 Bo%hi Society of /n%ia, 71 year* after the foun%ation of the Archaeolo1ical Sur.ey of /n%ia, the -roce** of the %i*co.ery of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia i* *till 1oin1 on. +here i* no %oubt about it that much 1oo% ,ork ha* been %one in recent %eca%e* to %i**eminate *ome kno,le%1e about Bu%%hi*m amon1 tho*e ,ho care to kno, or tho*e ,ho can rea% an% ,rite. But the number of tho*e ,ho care to kno, i* *mall an% of tho*e ,ho cannot rea% or ,rite i* .ery lar1e an% much literary an% e%ucational ,ork remain* to be %one in or%er to 1i.e a 1lim-*e of the ,on%er that ,a* Bu%%hi*m in the /n%ian *ub<continent before the Mu*lim in.a*ion*. +he year '4(( of the Bu%%hi*t $ra =194) !$> ,a* of far<reachin1 im-ortance an% hi*toric con*e?uence* for Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia. #n the one han%, the celebration of Buddhajayanti on an international *cale, or1ani*e% by the central 1o.ernment an% by *tate 1o.ernment* may be con*i%ere% a* *ymbolic of the e@-re** ackno,le%1ement by mo%ern /n%ian* of their -rofoun% %ebt to the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition. #n the other han%, the 1o.ernmentA* enthu*ia*m an% in.ol.ement in the year<lon1 celebration* ,ere -erha-* in%icati.e of it* re*-ect for the uni.er*al i%ea* an% -rinci-le* tau1ht by the Bu%%ha. +he 1o.ernment al*o took u-on it*elf the ta*k of reno.atin1 *acre% Bu%%hi*t monument* an% makin1 the Bu%%hi*t centre* of reli1ion an% culture acce**ible to -il1rim* an% touri*t*. An im-ortant -ortion of Bu%%hi*t literature in "ali an% San*krit ha* been -ubli*he% un%er the -atrona1e of the 1o.ernment *ince 194). A fe, learne% in*titution* ha.e been finance% to -romote Bu%%hi*t Stu%ie* an% thi* branch of *tu%y i* no, reco1ni*e% in it* o,n ri1ht. A number of uni.er*itie* in the country -ro.i%e facilitie* for *tu%y an% re*earch in "ali, +ibetan, Bu%%hi*t San*krit an% in art an% archaeolo1y of Bu%%hi*m. +he Mah2 Bo%hi Society, in *-ite of it* mea1re re*ource*, ha* been tryin1 to kee- u- the tra%ition of bahujana hitya bahujana-sukhya =Afor the ,elfare an% ha--ine** of many -eo-le.A>. +he /n%o<Ja-ane*e Frien%*hi- Society ha* been %i*-layin1 rare intere*t in the ta*k of -romotin1 1oo%<,ill an% -eace throu1h the con*truction of Bu%%hi*t *hrine*. Much 1oo% ,ork ha* been %one by the neo<Bu%%hi*t* in Mah2r2*htra an% other -art* of /n%ia. Mo*t im-ortant of all there i* no, a *i7able number of -rofe**e% Bu%%hi*t* in the mi@e% -o-ulation of /n%ia. +he number ha* been increa*in1 *ince 194). +he Bu%%hi*t* in mo%ern /n%ia are a mi@e% 1rou- an% in *ome *en*e truly re-re*entati.e of the ,i%e .ariety of -racti*e* an% belief* characteri*tic of Bu%%hi*m that i* uni.er*al. Fir*t of all *houl% be mentione% the Buddhists by tradition, tho*e ,ho ha.e inherite% the Bu%%hi*t reli1ion from their ance*tor*. +hey are 1enerally foun% in #ri**a, Ben1al, on the /n%o<Be-al bor%er in northern %i*trict* of imachal "ra%e*h an% in La%akh. Be@t come the neo<Bu%%hi*t*, the follo,er* of B. C. Ambe%kar an% other*, ,ho ha.e embrace% Bu%%hi*m from time to time after renouncin1 their *tatu* a* harijns. +hey form the lar1e*t *ection of the Bu%%hi*t -o-ulation an% are 1enerally ,e%%e% to the Theravda tra%ition. +he thir% 1rou- of Bu%%hi*t* con*i*t* of tho*e ,ho ha.e 1ro,n into Bu%%hi*t reli1iou*ne** throu1h e%ucation, con.iction an% con*i%erationD Bu%%hi*t* in thi* 1rou- ha.e come from %ifferent *trata of *ociety, e@< Brhmaas, katriyas, vaivas,

kyasthas an% *o on. Men like the late 0harm2nan%a Eo*ambi, the late C2hula SaFkrity2yana an% BhikGu Ja1a%iG E2Gya- belon1 to thi* 1rou-. +he fourth 1rou- of Bu%%hi*t* con*i*t* of nonIndian Buddhists resident in India . +he*e inclu%e o.er fifty thou*an% +ibetan* hea%e% by i* oline** the 0alai Lama. +here are *ome Bu%%hi*t familie* an% monk* from almo*t all A*ian lan%* an% al*o a fe, from $uro-e. /n%ia continue* to be re*-ecte% a* the holy lan% of the 0harma by all %e.out Bu%%hi*t* the ,orl% o.er. $%ucate% /n%ian* too are no, a,are of /n%iaA* Bu%%hi*t -a*t an% her cultural contact* ,ith other A*ian -eo-le*. +here i* ho,e.er no or1ani*ation on an all</n%ia le.el nor any other kin% of liai*on amon1 the %ifferent *ection* of the Bu%%hi*t -o-ulation. +here *eem* to be, for e@am-le, no contact bet,een -rofe**ional Bu%%hi*t *cholar* an% the Bu%%hi*t ma**e* of mo%ern /n%ia. +he or1ani*ation of mona*tic life i* -ractically non<e@i*tentH the bhiku-sa !ha, it *eem*, i* nobo%yA* concern. #f all the *ection* of the /n%ian -eo-le, Bu%%hi*t* are the -oore*t. +here i* a clear %earth of Bu%%hi*t monk* in the country. $%ucate% an% traine% bhikGu*, .er*e% in 0harma lore, are 1reatly nee%e%. But there are no material re*ource*, no Bu%%hi*t *chool*, no 1oo% mona*terie* or tem-le* or fun%* or rich %onor* to maintain an% take care of Bu%%hi*t monk*. /n mo*t -art* of the country it i* %ifficult to come acro** a bhikGu. +he lonely familie* of lay Bu%%hi*t* ha.e to carry on their reli1iou* acti.itie* often ,ithout the -re*ence of monk*. +he in%i.i%ual familie* of lay Bu%%hi*t* a* ,ell a* in%i.i%ual Bu%%hi*t monk*, li.in1 in %ifferent -art* of the country, are in fact facin1 a cultural an% reli1iou* cri*i* %ue to the ab*ence of an or1ani*e% community of ,orker* an% an e*tabli*he% SaF1ha. So lon1 a* the ab*ence of able lea%er*hi-, -ro-er e%ucation, nece**ary fun%* an% or1ani*ational liai*on amon1 all *cattere% *ection* of the Bu%%hi*t -o-ulation on a country,i%e *cale continue* to e@i*t, / ha.e 1ra.e %oubt* about the -ro*-ect* for the -ro1re** of Bu%%hi*t thou1ht, culture an% literature in /n%ia. +here i* al*o the other *i%e of the *ituation in ,hich Bu%%hi*m fin%* it*elf in contem-orary /n%ia. +hi* i* it* relation*hi- ,ith the tra%ition of the maIority of /n%ian* ,ho are calle% : in%u*.; +he Bu%%hi*t*, e*-ecially the neo<Bu%%hi*t*, ,ill continually ha.e to *eek the 1oo%,ill an% *ym-athy of the follo,er* of "aiavism, Saivism, Sktism an% of "ednti# : in%ui*m.; 0ue re*-ect for the faith of other* ha* been a car%inal feature of the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition. Bo true Bu%%hi*t can affor% to %i*-ara1e the reli1iou* belief* an% -racti*e* of other*. $m-eror AJoka comman%e%, *ome three an% t,enty centurie* a1o, that :+here *houl% not be honour to oneA* o,n reli1ion or con%emnation of anotherA* ,ithout any occa*ion, or it may be a little on thi* an% that occa*ion. By *o %oin1 one -romote* oneA* o,n 0hamma, an% benefit* anotherA* too. By %oin1 other,i*e one harm* both hi* o,n an% al*o anotherA* reli1ion. #ne ,ho honour* hi* o,n an% con%emn* anotherA* 0hamma, all that throu1h attachment to hi* o,n reli1ion9,hyKin or%er to illuminate it. But in reality, by *o %oin1, he only harm* it, to be *ure. !oncour*e =samavya> therefore, i* commen%able =sdhu>9,hyKin or%er that -eo-le may hear an% %e*ire to hear one anotherA* 0hamma =Cock $%ict L/6>.; /n the*e %ay* of the encounter of the reli1ion* of the ,orl% thi* teachin1 of AJoka ha* a *-ecial rele.ance. /n%ia ha* al,ay* been a multi<reli1iou* nation. Br2hma3i*m, Jaini*m an% Bu%%hi*m e@i*te% an% flouri*he% *i%e by *i%e for many centurie*. +he tra%ition of reli1iou* tolerance ,a* .iolate% e*-ecially by Br2hma3ical follo,er* only occa*ionally, till /*lam a--eare% on the *cene. Sectarian fanatici*m an% reli1iou* intolerance unfortunately characteri*e% the me%iae.al hi*tory of /n%ia, an% incalculable harm ,a* %one to the true i%eal* of reli1iou*ne**. +o%ay the 1o.ernment of the country i* ,e%%e% to a *ecular -olicy *o that the .otarie* of %ifferent faith* are free to -ur*ue an% -romote all that i* be*t in their re*-ecti.e faith*. But e.en un%er a *ecular 1o.ernment the -o*ition of Bu%%hi*m remain* the ,eake*t, for it* follo,er* are amon1 the -oore*t an% mo*t %i*or1ani*e%. +he .a*t maIority of neo<Bu%%hi*t*

are, by an% lar1e, illiterate an% i1norant about the real nature an% *i1nificance of Bu%%hi*m. #nly by *u*taine% an% *tu-en%ou* effort* can ,e o.ercome the*e ,eakne**e*. A* a matter of fact, re.i.al or -romotion of Bu%%hi*m in mo%ern /n%ia i* -o**ible only throu1h e%ucation an% creati.e literary -ublication* of a hi1h *tan%ar%. /1norance or avijj in any form i* incom-atible ,ith the Bu%%hi*t me**a1e. +he Bu%%ha i* the embo%iment of kno,le%1e an% ,i*%om. +he -ath of Bu%%hahoo% i* a -ath of ,i*%om = $a-ma!!a>. "ro-a1ation an% -ro1re** of Bu%%hi*m in ancient A*ia ,a* %ue to a lar1e e@tent to it* mi**ionarie* ,ho ,ere not only -iou* men but often .a*tly learne%. +he amount of *acre% book* an% the 1reat number of lan1ua1e* in ,hich they ,ere ,ritten by ancient an% me%iae.al Bu%%hi*t* te*tify to the Bu%%hi*t em-ha*i* on e%ucation an% learnin1.

II! The Br+hma,ical Attitude to-ards Buddhism

Further -ro1re** in the %e.elo-ment of Bu%%hi*m in mo%ern /n%ia %e-en%* to *ome e@tent u-on the attitu%e of Br2hma3ical : in%u*; to,ar%* Bu%%hi*m an% it* follo,er*. +he im-ortance of thi* attitu%e can *carcely be e@a11erate% in .ie, of the -a*t hi*tory of the relation*hi- bet,een Bu%%hi*m an% Br2hma3i*m. +he attitu%e of mo%ern /n%ian intellectual* an% national lea%er* to,ar%* Bu%%hi*m may be %e*cribe% a* :tra%itional; an% :a-olo1etic.; /t i* tra%itional becau*e it* u-hol%er* .ie, Bu%%hi*m from the *tan%-oint of their o,n =Br2hma3ical> tra%ition ,hich they *tyle :ortho%o@.; Bu%%hi*m from thi* *tan%-oint i* re1ar%e% a* :hetero%o@.; Another rea*on for callin1 thi* attitu%e :tra%itional; i* that it ha* been han%e% %o,n tra%itionally from the time of the "aiavite Puras. Briefly *-eakin1, the "ur23a* treat the Bu%%ha a* a heretical teacher of 6e%ic cultureH Lor% 6iG3u him*elf, they teach, a**ume% the form of the Bu%%ha an% tau1ht Bu%%hi*m. Mo%ern /n%ian intellectual* hailin1 from the Br2hma3ical in%u tra%ition ha.e acce-te% thi* .ie, of the "ur23a*, althou1h they -erha-* %o not *ub*cribe to the "ur23ic .ie, that the Buddha-avatra of 6iG3u ,a* a %elu*i.e -hantom an% Bu%%hi*m a trick to mi*lea% the :%emon*.; +hey ,ant to inter-ret their ancient herita1e an% hi*tory in the li1ht of it* hi1her %octrine* a**ociate% ,ith Bu%%hi*m an% the "ednta of SaFkaraA* *chool. +here i* a ten%ency to trace all the 1reat an% *ublime element* of mo%ern : in%ui*m; to the 6e%ic tra%ition. A* a re*ult of thi* ten%ency an attem-t ha* been ma%e in mo%ern /n%ian ,ork* %ealin1 ,ith /n%ian reli1ion*, -hilo*o-hie* an% culture to .in%icate 6e%ic or /n%o<Nryan ori1in* of the %ominant i%ea* in /n%ian ci.ili7ation. /t i* ,orthy of remark here that mo%ern : in%u; intellectual*, 1enerally *-eakin1, %o not *hare the Br2hma3ical ho*tility to,ar%* Bu%%hi*m ,hich characteri*e% ancient an% me%iae.al centurie* of reli1iou* hi*tory in /n%ia. Follo,in1 the "ur23a*, they acce-t Bu%%hi*m a* a -art of their Br2hma3ical herita1e, but unlike the author* of the "ur23a*, they re1ar% the Bu%%ha a* 1enuinely the 1reate*t :maker of mo%ern in%ui*m.; +he 1reatne** of the Bu%%ha i* reco1ni*e%, an% the role of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ian hi*tory an% culture, thou1h ne.er *cientifically an% com-letely in.e*ti1ate% or e*timate%, i* 1enerally a--reciate%. +he contribution* of Bu%%hi*m to /n%ian art an% literature, reli1ion an% -hilo*o-hy, my*tici*m an% moral*, are une?ualle% an% one cannot o.erlook them. /n%ian intellectual*, therefore, Iu*tly take -ri%e in ackno,le%1in1 an% -rai*in1 the Bu%%ha an% hi* le1acy. +hi* -ri%e i* a -art of their herita1e concei.e% tra%itionally. :Cefine% Br2hma3i*m; or :mo%ern in%ui*m; ,oul% not -o**ibly ha.e come into e@i*tence ,ithout ackno,le%1in1 the Bu%%ha an% a**imilatin1 Bu%%hi*m. /n thi* fa*hion the tra%itional attitu%e become* *tron1ly eclectic an% *yncreti*tic from the *tan%-oint of the in%u*. Some of the 1reate*t name* in mo%ern /n%ian hi*tory can be a**ociate% ,ith thi* :tra%itional; un%er*tan%in1 of Bu%%hi*m an% it* relation*hi- ,ith Br2hma3i*m or : in%ui*m.; #ne can *ee

the *tron1 influence of the Bu%%haA* -er*onality an% of the Bu%%hi*t le1acy on Sri C2makri*hna, S,2mi 6i.ek2nan%a, Cabin%ran2th +a1ore, A*uto*h MookerIee, Sri Aurobin%o, Mah2tma Oan%hi, Nnan%a !oomara*,2my, Ja,aharl2l Behru, 6inob2 Bh2.e, S. C2%hakri*hnan, Eaka Ealelk2r an% other*. #ne can enumerate *core* of other %i*tin1ui*he% arti*t*, -oet*, ,riter* an% *ocial ,orker* of mo%ern /n%ia ,ho ha.e been in*-ire% by Bu%%hi*t i%eal* an% i%ea*. All the*e lea%er*, *cholar* an% men of letter* ha.e -rai*e% the Bu%%ha an% Bu%%hi*m in ma1nificent term*. +hey ha.e re*ente% that Bu%%hi*m %ecline% in /n%iaH they ha.e re<affirme% the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition of reli1iou* toleranceH they ha.e critici*e% the e@i*tence of tho*e .ery cu*tom* an% in*titution* in their o,n tra%ition ,hich ,ere critici*e% fir*t by the Bu%%ha an% the Bu%%hi*t*. +he ca*te *y*tem, -rie*tly la,*, feu%al cu*tom*, untouchability, *ocial %i*abilitie* of ,omen an% the like, all the*e element* of tra%itional Br2hma3ical herita1e ha.e been attacke% an% reforme%, at lea*t in theory. +he name of the Bu%%ha i* cite% a* an authority in *u--ort of mo%ern *ocial reform*. +he Bu%%ha i* the *ource of reli1iou* authority for aboli*hin1 ca*tei*m an% untouchability. +here i* no *anction in the 6e%ic *cri-ture* for thi* reform. +he con*titution of the /n%ian Ce-ublic i* thu* in*-ire% by the me**a1e of the Bu%%ha. +he *ecular 1o.ernment al*o *eek* to re*-ect the faith* of all /n%ian* ,ho*oe.er they may be. +he A,heel of ri1hteou*ne**A =dhamma#akka> on the national fla1 of /n%ia i* a *ymbol of the uni.er*ality of the Bu%%haA* me**a1e of ,i*%om an% com-a**ion. +he i%eal* of reli1iou* tolerance an% *ocial Iu*tice tau1ht an% -racti*e% by $m-eror AJoka, ha.e foun% their -ermanent a--ro.al on /n%ian *oil. +he official *eal of the 1o.ernment contain* AJokan *ymbol* of the beatin1 of the %rum of ri1hteou*ne** = dhamma!hosa> in all the four ?uarter* the ,orl%, *ymboli*e% by the roarin1 lion* facin1 the %irection* an% *urmounte% by the *acre% A,heelA =#akka>. /t i* al*o ,orthy of note that the motto in*cribe% on the official *eal of the 1o.ernment of /n%ia, satya eva jayate, :truth alone i* .ictoriou*,; i* al*o of %ramai# ori1in -re*er.e% in a te@t attribute% to the :*ha.en<hea%e% one*;, the &u'aka-U(aniad =///. 1)>. #ne of the e-ithet* 1i.en to the Bu%%ha by 6e%ic Br2hma3a* ,a* mu'aka. +he contem-tuou* *en*e attache% to thi* ,or% in the a1e of the Bu%%ha ha* lon1 *ince .ani*he% from the tra%ition. For enli1htene% mo%ern : in%u*; the 0hamma-a%a i* -erha-* a* .enerable a *cri-ture a* the &u'aka-U(aniad. /n%ian uni.er*itie* an% *cholar* ha.e been -ubli*hin1 *tan%ar% an% *ub< *tan%ar% book* in $n1li*h, in%i an% other -ro.incial lan1ua1e* on Bu%%hi*t *ubIect* for o.er fifty year* no,. /n%ee%, the amount of literature on Bu%%hi*m -ro%uce% an% -ubli*he% by mo%ern /n%ian* i* tremen%ou*, an% the ,ork i* continuin1. All thi* i* a -roof of their intere*t in an% re*-ect for the Bu%%hi*t herita1e albeit un%er*too% a* a -art of the Br2hma3ical herita1e. +here i* ho,e.er a fun%amental confu*ion %ee-ly in.ol.e% in thi* attitu%e of mo%ern : in%u; intellectual*. +hi* confu*ion i* -artly roote% in the hi*torical fu*ion of Bu%%hi*m an% Br2hma3i*m that took -lace %urin1 the fir*t millennium of the !hri*tian era. 0urin1 thi* -erio% the Br2hma3a* an% other lea%er* of the Br2hma3ical *ociety %eclare% the Bu%%ha the ninth avatra of Oo% an% a**imilate% many car%inal element* of Bu%%hi*t culture. +hi* remarkable cultural feat ,a* achie.e% by the author* of the Puras. +hi* %eliberate fu*ion or ra--rochement bet,een Bu%%hi*m an% Br2hma3i*m ,a* later on for1otten, an% a confu*ion %e.elo-e%, ,hich re*ulte% in the i%entification of the t,o reli1iou* tra%ition*. #nly a .a1ue memory remaine%, an% in thi* Bu%%hi*m came to be treate% a* a :heretical; an% :athei*tic; branch of Br2hma3i*m. Mo%ern *cholar* ha.e ho,e.er -u*he% the ori1in of thi* confu*ion further back to the time of the Bu%%ha. +hey belie.e that e.en at the time of it* ori1in Bu%%hi*m ,a* a :here*y; ,ithin Br2hma3i*m. ere the :a-olo1etic; attitu%e come* in full force. A cla** of 6e%ic te@t* calle% U(aniads i* belie.e% to be the *ource of Bu%%hi*t %octrine*. +hi* ha* become almo*t an authoritati.e %o1ma ,ith mo%ern intellectual* of /n%ia. +o %i*cu** an% analy*e the com-o*ite character an% hybri% ori1in of the U(aniads i* nothin1 *hort of a :here*y; in :tra%itional; )

/n%olo1y. +he official theory of the ori1in* of Bu%%hi*m, ,hich 1o.ern* the :tra%itional; attitu%e of mo%ern /n%ian hi*torian* an% intellectual*, i* that it ,a* a kin% of :-rote*t; a1ain*t 6e%ici*m an% a reform u-on ol% Br2hma3i*m. Pe ,ill ?uote the .ie,* of three of the mo*t im-ortant of mo%ern Br2hma3ical : in%u*;, ,ho may be *ai% to re-re*ent their :reforme%; tra%ition at it* be*t. S,2mi 6i.ek2nan%a *ay*D :0o not mi*take, Bu%%hi*m an% Br2hma3i*m Q 1 Bu%%hi*m i* one of our *ect*.; : e =i.e. the Bu%%ha> tau1ht the .ery 1i*t of the -hilo*o-hy of ' the 6e%a*.; S. C2%hakri*hnan ob*er.e*, :Bu%%hi*m %i% not *tart a* a ne, an% in%e-en%ent reli1ion. /t ,a* an off*hoot of the more ancient faith of the in%u*, -erha-* a *chi*m or a 3 M here*y.; :+he Bu%%ha utili*e% the in%u inheritance to correct *ome of it* e@-re**ion*.; ". 6. Eane, the 1reate*t mo%ern /n%ian *cholar of the Br2hma3ical tra%ition, *ay* that the Bu%%ha 4 ,a* only a 1reat reformer of the in%u reli1ion a* -racti*e% in hi* time. +he*e *tatement* are re-re*entati.e of the 1eneral o-inion -re.alent in Br2hma3ical : in%u; circle* of -re*ent %ay /n%ia. Bu%%hi*m i* *ou1ht to be re<inter-rete% thei*tically in term* of U(aniadi# %octrine*. +he Bu%%ha i* brou1ht to the Br2hma3ical fol% a1ain after the manner of the Puras. +hi* %e.elo-ment, in our .ie,, may -ro.e %an1erou* for the -ro1re** an% un%er*tan%in1 of Bu%%hi*m in mo%ern /n%ia. /t ha* influence% not only the ,ritin1 of ancient /n%ian hi*tory but al*o the inter-retation of Bu%%hi*t -rinci-le*. S,2mi 6i.ek2nan%a, one of the mo*t influential teacher* of mo%ern : in%ui*m;, tell* u* that Bu%%hi*t %octrine* %i% not attract him at all. Althou1h hi* ,ritin1* an% *-eeche* are full of Bu%%hi*t %octrine*, he i* *ai% to ha.e ) *tate% the follo,in1D :All my life / ha.e been .ery fon% of Bu%%ha, but not of hi* %octrine.; +hi* *eem* to be an attitu%e characteri*tic of many other /n%ian* ,ho ,rite on an% talk about Bu%%hi*m fre?uently. A%%re**in1 *ome American* in !alifornia in 19((, he remarke%, :/ %o not 7 un%er*tan% hi* =i.e. Bu%%haA*> %octrine9,e in%u* ne.er un%er*too% it.; +hi* i* a .ery hone*t confe**ion an% a -rofoun%ly re.ealin1 fact in *o far a* it thro,* the cat out of the ba1. Mo%ern lea%er* of eclectic, *yncreti*tic an% a-olo1etic : in%ui*m; *carcely re.eal an a,arene** of the %elicate %ifficulty in un%er*tan%in1 the faith of other men. +ho*e ,ho ha.e *tu%ie% "ali te@t* or Mah2y2na SRtra* or te@t* of the *chool of B212rIuna or of 0i1n21a, e.en ten% to o.erlook the fla,* in thi* :tra%itional; a--roach, althou1h they certainly kno, the %ifference* bet,een early Bu%%hi*m an% 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m. +hey ,ere not only the ancient an% me%iae.al Br2hma3a teacher* ,ho %i% not un%er*tan% Bu%%hi*mH mo%ern *cholar* born into the Br2hma3ical tra%ition too ha.e not *ho,n any better un%er*tan%in1. SaFkara, Eum2rila, S%ayana an% S2ya3a<M2%ha.a %i% not un%er*tan% Bu%%hi*m. +hi* i* true al*o of +21ore, Oan%hi, !oomara*,amy an% C2%hakri*hnan. +he %ifference bet,een the*e t,o 1rou-* i* that the former ,a* not confu*e% by the fa*hion of eclectici*m an% the clichT of the :unity of reli1ion*; an% that it ha% it* root* %ee- in the San*krit tra%ition of the Br2hma3a*. Se.eral mo%ern lea%er* an% intellectual* of : in%u; /n%ia -rai*e the Bu%%ha -erha-* for -olitical rea*on*. Such a%mirer* %eri.e their *ociali*t an% communi*t %octrine* from Bu%%hi*m. All tho*e ,ho ha.e trie% to *tu%y Bu%%hi*t thou1ht an% culture from the *tan%-oint of the Br2hma3ical tra%ition may be *ai% to ha.e faile% to un%er*tan% Bu%%hi*m. +hey ,ill ha.e to *hake off their :tra%itional; bia* an% :ortho%o@; attitu%e before they can im-artially *tu%y the hi*tory of Bu%%hi*m an% a--reciate it* e**ential thou1ht -attern*.
1 '

)om(lete *orks o+ S,mi "iveknanda =M2y2.atU Memorial $%ition, 19)M> 6ol. /6, -. 134. /bi%. 6ol. 6///, -. 97. 3 -.// 0ears o+ Buddhism =Mini*try of /nformation, Oo.ernment of /n%ia, Be, 0elhi, 1949> -. L///. M /bi%. -. L6. 4 1istory o+ 2hammasstra 3B4 54 R4 64, "oona, 19)'> 6ol. 6. "art 11, -. 1((M. ) #-. cit. 6ol. 6///. -. 1(3. 7 #-. cit. 6ol. ///. -. 4'9.

/t i* curiou* to note ho,e.er that our intellectual* an% hi*torian*, in *-ite of their official theory an% :tra%itional; attitu%e, al*o talk of the %ecline of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia. #n the one han% they belie.e that Bu%%hi*m ,a* only a reforme% .er*ion of Br2hma3i*mH on the other han% they belie.e that Bu%%hi*m ma%e a com-lete e@it from /n%ia. #nly a fe, *o-hi*ticate% *cholar* -ercei.e the -er*i*tence of Bu%%hi*m in Beo<Br2hma3i*m or : in%ui*m.; Mo*t of our *cholar* %i*-lay a -ara%o@ical an% arbitrary beha.iour in their treatment of the hi*tory of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia. Phen they %i*cu** the ori1in an% %e.elo-ment of Bu%%hi*m, ,hen they ,rite about the %octrine* an% -racti*e* of Bu%%hi*m, they maintain that all the*e element* alrea%y e@i*te% in the 6e%ic tra%ition. Bu%%hi*m, they a*k u* to belie.e, ,a* not a ne, an% in%e-en%ent reli1ion. /t ,a* only a :reforme%; or :refine%; .er*ion of Br2hma3ical : in%ui*m.; But ,hen they *ee the material e.i%ence of Br2hma3ical o--o*ition to an% -er*ecution of Bu%%hi*m in ancient an% me%iae.al literature an% archaeolo1y, an% ,hen they *ee that Bu%%hi*t monk*, Bu%%hi*t familie*, Bu%%hi*t mona*terie* an% librarie* ,ere ,i-e% out from the /n%ian heartlan% an% e.en the name* of the Bu%%ha an% AJoka ha% almo*t been for1otten by /n%ian*, they con.eniently fin% fault ,ith Bu%%hi*t %octrine* an% their .otarie*. +he cau*e* of the %ecline of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia are attribute% either to +2ntrika -racti*e* or to the Mu*lim in.a*ion, or to both. Bobo%y e.en ima1ine* that if Bu%%hi*m ,ere only a :reforme%; or :refine%; .er*ion of : in%ui*m; ho, coul% it be *ai% to ha.e %ecline% an% %ie% a,ay ,hile : in%ui*m; i* *till flouri*hin1 an% i* the faith of the maIority of /n%ian*. Bu%%hi*m can be *ai% to ha.e %ecline% only ,hen there ,a* e.i%ence for it* e@i*tence at a certain -erio% in /n%ian hi*tory a-art from the e@i*tence of : in%ui*m.; /f Bu%%hi*m %i% not e@i*t a-art from Br2hma3i*m or : in%ui*m;, it %i% not %ie at all. A non<e@i*tent tra%ition or ,ay of life %oe* not %ie. +he theory of the %ecline of Bu%%hi*m, from the *tan%-oint of :tra%itional; hi*tory, i* a fal*e theory. #n the other han%, if the %ecline of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia ,a* a hi*torical fact, the theory of it* ori1in a* a :reforme%; Br2hma3i*m i* a fal*e one an% mu*t be %i*car%e%.

III! .arly Buddhism and .arly Br+hma,ism

Scholar* ,ho *tu%y early Bu%%hi*m from the :tra%itional; *tan%-oint *eek to em-ha*i*e t,o thin1*. +hey concentrate on -oint* of a1reement bet,een *ome U(aniadi# tenet* an% a fe, element* of the early Bu%%hi*t teachin1H they al*o in*i*t on the chronolo1ical -riority of at lea*t t,o U(aniads, the )hndo!ya an% the BVhadrayaka, o.er the "ali *utta*. Since / ha.e critici*e% 5 thi* theory an% -ointe% out it* %efect* el*e,here, / ,ill not re-eat my ar1ument* here. / ,oul%, ho,e.er, make *ome ob*er.ation* in brief. Phen ,e *-eak of early Br2hma3i*m, ,e mean the 6e%ic reli1ion an% thou1ht a* a ,hole an% not Iu*t U(aniadi# Br2hma3i*m. +he *ource* of early Br2hma3i*m inclu%e the Sa hits, the Brhmaas, the 7rayakas an% the ol%e*t U(aniads. Pe mu*t note that the*e U(aniads are minor te@t* of 6e%ic literature, a--en%e% at %ifferent %ate*, to thi* or that Br2hma3a or Nranyaka te@t belon1in1 to a -articular tra%ition of a Sa hit. !hronolo1ically they are the late*t of 6e%ic te@t*. +he*e S-aniGa%* %i% not enIoy *uch hi1h -re*ti1e or authority in ancient /n%ia a* they ha.e earne% in mo%ern a1e *ince the time of Arthur Scho-enhauer =1755W15)(>. +he 0harma*Rtra* are 1enerally o--o*e% to their tenet*. +he commentarie* of SaFkara =cir. 9(( !$> ma%e them famou* an% authentic in me%iae.al /n%ia. +here i* no e.i%ence that the U(aniads ,ere .ery influential in Br2hma3ical circle* before OauXa-2%a an% SaFkara, ,hile there i* e.i%ence to -ro.e that the -re< U(aniadi# 6e%ic te@t* continue% to be influential till the &ahbhrata e*tabli*he% it*elf a* the fifth 6e%a for the Eali A1e. +he reli1ion an% -hilo*o-hy of the ol%er
See L. M. Jo*hi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and 1induism =Bu%%hi*t "ublication Society, Ean%y, 197(>.
5

U(aniads forme% a *mall an% .ery late -art of ol% Br2hma3i*m, an% ,e are not Iu*tifie% in takin1 the*e te@t* a* re-re*entati.e* of the ,hole of 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m. / am one of tho*e ,ho con*i%er the U(aniads a* com-o*ite te@t* of %ifferent %ate*. /n my o-inion no U(aniad te@t can be -ro.e% to be -re<Bu%%hi*t in %ate, an% the -artial a1reement bet,een the Bu%%haA* teachin1* an% tho*e of the early U(aniads i* %ue to the fact that the*e 9 6e%ic te@t* ,ere com-o*e% bet,een the a1e of the Bu%%ha an% that of AJoka. / am a,are that thi* o-inion run* counter to the .ie, 1enerally hel% by /n%olo1i*t*. But / fin% no con.incin1 -roof for a**i1nin1 e.en the earlie*t U(aniads to a -erio% before 44( B!$. +he lan1ua1e of the U(aniads %oe* not by it*elf -ermit u* to -lace them before that %ate. Some of the*e ol%er U(aniads mention Ein1 AI2ta*atru =AI2ta*attu> an% the Br2hma3a theolo1ian AJ.al2yana =A**al2yana> ,ho ,ere contem-orarie* of S2kyamuni. +he belief in the -re<Bu%%hi*t %ate of the 1( U(aniads *eem* to re*t entirely on :tra%itional; fancy. Furthermore, it *houl% not be for1otten that Br2hma3i*m of the*e early U(aniads i* %ifferent, to a 1reat e@tent, from the Br2hma3i*m of the -re<U(aniadi# 6e%ic te@t*, on the one han%, an% from that of the Puras an% 2harmas8tras of early me%iae.al /n%ia, on the other. Be.erthele**, the U(aniadi# thou1ht remaine% a -art of ol% Br2hma3i*m. Phat Franklin $%1erton calle% the :e@traor%inary norm; in /n%ian tra%ition i* of Yrama3ic or non<Br2hma3ic ori1in. +he 1reat %octrine* concernin1 yo!a, dhyna, karma, ahi s, moka, an% sa sra *eem to ha.e been the le1acy of mun9s or :ramaas, Aa*cetic *a1e*A. +he*e 1reat i%ea* ,ere the %i*tin1ui*hin1 feature* of Jrama3a thou1ht ,hich ,a* -erfecte% in early Jaini*m an% Bu%%hi*m. /n the ol%er U(aniads the*e i%ea* a--ear only a* intru%er* in the frame,ork of Br2hma3a thou1ht. Pe .enture to *u11e*t that the*e i%ea* entere% into the Br2hma3ical thou1ht<current throu1h the S2Fkhya an% the Yo1a, an% al*o -erha-* throu1h early Bu%%hi*m an% Jaini*m. +here i* nothin1 in the ol%er 6e%ic te@t* corre*-on%in1 to the*e i%ea* an% the -o**ibility of their inner or linear e.olution ,ithin 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m i* rule% out not only by 6e%ic o--o*ition to them but al*o by the e@i*tence of non<Br2hma3ical munis a* early a* the 1' time of the Z1.e%a. +he fact that only a fe, -a**a1e* in *ome early U(aniads a--ear to be critical of ol% 6e%ic i%ea* an% *acrificial ritual* i* an a%%itional -roof of the non<6e%ic or non< Br2hma3ical ori1in of the*e 1reat i%ea*. /t i* -o**ible to *u11e*t that Yo1a, S2Fkhya, early Jaini*m, early Bu%%hi*m, an% the e@traor%inary i%ea* of the early U(aniads ha% a common Jrama3ic ori1in. +he fact that in *-ite of their o--o*ition to 6e%ic authority, their non<thei*tic an% %uali*tic character, the S2Fkhya an% the Yo1a *y*tem* ,ere at a later *ta1e counte% amon1 the :*i@ *y*tem*; of the :ortho%o@; tra%ition *houl% not *ur-ri*e u*. For their i%ea* ha% been a%mitte% to the Br2hma3ical fol% by *uch .enerable an% ancient authoritie* a* the U(aniads. +he fact that B2%ar2ya3a in hi* Brahmas8tras an% SaFkara in hi* commentary on the Brahmas8tras note% the non<thei*tic an% %uali*tic an% therefore :hetero%o@; character of the*e *y*tem* ,a* of no con*e?uence a1ain*t their ,hole*ale a--ro-riation by the &ahbhrata, e*-ecially by the Bha1a.a%1Ut2. Attem-t* ,ere ma%e in me%iae.al time* to inter-ret the*e *y*tem* on thei*tic line* of 6aiG3a.a theolo1y. Pe *ee thi* attem-t e.en in the Oreat $-ic. +he a%mi**ion of
L. M. Jo*hi, Studies in the Buddhisti# )ulture o+ India =Motilal Banara*i%a**, 0elhi, 19)7>, -. L6///. 1( L. M. Jo*hi :The ;enesis o+ Buddhism Re-stated ; in *orld Buddhism< "esak =nnual, -.>? 3>@A-B (4 A-4 11 Cournal o+ the =meri#an 5riental So#iety , 6ol. )' =19M'> --. 141W14). 1' See R!veda, L. 13)H O. !. "an%e, Studies in the 5ri!ins of Buddhism, =Allahaba%, 1947> --. '41 ffH L. M. Jo*hi, Brhmaism, Buddhism and 1induism, --. M7 ff.H 1istory o+ the Punjab, 6ol. /. e%ite% by L. M. Jo*hi, ="unIabi Sni.er*ityH "atiala, 1973> !ha-ter on :Reli!ion and So#iety in the R!vedi# =!e.;
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S2kyamuni, the 1reate*t Yrama3a ,ho ha% %i*re1ar%e% the 6e%a* an% the Br2hma3a teacher* of the 6e%ic tra%ition, ,ho critici*e% -rie*tly rituali*m, the *y*tem of fi@e% ca*te* = varas> an% their %utie* =dharmas> an% ri%icule% 6e%ic *acrifice*, to the rank of an incarnation = avatra> of Oo% in the "ur23a*, i* another *imilar e@am-le. +he Bu%%ha, in *-ite of bein1 ,hat he ,a* an% ,hat he *too% for, ,a* counte% a* an e@alte% member of the Br2hma3ical -antheon of the :ortho%o@; tra%ition in me%iae.al /n%ia becau*e *uch -o,erful an% *acre% authoritie* a* the Puras ha% %eclare% him the ninth a.at2ra of 6iG3u. +he*e e@am-le* of a**imilation of Jrama3ic element* *houl% not mi*lea% u* into belie.in1 that they ,ere not of non<6e%ic ori1in. +he -artial a1reement or rather .a1ue *imilarity bet,een the teachin1 of early "ali Sutta* an% tho*e of the early S-aniGa%* i* thu* e@-laine% by the -lau*ible hy-othe*i* of their common Jrama3ic back1roun%. o, *hall ,e e@-lain the out*tan%in1 an% fun%amental %ifference* bet,een themK +he an*,er i* ob.iou*. Yrama3i*m an% Br2hma3i*m, the t,o reli1iou* -hilo*o-hie* of ancient /n%ia, ,ere in the early *ta1e* %iametrically o--o*e% to each other. +he U(aniadi# teacher* ,ere influence% by non<6e%ic a*cetic teacher*, munU* an% Jrama3a*, an% they attem-te% to harmoni*e the t,o i%eolo1ie* from the *tan%-oint of their o,n 6e%ic tra%ition, critici*in1 or re<inter-retin1 *e.eral of their ol%er conce-t* an% -racti*e*. For e@am-le, they offere% a *ymbolic inter-retation of *acrifice, %eclare% the -ath of ritual* a* in*ecure an% em-ha*i*e% inner a,akenin1 in*tea% of hymn*. But the U(aniads remaine% firmly ,ithin the 6e%ic tra%ition, 1uar%e% a* they ,ere by 6e%ic Br2hma3a*. $arly Bu%%hi*m, on the other han%, ha% no root* in the 6e%a*, trace% it* ori1in an% anti?uity to the ancient -ath = (ura ma!!a > 13 of Jrama3a* an% munU* or enli1htene% *a1e* of former a1e*. /t ha% been re%i*co.ere% by S2kyamuni, the Oreat Sa1e =mah:ramaa>, an% %e.elo-e% alon1 the line* in%icate% by him. Phen a mo%ern *tu%ent of the reli1iou* hi*tory of ancient /n%ia *eek* to *tu%y the*e %ifference*, it i* not becau*e he i* o--o*e% to the i%ea of the unity of reli1ion*. +he unity amon1 the reli1ion* of mankin%, if an% ,hen achie.e%, ,ill be one of the 1reate*t ble**in1* on thi* earth. !ertainly, ,e cannot brin1 about thi* unity by my*tifyin1 or mi*inter-retin1 their %ifference* in ori1in* an% %octrine*. Pe can -erha-* contribute to,ar%* achie.in1 harmony amon1 the .otarie* of %ifferent faith* by im-artially an% re*-ectfully *tu%yin1 their %octrine*, belief* an% -racti*e*. Accor%in1 to thi* metho% of hi*torical *tu%y of the reli1iou* tra%ition* of mankin%, one ha* to be *en*iti.e to both the common -oint* amon1 %ifferent tra%ition* an% the %i*tincti.e element* -eculiar to each. /n a%%ition to thi* im-artial a,arene**, one ha* to ha.e ,hat mi1ht be calle% hi*torical a,arene**. +he -a*t hi*tory of a -articular reli1iou* tra%ition cannot be %e%uce% from it* -re*ent .ici**itu%e*H the %e.elo-ment of a -articular tra%ition *houl% be *tu%ie% hi*torically, throu1h it* early, mi%%le an% mo%ern -ha*e*H the i%ea* an% belief* that characteri*e% it* mi%%le -ha*e may be foun% to ha.e been non<e@i*tent in it* early -ha*e. !ontrari,i*e, belief* an% -racti*e* characteri*tic of it* earlie*t -ha*e may be ,antin1 in it* late*t -ha*e. At the *ame time the a,arene** of the co<e@i*tence of other reli1iou* tra%ition* an% of the -o**ibility of mutual contact* an% interaction* amon1 them *houl% not be lo*t *i1ht of. #ne *houl% al*o be able to free one*elf from the yoke of the monolithic theory of the e@i*tence of only /n%o<Nryan culture in early /n%ia. Pe mu*t ne.er for1et that alon1*i%e the /n%o<Nryani*m or 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m there e@i*te% in /n%ia non<6e%ic, -erha-* non<Nryan, culture* *ince -re<hi*toric time*. "reci*ely *-eakin1, ,e ha.e to un%er*tan% that early Br2hma3i*m %iffere% *ub*tantially from early Bu%%hi*m, on the one han%, an% from neo< Br2hma3i*m on the other, that in the *econ% *ta1e of their %e.elo-ment the character of both early Bu%%hi*m an% early Br2hma3i*m ,a* *eriou*ly chan1e% an% mo%ifie% %ue to hi*torical rea*on* an% they came clo*e to each other. Let
Sa yuttanikya 6ol. //, =1949>, B2lan%2 0e.an21ari $%ition --. 9(W91H ". +. S. $%ition, 6ol. //, --. 1()W1(7.
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u* briefly re.ie, here *ome of the main %ifference* bet,een early Bu%%hi*m an% early Br2hma3i*m. +he fir*t out*tan%in1 %ifference i* that Br2hma3i*m ,a* a thei*tic *y*tem of faith, =e.en frankly -olythei*tic in -re<U(aniadi# %ay*> ,hile Bu%%hi*m ,a* a non<thei*tic tra%ition. +he *econ% maIor %ifference ,a* that Br2hma3i*m ,a* a form of tmavda e@-oun%in1 the eternal e@i*tence of the *elf =tman>, ,herea* the early "ali Sutta* e@-oun%e% a kin% of antmavda or the %octrine that there i* nothin1 la*tin1 ,hich one coul% call oneA* o,n. +he U(aniads 1lorifie% an% ma1nifie% the i%ea of the *elf an% often i%entifie% it ,ith the -o,er -er.a%in1 the ,orl% =Brahman>. Liberation =moka> in thi* theory con*i*te% in the reali*ation of thi* -o,er ,ithin one*elf an% of it* i%entity ,ith the 1roun% of the uni.er*e. $arly Bu%%hi*t te@t*, on the other han%, tau1ht the e@tinction of the i%ea of the *elfH a real an% chan1ele** *elf, they tau1ht, ,a* not to be foun% any,here. /n the "ali Sutta* free%om from belief in a *ub*tantial an% -ermanent *elf i* re1ar%e% a* e**ential for liberation =vimutti>. +he U(aniadi# ?ue*t centre% u-on the attainment of ha--ine** = nanda>, in thi* -re*ent life an% in an after<life. +he attitu%e of 6e%ic teacher* ,a* ,orl%<affirmin1H they %o not *eem to ha.e ha% an a,arene** of %ukkha or %i**ati*factorine** of -henomenal e@i*tence. /t ,a* in thi* a,arene** that early Bu%%hi*t monk* foun% the ba*i* of ,orl%<renunciation. +he i%eal of Dirva ,a* -ur*ue% by tho*e ,ho ,ere thorou1hly %i*1u*te% ,ith the ,orl% an% ,ho ,ere con.ince% of the *ufferin1* of *aF*2ra. Pe *hall look in .ain in 6e%ic te@t* inclu%in1 the early S-aniGa%* for anythin1 corre*-on%in1 to the %octrine of the three mark* = tilakkhaa>, .i7. im-ermanence =ani##a>, *ufferin1 =dukkha> an% not<*elf =anatt>, ,hich accor%in1 to Bu%%hi*t intuition characteri*e all -henomenal thin1* = dhamma>. +he hallmark of Bu%%hi*t -hilo*o-hy ,a* the %octrine of con%itione% 1ene*i* = (aEi##asamu((da>, accor%in1 to ,hich all the -henomenal thin1* are cau*ally inter<relate% an% %e*tine% to fa%e a,ay = vyayadhamm>. +hi* %octrine i* forei1n to 6e%ic or Br2hma3ic thou1ht. +he in*titutional character of an a*cetic community = Bhikkhusa !ha> amon1 the follo,er* of S2kyamuni an% it* re1ulation by a bo%y of a*cetic rule* calle% (timokkha, or "inaya co%e, are unkno,n to 6e%ic te@t*. +he i%ea of renunciation or 1oin1 forth = (abbajj> from home life ,a* forei1n to early Br2hma3ic i%eolo1y. /t ,a* intro%uce% in the 2harmas8tras a* the fourth *ta1e =:rama> in a Br2hma3aA* life only %urin1 -o*t<Bu%%hi*t e-och. +he U(aniads ,hich refer to :ramas are commonly a**i1ne% to a %ate later than that of the Bu%%ha an% Mah2.Ura. $.en after the formulation of the *cheme of four :ramas after the a1e of the*e Jrama3a teacher*, the Br2hma3a la,<1i.er* continue% to e@alt the hou*ehol%erA* *ta1e = !rhastha> a* the be*t an% 1M foremo*t of all the *ta1e*. Althou1h the early U(aniads refer to yo!a -racti*e* an% inclu%e dhyna in a thei*tic *cheme, a *y*tem of me%itation e@erci*e* i* far from the ken of their -hilo*o-her*. +he contra*t ,ith Bu%%hi*m i* *trikin1 an% im-ortant. Bo%hi*att.a Si%%h2rtha attaine% Bir.23a throu1h a,akenin1 con*e?uent on -erfectin1 all the *ta1e* of me%itation. +he theory an% -racti*e of me%itation ,ere amon1 the core element* of early Bu%%hi*tic culture. +he i%eal of -racti*in1 an% -erfectin1 the four :holy abi%in1*; = brahmavihras> or immea*urable *ocial emotion*, %oe* not a--ear in the Br2hma3ical tra%ition till the 0o!as8tra of "ata[Iali =cir. 3(( !$> ,a* ,ritten. /t i* likely that the -racti*e of the*e .irtue* ,a* of Jrama3ic ori1in but they ,ere em-ha*i*e% e*-ecially in Bu%%hi*m. $arly Bu%%hi*m *too% in *trikin1 contra*t ,ith 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m. /t %i% not reco1ni*e the reli1iou* authority of the 6e%a* an% reIecte% their *acrificial rituali*m. By reIectin1 an% refutin1 the reli1iou* authority of the 6e%a*, Bu%%hi*m reIecte% the .ery ba*i* of 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m. /t ri%icule% the claim* of -rie*tly Br2hma3a* re1ar%in1 their ability to attain com-anion*hi- ,ith
See 1istory o+ the Punjab, 6ol. /, a--en%i@ on The Institution o+ Sta!es 37ramasB H ;autama 2harmas8tra , ///. /. 34 3)H Baudhyana 2harmas8tra //. ). '9W3).
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1o%* throu1h the *tu%y of the 6e%a* an% -erformance of *acrificial rite*. +he 1reate*t 1o%* of the 6e%ic Nryan* ,ere con*i%ere% by early Bu%%hi*t* far inferior to the Bu%%ha. Pherea* in 6e%ic Br2hma3i*m kin1*, -rie*t* an% the -eo-le alike ,or*hi--e% 1o%* like /n%ra an% "raI2-ati =Br2hma3a*-ati, Brahm2>, in Bu%%hi*m the*e e@alte% 1o%* fi1ure% a* %e.otee* an% %i*ci-le* of the Bu%%ha ,ho ,a* the teacher not only of men but al*o of the 1o%* = satth devamanussna >. /n Br2hma3i*m the 1o%* are -o,erful an% immortal, in Bu%%hi*m they are %eclare% to be *ubIect to the la, of kamma an% therefore to %eath an% rebirth. +he Br2hma3ical .ie, of the creation of the uni.er*e by an omni-otent an% *u-reme "er*on or Lor% i* clearly o--o*e% to early Bu%%hi*m. /n *hort, the ,hole theolo1y of early Br2hma3i*m ,a* irrele.ant to the Bu%%hi*t ?ue*t of the ultimate relea*e. +he i%ea* of 6e%ic Br2hma3a* ran counter to tho*e of early Bu%%hi*m. +he *eer* = rs9s> an% *a1e* of the 6e%ic tra%ition li.e% a hou*ehol%erA* life an% *ou1ht health, ,ealth, lon1e.ity an% off*-rin1 throu1h *acrifice* an% *in1in1 hymn*. +he Bu%%hi*t a*cetic* =munis, :ramaas>, on the other han%, ha.in1 renounce% the hou*ehol% life ,ith all it* -eril* an% -lea*ure*, *ou1ht tran*cen%ental -eace an% *-iritual liberation =vimutti> throu1h me%itation =jhna> an% inner a,akenin1 =(a$$>. 6e%ic ceremoniali*m =karmakanda> ,a* matche% by Bu%%hi*t me%itation =jhna> an% a*ce*i* =yo!a>. +he Br2hma3ical tra%ition of three kno,le%1e* = veda-trayi>, i.e. the kno,le%1e of the fir*t three 6e%a* = R!, 0ajur, Sma>, ,a* matche% in the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition by three kin%* of *u-er<kno,le%1e =abhi$$> calle% :threefol% in*i1ht; =tevijj>, i.e. kno,le%1e of former li.e*, clair.oyance, an% the %e*truction of the four savas, =*en*uality, the %e*ire to be *omethin1, ,ron1 .ie,* an% *-iritual blin%ne**>. Pherea* in 6e%ic Brahmani*m brahma#rya ,a* un%er*too% to mean *tu%ent*hi- or the *tu%y of the 6e%a* un%er a learne% Br2hma3a, in Bu%%hi*m it came to be re1ar%e% a* *ynonymou* ,ith holy con%uct or reli1iou* life li.e% ,ith a .ie, to attainin1 free%om from *aF*2ra. /n Bu%%hi*m brahma#ariya inclu%e% a ,hole ran1e of *-iritual culture. +he *cri-ture* *ayD :Brahma#ariya dhamma#ariya .; Bu%%hi*t *-iritual culture em-ha*i*e* the *imultaneou* %e.elo-ment of morality =s9la>, concentration =samdhi> an% ,i*%om =(a$$>, ,herea* the Brahmanical culture in*i*te% on clearin1 a threefol% %ebt to *eer* =r9s>, 1o%* =devas> an% ance*tor* =(itrs> throu1h the *tu%y of the 6e%a, -erformance of *acrifice an% -rocreation of *on*. Pherea* the *lau1hter of animal* in reli1iou* ritual* = yaj$>, ,a* a re1ular element of ol% Br2hma3i*m, -racti*e of inoffen*i.ene** =ahi s> to,ar%* all li.in1 bein1* ,a* ke-t at the hea% of the Bu%%hi*t li*t of moral -rece-t* = sikkh(ada>. +he other .irtue* e@tolle% in early Bu%%hi*t *cri-ture* are com-a**ion, frien%line**, im-artiality, truth, non<attachment, *elf<%enial, *elfle**ne**, cha*tity, liberality, forbearance, humility, free%om from 1ree%, an1er an% conceit, *elf<reliance, ,atchfulne**, *ati*faction, bene.olence, me%itation, ,i*%om an% a min% turne% to,ar%* $nli1htenment. +he Bu%%haA* teachin1* *ou1ht to liberate human bein1* not only from the *elf<*y*tem =tmavda>, they al*o -a.e% the ,ay for *ocial emanci-ation of men an% ,omen. +he Br2hma3ical theory of the four ca*te* ,a* critici*e% a* ri%iculou* an% the -racti*e of untouchability an% *ocial ine?uality ,a* con%emne% a* unIu*t an% irrational. +he Bu%%hi*t tra%ition reco1ni*e% the free%om of faith an% offere% e?uality of o--ortunity in matter* of reli1iou* culture to men an% ,omen ,ithout re1ar% to their ca*te, colour or *ocial *tatu*. +he Bu%%hi*t criti?ue of the Br2hma3ical %octrine of four ca*te* an% their fi@e% %utie* an% -ri.ile1e* =%harma*> ,a* one of the main i**ue* to ,hich the -ri.ile1e% Br2hma3a* *tron1ly reacte%. +hi* ,a* the be1innin1 of Br2hma3ical ho*tility to,ar%* Bu%%hi*m ,hich *to--e% only ,ith the %i*a--earance of Bu%%hi*t monk* from /n%ian *oil. Bu%%hi*m em-ha*i*e% a -ractical an% em-irical a--roach an% 1enerally *u--orte% a rational outlook to,ar%* life an% it* -roblem*. /t %i% not enforce any %o1ma or cre%o on it* .otarie*.

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Br2hma3i*m re-eate%ly in*i*te% on the %o1ma of the authority of the 6e%a* an% con%emne% e.ery other i%ea an% -racti*e not *anctione% by the sruti. +he Flmasutta -re*ent* a *tatement of the Bu%%hi*t attitu%e to,ar%* rational thou1ht an% em-ha*i*e* con.iction born of careful un%er*tan%in1. +ran*cen%in1 thei*tic an% athei*tic theorie*, the Bu%%ha -roclaime% the mi%%le ,ay =majjhima (aEi(ad> in thou1ht an% -racti*e. +he hi1he*t 1oal in Bu%%hi*m i* Bir.23a, the 0hamma ,hich i* im-er*onal an% ab*olute. Pith the attainment of Bir.23a, *aF*2ra or the ,orl%<-roce** of chan1e an% *ufferin1 cea*e*. Bu%%hi*m i* chiefly concerne% ,ith the liberation of bein1* from thi* ,orl%<-roce**. Ju*t a* the ,ater of the 1reat ocean ha* but one ta*te9that of *alt9like,i*e the %octrine an% the -racti*e of Bu%%hi*m ha* but one ta*te, the ta*te of liberation =vimuttirasa>. A remarkable feature of Bu%%hi*m i* it* uni.er*ality. +he *co-e of the Bu%%hi*t teachin1 i* co<e@ten*i.e ,ith the ,hole of humanity. /t i* not a reli1ion of a -articular race or cho*en -eo-le. /t* holy book* an% it* noble -racti*e* are o-en to -eo-le of all lan%*. Bu%%hi*m aime% at the enli1htenment of all bein1*. /t* teachin1* are uni.er*al an% not relati.e to a -articular 1eo1ra-hical area or country. Althou1h it ori1inate% in /n%ia, it *oon ma%e the ,orl% it* home. +he Bu%%ha ha% %irecte% hi* -u-il* to %i**eminate the %octrine of -ure con%uct an% hi1her life in all %irection*. +hi* uni.er*ality or co*mo-olitani*m ,a* not *hare% by 6e%ic an% U(aniadi# %octrine*. +he 6e%ic br2hma3a* 7ealou*ly 1uar%e% their *cri-ture* an% the techni?ue* of *acrificial ritual* ,ere the *-ecial craft* of -rie*t*. +he U(aniads continue% thi* tra%ition of *ecrecy an% cla** con*ciou*ne**. +he .ery ,or% u(aniad mean* *omethin1 to be learne% by *ittin1 clo*e to the teacher, a my*tery or a *ecret an% confi%ential %octrine +he U(aniads %o not in*i*t on ca*te, it may be ob*er.e%, but to e@-oun% a %octrine for the 1oo% an% enli1htenment of all human* ,a* beyon% the -ur.ie, of their author*. /t ,a* in Bu%%hi*m, for the fir*t time in hi*tory, that the %oor* of *-iritual -erfection ,ere o-ene% ,i%e for all tho*e ,ho *ou1ht it. Men an% ,omen of all ca*te* an% of no ca*te* ,ere 1i.en the full free%om to li.e a -ure life in ?ue*t of 1oo% rebirth an% ultimate relea*e. /n thi* tra%ition there i* no eternal hell or -ur1atory nor an eternal -ara%i*e. $.eryone ha* the free%om to ,ork out oneA* %e*tiny. $.en the mo*t e.il an% .iciou* -er*on coul% attain not only hea.en but al*o liberation, an% the 1reate*t of 1o%* ,a* *ubIect to the la, of kamma an% con%itione% 1ene*i*. +he *u-reme 1oal ha% been announce% for one an% all, the %octrine =dhamma> an% the metho% =vinaya> ha% been e@-oun%e% by the torch<bearer of humanity out of *u-reme com-a**ion for the li.in1 bein1*. +hi* i%eal of 1reat com-a**ion, ,holly ab*ent in the 6e%a*, came to be the mark of the Bu%%hi*t ,ay.

I/! The Buddhist 'ontribution to Indian 'i)ili0ation

Art and Architecture
$.en if ,e Iu%1e him only by hi* -o*thumou* effect* on the ci.ili7ation of /n%ia, S2kyamuni Bu%%ha ,a* certainly the 1reate*t man to ha.e been born in /n%ia, an% the contribution of hi* teachin1* to,ar%* /n%ian hi*tory an% culture ,a* -erha-* 1reater than that of Br2hma3i*m. Before becomin1 a maIor faith an% a ci.ili*in1 force in the ,orl%, Bu%%hi*m ha% been a mi1hty *tream of thou1ht an% a tremen%ou* fountain<hea% of human culture in it* homelan%. /1norance or ne1lect of the a.ailable Bu%%hi*t literature i* not the only *hortcomin1 of the :tra%itional; a--roach. +he fact that the kno,le%1e of /n%ian archaeolo1y i* confine% to a han%ful of *cholar* i* another factor ,hich ha* -re.ente% mo*t of u* from .ie,in1 Bu%%hi*m in it* entirety. Mortimer Pheeler ob*er.e* that :Archaeolo1ically at lea*t ,e cannot treat

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Bu%%hi*m merely a* a here*y a1ain*t a -re.ailin1 an% fun%amental Br2hma3ical ortho%o@y.; For, in *-ite of the ra.a1e* of time an% %e*truction by /n%ian an% forei1n fanatic*, Bu%%hi*m i* *till *-eakin1 .i.i%ly an% maIe*tically throu1h it* thou*an%* of in*cri-tion*, about one thou*an% rock<cut *anctuarie* an% mona*terie*, thou*an%* of ruine% st8(as an% mona*tic e*tabli*hment* an% an incalculable number of icon*, *cul-ture*, -aintin1* an% emblem*, that it -re.aile% uni.er*ally amon1 the cla**e* an% ma**e* of /n%ia for o.er fifteen centurie* after the a1e of the Bu%%ha, an% that it* i%ea* of com-a**ion, -eace, lo.e, bene.olence, rationali*m, *-irituali*m an% renunciation ha% forme% the core of the *u-er*tructure of ancient /n%ian thou1ht an% culture. Phat i* -ro.e% by Bu%%hi*t archaeolo1y i* affirme% by Bu%%hi*t -hilo*o-hy an% literature al*o. Bot only the numerical *tren1th an% .olume of Bu%%hi*t te@t* e@tant in "ali, Bu%%hi*t San*krit, cla**ical San*krit, "r2krit an% A-abhraFJa, or -re*er.e% in South an% South< $a*t A*ian, +ibetan, !hine*e, Ja-ane*e an% !entral A*ian lan1ua1e* an% *cri-t*, but al*o the .ariety, mo%ernity, %e-th an% *ubtlety of Bu%%hi*t literature an% -hilo*o-hy lea% u* to conclu%e that the reli1ion an% -hilo*o-hy of Bu%%hi*t te@t* ha% ca-ti.ate% the /n%ic ,orl%. Accor%in1 to S,2mi 6i.ek2nan%a, Bu%%hi*m ha% at one time :nearly *,allo,e% u- t,o<thir%* of the -o-ulation; of /n%ia.

14

Bu%%hi*m in the +hera.2%a tra%ition ha* been a t,ofol% mo.ementD the Bu%%hi*m of monk* an% nun* or a*cetic Bu%%hi*m, an% the Bu%%hi*m of the laymen an% lay,omen = u(saka, u(sik> or -o-ular an% *ocial Bu%%hi*m. Alon1 ,ith the ,ay to Bir.23a, there ,a* the ,ay to A1oo% rebirthA. /n the Brahmajlasutta, the Ptimokkha, an% the "isuddhima!!a, all ,orl%ly art* an% craft* are %e*cribe% a* un,orthy of tho*e ,ho *eek ultimate liberation. "rohibition of -artici-ation by monk* an% nun* in %ance*, *on1*, in*trumental mu*ic, *ho,* of entertainment th th an% u*e of article* of -er*onal beautification i* the bur%en of the 7 an% 5 sikkh(adas. +he ca*e ,a* %ifferent in -o-ular Bu%%hi*m or u(saka<dhamma. +he &ah(arinibbnasutta narrate* ho, the noble* an% the commoner*, both men a* ,ell a* ,omen, of the Malla clan, honoure% the bo%y of the +ath21ata by %ancin1 an% *in1in1 in accom-animent ,ith in*trumental mu*ic, ,ith 1arlan%* an% -erfume*. Similar arti*tic acti.itie* full of ceremonial %i1nity an% ae*thetic *en*e are re-orte% in the 6alitavistara an% the Buddha#arita to ha.e been -erforme% by men an% ,omen of Ea-ila.a*tu at the birth of the Bo%hi*att.a Si%%h2rtha. +he 1ro,th of Bu%%hi*t fine art* ,a* %ue lar1ely to the e%ucational, reli1iou*, an% %e.otional nee%* of the Bu%%hi*t*. +he *u-remely -erfect an% *u-ernal -er*onality of the Bu%%ha =sarvaG!a sundara or sarvkravaro(eta> ,a* the 1reate*t attraction for arti*t* an% -oet* an% the *u-reme obIect of %e.out contem-lation for monk* an% my*tic*H hence the 1ro,th of Bu%%holo1y, Bu%%hi*t iconolo1y, *cul-ture an% -aintin1. Pith the emer1ence of Mah2y2na, the Bu%%ha ima1e became the central -lank of -o-ular Bu%%hi*m an% it ,a* manufacture% in a thou*an% -la*tic form*. Manufacturin1 reli1iou* icon* an% emblem* ,a* .ie,e% a* a -iou* %ee%. So ,a* e@ca.atin1 .ih2ra* in li.e rock* an% erectin1 *hrine* an% *tR-a*. +he "ali =(adnas a* ,ell a* the San*krit =vadnas eminently %i*-lay the -o-ular enthu*ia*m for a%oration = (8ja> of emblem* *uch a* the ,heel, bo,l, foot<-rint, the bo%hi<tree an% other item* connecte% ,ith the Ma*terA* earthly e@i*tence. From about the be1innin1 of the !hri*tian era ima1e* of the Bu%%ha be1an to come into e@i*tence an% re.olutioni*e% ritual* of ,or*hi- not only in Bu%%hi*m but al*o in Br2hma3i*m. /n -lace of *acrificial ritual*, tem-le ritual* no, became -o-ular. +he *tyle of the Bu%%hi*t *tR-a *eem* to ha.e in*-ire% the *tyle of Br2hma3ical tem-le*, e*-ecially tho*e ,ith a sikhara. /t may be *u11e*te% that the early Bu%%hi*t -racti*e of rai*in1 *tR-a* or *acre% reli?uary moun%* -erha-* reflecte%, inter alia, a *en*e of time an% hi*toricity. +he 6e%ic Nryan* lacke% thi* *en*e an% hence in Br2hma3i*m the tra%ition of buil%in1 *tR-a* %i% not %e.elo-. +he Mah2bh2rata an% the "ur23a* con*i%ere% the -racti*e of .eneratin1 *tR-a* or #aityas =calle% e'ukas> a* a mark of the %ark a1e =kaliyu!a>. o,e.er, later
14

=ntiHuity, 6ol. LL//, Bo. 59, March 19M9, -. 4.

1M

on the -racti*e ,a* a%o-te% by tho*e *ect* of the Br2hma3ical tra%ition ,hich ,ere mo*t influence% by later Bu%%hi*m, .i7. Yai.aite, 6e%2nta an% Oorakh-anth. #f all the Ioy*, that of 0hamma, dhamma(9ti, ,a* *u-reme. +he Bu%%ha ha% *ai% that :the 1ift 1) of 0hamma e@cel* all other 1ift*.; +hi* ,a* the teachin1 of $m-eror AJoka too. +he 1ift* of 0hamma inclu%e% all that ,a* con%uci.e to nobler an% hi1her life inclu%in1 the kno,le%1e of %octrine*, article* of faith an% %e.otion, *cri-ture*, icon*, *ymbol* an% all the other mean* of 1ro,in1 in -iety or e@-re**in1 com-a**ion an% liberality. /n thi* ,ay, Bu%%hi*m became the *ource of manifol% arti*tic an% literary acti.itie* reflectin1 the creati.e an% ae*thetic 1eniu* of it* teacher* an% follo,er*. Pith the -a**a1e of time ol% inhibition* rece%e% into the back1roun%H moreo.er, the theory of -erfection in e@-e%ient mean* =u(yakaualya (ramit> naturally re?uire% an% encoura1e% -roficiency in .ariou* art* an% *cience*. +he Bo%hi*att.a i%eal of Mah2y2na left no %ifference bet,een bhikus an% u(sakas. +he art an% literature of Bu%%hi*m ,a* -ro%uce% throu1h the %onation* not only of u(sakas an% u(siks but al*o of monk* an% nun*. For in*tance there are 5'7 Br2hmU in*cri-tion* on the monument* of S2[chU alone. Amon1 the %onor* are mentione% 17 the name* of o.er t,o hun%re% monk* an% nun*H the re*t are lay follo,er*. Similar i* the ca*e at a number of other centre* of Bu%%hi*t art an% culture. *uan +*an1 ha* note% the name* of a number of monk* ,ho e*tabli*he% mona*terie*, built *hrine* an% erecte% ima1e*. /n thi* connection mention may be ma%e of Jaya*ena of YaGti.ana<6ih2ra, an u(saka but a 1reat 15 teacher an% author of Bu%%hi*t G2*tra*. +he B2lan%2 *tone in*cri-tion of M2l2%a %e*cribe* the 19 monk* of the Sni.er*ity of B2lan%2 a* :re-ute% e@-ert* in true *cri-ture* an% the art*.; +he community of monk* became in the cour*e of time a community of teacher* of *ociety, an% they ha.e left a -ermanent influence on the country -eo-le ,ho e*teem any ta,ny<cla% -er*on not only for hi* au*tere %re** but al*o for hi* *u--o*e% -roficiency in *ol.in1 *ecular -roblem*, *uch a* kno,le%1e of me%icine for e@am-le. Ein1 0u\\ha12ma3i of Sri Lanka i* re-orte% to ha.e *ai% that :the .ery *i1ht of monk* i* au*-iciou* an% con%uci.e to our '( -rotection.; +he :*harer*; of alm* =Bhikkhu*>, before ,hom kin1* an% noble* bo,e%, ha% been the cultural lea%er* an% reli1iou* teacher* of *ociety an% a *ource of in*-iration for the ma**e* for *e.eral centurie* before the *ackin1 of B2lan%2 Mah2.ih2ra by Bukhtyar EhilIi. +he 1reat ma** of Bu%%hi*t art an% literature, *o rich, .arie% an% %ee-ly in*-irin1 in both form an% content, ,a* in*-ire% by the beauty an% the norm* of the 0hamma. +hi* 0hamma it*elf ,a* concei.e% of a* a ble**in1 in the be1innin1, a ble**in1 in the mi%%le an% a ble**in1 in the en%. /t i* to be note% that the Bu%%hi*t *eer* make a %i*tinction bet,een the -ur*uit of ab*tract beauty ,hich they foun% throu1h the *-otle** *-iritual eye of the 0hamma, an% the %eli1ht* of it* e-hemeral beauty. All, that i* holy an% utterly ,ell an% i* con%uci.e to the attainment of the *u-reme 1oal, i* in%ee% beautiful. +hi* i* the *-iritual %imen*ion of ae*thetic*. Pe nee% har%ly mention that the earlie*t an% the be*t -aintin1 of ancient /n%ia i* the Bu%%hi*t -aintin1H that the be*t *cul-ture of the 1ol%en %ay* of ancient /n%ian culture i* the Bu%%hi*t *cul-tureH that the earlie*t hi*torical *cul-ture of /n%ia i* al*o the Bu%%hi*t *cul-ture. /n the fiel% of architecture too, Bu%%hi*m ,a* the -ioneer *ource of in*-iration. /n both *tructural an% rock<cut architecture of ancient /n%ia, Bu%%hi*t e@am-le* ha% -ro.i%e% a -ermanent le1acy in -lannin1, techni?ue an% *tyle. +he earlie*t hi*torical buil%in1* in brick are
2hamma(ada, .er*e 34MH AGoka Cock $%ict L/. John Mar*hall =e%.> The &onuments o+ S$#h9, 6ol. /, =0elhi 19M(>. --. ')M ff. 15 +homa* Patter*, 5n 0uan )h,an!Is Travels in India, 6ol. // =0elhi, 19)1> -. 1M). 19 &emoirs o+ the =r#haeolo!i#al Survey o+ India, Bo. )) =!alcutta, 19M'> -. 79 sad!ama-kalvikhyta-vidvad-janJ4 '( &ahva sa, LL6. 3 =e%. B. E. Bha1a.at, Bombay, 1949> -.1)9.
17 1)

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the ruin* of Bu%%hi*t mona*terie*H the earlie*t man<ma%e rock<cut hall* are the .ih2ra* of Bu%%hi*t* an% NIU.aka monk* e@ca.ate% un%er the or%er* of a Bu%%hi*t em-eror. La*t but not lea*t the earlie*t an% the be*t free *tan%in1 monolithic -illar* ,ith beautiful ca-ital* of animal fi1ure* ,ere in*-ire% by Bu%%hi*m an% concei.e% by a Bu%%hi*t 1eniu*. All *ub*e?uent e@am-le* of k9rtista bhas an% dhva jasta bhas ha.e been influence% by AJokan. lats. /n%ian -alaeo1ra-hy an% e-i1ra-hy o,e a 1reat %eal to the ori1inal an% -ioneer in*-iration of Bu%%hi*m an% it* lithic recor%*. +he earlie*t hi*torical in*cri-tion* of /n%ia are the Bu%%hi*t in*cri-tion*. +he dhammali(i of AJoka became the mother of all *ub*e?uent .arietie* of Br2hmU an% it* %eri.ati.e /n%ian *cri-t*.

Polity
Bu%%hi*m ha* contribute% *i1nificantly to the %e.elo-ment of the form* an% in*titution of ci.il 1o.ernment, inclu%in1 the i%eal* of kin1*hi-, in ancient /n%ia. S2kyamuni ,a* a teacher al*o of the -rinci-le* of ri1hteou* 1o.ernment, in%i.i%ual free%om an% the rule of la,. +he *e.en con%ition* of *tability of a re-ublican bo%y ,hich he *u11e*te% to the Ma1a%han %i-lomat, 6a**ak2ra, are ,or%* of *ocial ,i*%om *till rele.ant to our contem-orary -olitical life. +he influence of Bu%%hi*m on ancient /n%ian -olitical theory an% a%mini*trati.e or1ani*ation coul% be un%er*too% in the li1ht of =i> Bu%%hi*t *-eculation* concernin1 the ori1in of *tate an% 1o.ernment, =ii> the Bu%%hi*t or1ani*ation of the Bhikkhu<SaF1ha an% it* im-act on %emocratic *tate* of ancient /n%ia, =iii> the influence of the Bu%%haA* teachin1* on kin1*, ?ueen*, an% their .a**al* an% mini*ter* an% =i.> certain conce-t* an% in*titution*, concernin1 -olitical life, ,hich ,ere in*-ire% by Bu%%hi*t teachin1. Pith re1ar% to the fir*t -oint, the Bu%%hi*t theory of the '1 ori1in of *tate an% 1o.ernment a* relate% in the =!!a$$asutta i* of %emocratic im-ort. A *imilar .er*ion in the Snti(arvan of the &ahbhrata *eem* to ha.e been mo%elle% after the Bu%%hi*t theory. +he fact that many ancient /n%ian kin1* an% author* of -olitical thou1ht, felt that the kin1 o,e* hi* authority to hi* *ubIect* may ha.e been *u11e*te% by the le1en% concernin1 Mah2Iana*ammata, the fir*t tra%itional kin1. +he =rthastra of Eau\ilya, the Jun21rh Cock /n*cri-tion of Cu%ra%2man /, the &ahbhrata, the &a$jusr9m8lakal(a an% the RjataraG!i9 th *u11e*t that the tra%ition of the election of kin1* ,a* continue% till the 1' century !$ in *ome '' -art* of /n%ia. Pith re*-ect to the *econ% -oint it i* a ,ell<kno,n fact that the or1ani*ation an% a%mini*tration of the Bu%%hi*t SaF1ha ,a* ba*e% on %emocratic i%ea* an% that the %emocratic '3 tra%ition* of early Bu%%hi*t re-ublic* ,ere continue% till a* late a* the time of Samu%ra1u-ta th =M century !$>, ,ho *eem* to ha.e ,i-e% out the re-ublican *tate* in hi* time. But the tra%ition *ur.i.e% in (aura-jana(ada a**emblie* an% al*o in .illa1e<a%mini*tration, an% ha* come %o,n to our o,n era in the form of !rmo-(a$#yatas. Pith re1ar% to the thir% -oint, namely the influence of the Bu%%haA* teachin1* on ancient /n%ian kin1*, ?ueen* an% their mini*ter*, there i* a ma** of e.i%ence in the form of literary, e-i1ra-hic an% forei1n recor%* an% a mo%e*t .olume coul% be ,ritten on thi* *ubIect alone. /t i* im-o**ible here e.en to mention the mere name* of all the kin1*, ?ueen*, noble*, an% mini*ter* of ancient /n%ia, ,ho ,ere Bu%%hi*t* or ,ere influence% by Bu%%hi*m. Amon1 the kin1* ,ho ,ere Bu%%hi*t by faith, ,e may inclu%e Bimbi*2ra, AI2tatGatru, "uGakara*2rin =of O2n%h2ra>, E2l2Goka, $m-eror AJoka, 0aGaratha Maurya, Brha%ratha Maurya, Menan%er, the Oreek kin1, EaniGka /, the EuG2na kin1, one of the S2ta.2hana*, either SUmuka or hi* *on ErG3a,
'1 ''

29!hanikya, 6ol. // =B2lan%a $%. 1949> --. 45W)(. See L. M. Jo*hi in &aha Bodhi Cournal, 6ol. 73 !alcutta, May, 19)4> --. 114W11). '3 !f. Ookul%2* 0e, 2emo#ra#y in Karly Buddhist Sa !ha, !alcutta, 194MH C. !. MaIum%2r, )or(orate 6i+e in =n#ient India, =!alcutta, 19''>, !ha-ter /6.

1)

Bu%%ha1u-ta, +ath21ata1u-ta, Bara*iFha1u-ta, B2l2%itya of the Ou-ta %yna*ty, "Rr3a.arman of Ma1a%ha, C2Iabha\a of Ben1al, C2Iya.ar%hana an% arGa.ar%hana of +h2neJ.ara, 0hru.a*ena or 0hru.abha\a of M2la.2, SUl2%itya /, 0harm2%itya of M2la.2, Me1ha.2hana of Ea*hmir, Subhakara%e.a of #ri**a, almo*t all the ruler* of the !an%ra %yna*ty, EhaX1a %yna*ty, Bha%ra %yna*ty an% the Bhaumak2ra %yna*ty of Ben1al an% #ri**a, Oo-2la an% 0harma-2la an% *ome other kin1* of the "2la %yna*ty. +hi* li*t i* by no mean* com-rehen*i.e. Many of the*e kin1* ,ere (aramo(saka or (armsau!ata, i.e. %e.out Bu%%hi*t*. Pith the i1noble e@ce-tion of about ten kin1*, ,ho -er*ecute% Bu%%hi*m in their kin1%om*, a* a rule mo*t of the kin1* of ancient /n%ia ha% *ym-athy an% re*-ect for Bu%%hi*m an% -atroni*e% the monk* an% their e*tabli*hment*. +he *ame i* true of mo*t of the ?ueen* an% mini*ter* ,ho*e -atrona1e of Bu%%hi*m i* kno,n either throu1h literature or throu1h in*cri-tion* or throu1h forei1n recor%*. /t a--ear* that /n%ia o,e* to AJoka the idea o+ a ,el+are state a* ,ell a* the idea o+ a se#ular state, *ecular in the *en*e not of a *tate ,ithout any reli1ion but in the *en*e that -olitical a%mini*tration of a *tate *houl% be free, a* far a* -o**ible, from *ectarian -rinci-le* an% mu*t re*-ect the truly reli1iou* *entiment* of %ifferent .otarie* that %,ell in a -articular *tate. Both the*e i%ea* are *u11e*te% by the in*cri-tion* of AJoka. AJokan i%eal* of kin1*hi- ,ere %irectly re*-on*ible for the 1ro,th of the i%ea of a ,elfare *tate free from the e@clu*i.e influence of a -articular church. +he i%ea of dharmavijaya or con?ue*t by ri1hteou*ne** -racti*e% an% -ro-a1ate% by AJoka ,a* in*-ire% by Bu%%hi*t morality. +hi* 1ran% conce-t remaine% an i%eal for many kin1* ,ho came after AJoka. /t %oe* not *eem to ha.e been merely an im-erial boa*t of AJoka ,hen he %eclare% that he ha% 1aine% a ri1hteou* .ictory by *ilencin1 the ,ar<%rum* =bheri-!ho> an% by beatin1 the %rum* of ri1hteou*ne** = dharma-!ho> throu1hout hi* em-ire an% alon1 it* frontier*. +he author of the !hine*e 1ou 1anshu al*o note% that the -eo-le of /n%ia :-racti*e the 'M reli1ion of the Bu%%haH it ha* become a habit ,ith them not to kill an% not to fi1ht.; Alon1 ,ith thi* conce-t of con?ue*t throu1h ri1hteou*ne**, Bu%%hi*m 1a.e u* the conce-t of an '4 inoffen*i.e *acrifice by kin1*, a yaj$a entirely free from hi s an% full of charity an% kin%ne**. ') +hi* conce-t ,a* -racti*e% by $m-eror AJoka an% Ein1 Meha.2hana of Ea*hmir. /n the ]2321h2\a ca.e in*cri-tion of B21anik2 ,e hear of thi* non<.iolent *acrifice calle% anrabhaniyo '7 ya$o. La*tly ,e may mention that ancient /n%ian -olitical theory o,e* to Bu%%hi*m *uch in*titution* a* that of dharmamahmtra, dharmasamja, dharmad8ta , *uch royal e-ithet* a* S9lditya, "inayditya, 2harmditya, Paramasau!ata, Paramo(saka etc. an% to Bu%%hi*t *ocial thou1ht *uch hi*torical e@am-le* a* kin1*hi- of Br2hma3a*, *R%ra* or of .ai*ya*. /n early n% Br2hma3ical te@t* only a EGatriya coul% be a ruler. /n about the ' century B!$ thi* rule ,a* chan1e% an% it ,a* %eclare% that e.en a Br2hma3a coul% be a ruler. +hi* chan1e in the %utie* of a Br2hma3a ,a* -o**ibly *u11e*te% by the concrete e@am-le of "uGyamitra Su^1a, the Br2hma3a 1eneral of the la*t Maurya kin1 ,ho, ha.in1 mur%ere% hi* *o.erei1n, ma%e him*elf kin1 of the %ecayin1 Maurya em-ire. Amon1 the Br2hma3a familie* ,hich rule% o.er *mall area* in %ifferent -erio%* of ancient /n%ian hi*tory mention may be ma%e of the Su^1a*, E23.a*, Ea%aFba*, 62k2\aka*, an% S2ta.2hana*.

'M '4

_uote% after Sten Eono,, )or(us Ins#ri(tionum Indi#arum, 6ol. //, -. LL6//. :29!hanikya,L 6ol. /, FMEadantasutta4 ') See L. M. Jo*hi in Cournal o+ 5riental Institute, 6ol. L/6 =Baro%a, 19)M> --. 14)W147. '7 0. !. Sircar, Sele#t Ins#ri(tions =!alcutta, 19M'> -. 157.

17

.ducation
Phen the Bu%%ha ha% foun%e% at 6ara32*i the i%eal sa !ha con*i*tin1 of *i@ty ,orthie* =arahats> he comman%e% them in the follo,in1 ,or%*D :Palk, monk*, on your tour for the ble**in1 of the many, for the ha--ine** of the many, out of com-a**ion for the ,orl%, for the ,elfare, the ble**in1, the ha--ine** of %e.a* an% men. Monk*, teach 0hamma ,hich i* a ble**in1 in the be1innin1, a ble**in1 in the mi%%le, a ble**in1 in the en%.; Pe ?uote thi* -a**a1e from the Mah2.a11a to recall that Bu%%hi*m ,a*, from the .ery be1innin1, a mi**ionary mo.ement foun%e% on com-a**ion, %etermine% *-iritually to tran*form the ,orl% of humanity an% to a,aken it morally, intellectually an% *-iritually. Pho can *ay ho, many million* of human bein1* ha% been a,akene% morally, intellectually an% *-iritually by the me**a1e of Bu%%hi*m in the cour*e of it* lon1 hi*toryK Pe can only ima1ine that an immea*urable multitu%e of creature* mu*t ha.e been a,akene% in /n%ia alone. Bu%%hi*t mona*tic colle1e* an% uni.er*itie* of ancient /n%ia thre, o-en their %oor* to all tho*e ,ho ,i*he% to kno,, irre*-ecti.e of ca*te, colour, cree% or country. +hi* uni.er*al attitu%e an% catholic *-irit of Bu%%hi*t culture an% it* e%ucational centre* earne% a 1reat international re-utation for /n%ia an% attracte% *tu%ent* an% *cholar* from far<off countrie*. +he *ame cannot be *ai% of the Br2hma3ical *y*tem of e%ucation an% it* in*titution*. /t i* therefore ?uite -ro-er to attribute to the influence of Bu%%hi*m the ri*e of or1ani*e% -ublic e%ucational in*titution* in ancient /n%ia. +he influence of Bu%%hi*t mona*tic an% e%ucational in*titution* on the 1ro,th an% -ro-a1ation of /n%ian culture can *carcely be o.ere*timate%. /t ,a* throu1h Bu%%hi*m that /n%ian art, literature, thou1ht an% moral* ,ere tran*mitte% throu1hout the len1th an% brea%th of A*ia %urin1 the fir*t millennium of the !hri*tian era. /n /n%ia it ,a* after the Bu%%hi*t mo%el of an or1ani*e% in*titution of monk* that SaFkar2<!2rya e*tabli*he% advaita *eat* =(9Eas> ,ith an or%aine% an% re1ulate% community of Yai.a<6e%2ntika monk*. +here i* no e.i%ence of Br2hma3ical mona*terie* before the time of SaFkara =cir. 9(( !$>. !harle* $liot i* ri1ht ,hen he ob*er.e* that :the mona*tic in*titution* of /n%ia *eem %ue to Bu%%hi*m.; :SaFkara -ercei.e% the a%.anta1e of the cenobitic life for or1ani*in1 reli1ion an% '5 foun%e% a number of maths or colle1e*. Sub*e?uent reli1iou* lea%er* imitate% him.; #ne of the centre* foun%e% by SaFkara ,a* locate% in "uri or Ja1ann2th-urU in #ri**a. Accor%in1 to S,2mi 6i.ek2nan%a, a lea%in1 mo%ern teacher of SaFkaraA* *chool, :the tem-le of Ja1annath i* an ol% Bu%%hi*tic tem-le. Pe took thi* an% other* o.er an% re< in%ui*e% them. Pe *hall ha.e '9 to %o many thin1* like that yet.;

Lan*ua*e 1 Literature
Bu%%hi*t contribution to /n%ian lan1ua1e* an% literature ,a* matche% only by the richne** an% .ariety of the Bu%%hi*t reli1ion an% -hilo*o-hy. +he %e.elo-ment of "ali an% it* literature ,a* ,holly %ue to Bu%%hi*m. #f it* 1reat hi*torical, cultural an% literary .alue, *cholar* are ,ell a,are. But "ali ,a* not the only area ,hich contribute% to the flo,erin1 of the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition. +he .a*t amount of "ali te@t*, canonical an% non<canonical, i* the contribution of only one maIor branch, %oubtle** one of the mo*t ancient an% ortho%o@ branche* of Bu%%hi*m. Se.eral other *chool* of Bu%%hi*m culti.ate% .arietie* of Bu%%hi*t San*krit an% .arietie* of Bu%%hi*t "r2krit. +he Bu%%hi*t intellectual* of ancient /n%ia contribute% not only to ,hat i* no, calle% Bu%%hi*t San*krit an% it* .arietie* but al*o to ,hat i* calle% "23inian or !la**ical San*krit. +hu* ,hile ,e ha.e the =vadnas an% &ahyanas8tra in a San*krit -eculiar to the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition, ,e al*o ha.e *uch te@t* a* the &adhyamakastra, the Ctakaml an% the Tattvasa !raha, to mention only three out of numerou* te@t*, in cla**ical San*krit. +he San*krit
'5 '9

1induism and Buddhism, 6ol. // =Lon%on, 19'1> -. 174. )om(lete *orks, 6ol. ///, -. ')M.

15

of the Bu%%hi*t tantras an% sdhanas -re*ent* yet another cate1ory of lan1ua1e. +hen the lan1ua1e of the e-i1ra-h* of AJoka i* a kin% of "r2krit, by no mean* uniform in all .er*ion* of the maIor rock e%ict*, ?uite %ifferent from the lan1ua1e of ,hat ha* been calle% the ;ndhri 2harma(ada. +he Bu%%haA* inIunction to hi* %i*ci-le* to learn the *acre% ,or% in their o,n lan1ua1e* =sakya-niruttiy> ,a* fully carrie% out by the faithful Bu%%hi*t*. +he "ali author* ,ere the fir*t to ,rite ha1io1ra-hie* an% tra%itional hi*torical narrati.e*. Some *ection* of the &ahva!!a an% the )ullava!!a contain the earlie*t e@am-le* of ,hat may be calle% Bu%%hi*t hi*torical literature. +he Buddhava sa -re*ent* u* ,ith the ol%e*t ha1io1ra-hie* of the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition. "arallel %e.elo-ment* of le1en%ary bio1ra-hie* an% ha1io1ra-hie* of mythical heroe* an% *a1e* can be *een in the &ahbhrata an% the Jaina Fal(as8tra. +he J2taka* an% the =(adnas =San*kritD =vadnas> remaine% a con*tant *ource of in*-iration to future -oet* th an% reli1iou* author* ,ho ,rote in San*krit. EGemen%ra =1( century>, for e@am-le, ,a* fir*t a Yai.a an% later on he became a Bh21a.ataH he ,a* in*-ire% by Bu%%hi*t *ubIect* an% le1en%*. e ,rote the Bodhisattvvadnakal(alat in beautiful .er*e ,herein he collecte% one hun%re% an% th ei1ht avadnas. Phether it i* in the "etla(a$#avi satik or the 2asakumra#arita of 0a3Xin =7 th century> or the Fathsaritas!ara of Soma%e.a =11 century>, the Bu%%hi*t fable* an% *torie*, in *-ite of chan1e* %ue to tran*mi**ion in %ifferent .er*ion*, retaine% their -*ycholo1ical a--eal, to the learne% a* ,ell a* to the *im-le folk. +he %i%actic material of the "ur23a* an% the 2harmastras contain* much that can ultimately be trace% to Bu%%hi*t moral teachin1*. +hi* i* e*-ecially true of the &ahbhrata. +he be1innin1* of e-ic -oetry, -articularly of %ramatic -oetry, can -o**ibly be trace% to Bu%%hi*t khyna -oetry. +he numerou* %ramatic narration* in the form of %ialo1ue* in "ali .er*e or in .er*e mi@e% ,ith -ro*e -re*ent u* ,ith the earlie*t form* of Bu%%hi*t khynas or *o<calle% :balla%*.; +he contribution of Bu%%hi*m to the -*ycholo1ical literature of ancient /n%ia ha* -erha-* ne.er been e?ualle% in the literature of Br2hma3ical yo1a. +he -*ycholo1ical a%.ance* ma%e by the Abhi%hamma *chool* of Bu%%hi*t thou1ht %e*er.e %etaile% *tu%y in the li1ht of contem-orary -*ycholo1y %e.elo-e% in the ,e*t. +he -roblem* of Abhi%hamma -*ycholo1y ha.e har%ly been *tu%ie% yet in relation to the -*ycholo1y of +2ntrika yo1a an% the Si%%ha culture. A *tu%y of %e.otional me%itation = bhakti-yo!a>, of it* techni?ue* an% terminolo1y a* re.eale% in the in%i literature of me%iae.al *aint<-oet*, i* likely to thro, im-ortant li1ht on the tran*mi**ion an% tran*formation of the cla**ical Bu%%hi*t *y*tem of dhyna. /t i* ,ell kno,n that the fir*t %ramati*t in the hi*tory of San*krit literature ,a* a Bu%%hi*t -oet, AJ.a1hoGa =fir*t century !$>. Fra1ment* of three %rama* in San*krit, inclu%in1 the fra1ment* of the Sri(utra(rakaraa, a %rama by AJ.a1hoGa, ha.e come to li1ht from !entral A*ian Bu%%hi*t ruin*. AJ.a1hoGa ,a* the forerunner of cla**ical San*krit %ramati*t* like Bh2*a an% E2li%2*a. Pinternit7 *tate* that :the fini*he% form of the e-ic* to1ether ,ith the -erfect techni?ue of the %rama* of AJ.a1hoGa -ro.e* that they ,ere com-o*e% only on *ome lon1< *tan%in1 mo%el*. By it*elf it a--ear* im-robable that a thorou1hly Bu%%hi*t -oet *houl% be the 3( fir*t to ha.e com-o*e% in thi* *tyle.; +hi* i* rather *tran1e to rea% an% no rea*on i* 1i.en for a**umin1 that it i* im-robable for :a thorou1hly Bu%%hi*t -oet; to be the -ioneer in ornate *tyle of kvya an% the -erfect techni?ue of %ramatur1y. #n the other han%, there are no mo%el* e@tant ,hich can be *ai% to ha.e influence% AJ.a1hoGa in the techni?ue* of the San*krit %rama. At another -lace the *ame *cholar i* obli1e% to *ay that :AJ.a1hoGa, ho,e.er, i* the fir*t /n%ian 31 -oet, ,ho i* actually kno,n to u* a* an author of %rama*.; Althou1h 62lmUki i* tra%itionally con*i%ere% the Afir*t -oetA in San*krit, the e@tant Rmyaa attribute% to hi* author*hi- i* of th com-o*ite character an% uncertain %ate. Bo *uch uncertainty attache* to Nrya*Rra =M century
M. Pinternit7, 1istory o+ Indian 6iterature, 6ol. ///, "art /, $n1. +r. by Subha%ra Jha =0elhi, 1()3> -. 39. 31 /bi%., -. 195.
3(

19

!$> an% hi* author*hi- of the Ctakaml an% other ,ork*. e ha* been %e*cribe% a* :the forerunner of the -oet* of cla**ical, cha*te an% ornate San*krit.; /n Y2nti%e.aA* Bodhi#aryvatra ,e fin% :the loftie*t fli1ht* of reli1iou* -oetry.; Bu*tonA* *tatement that there ,ere one hun%re% 3' commentarie* on thi* te@t, out of ,hich only ei1ht ,ere tran*late% into +ibetan, 1i.e* an i%ea of the e@tent to ,hich the Bu%%hi*t i%eal* ,ere ca-able of in*-irin1 men of letter*. Bu%%hi*t -oet* ,ere -ioneer* al*o in the com-o*ition of hymn* of -rai*e = stotra, stava, stuti> in San*krit. +he Praj$(ramitstuti may or may not be the ,ork of B212rIuna =circa 1(( !$>, but he certainly com-o*e% the )atuJstava. +he earlie*t *-ecimen of a hymn i* -o**ibly the Buddhnusmriti *ection of the &ahvastu, a canonical te@t of the &ahs !hika *chool. +he 1reate*t ,riter of Bu%%hi*t hymn* ,a* ho,e.er M2trceta =circa 1(( !$>. +he follo,in1 ,ork* a*cribe% to him, are -re*er.e% in the +ibetan b*+an<hOyurD "arrhavara-stotra =al*o calle% )atuJ:ataka>, TriratnamaG!ala-stotra, Samyaksambuddhalaksaa-stotra, Kkottarika-stotra, Su!ata(a$#atri sa-stotra, Triratna-stotra, Sata(a$#satkanma-stotra, 7ryatrdevi-stotra, Sarvrthasiddhinma-stotra-rja, &tr#eta-!9ti an% 7ryatr-stotra. AJ.a1hoGa, -erha-* a contem-orary of M2trceta, com-o*e% the ;a'i-stotra-!tha. &israka-stava of 0U1n21a, Su(rabhta-stotra of Ein1 arGa an% Sra!dhar-stotra of Sar.aI[amitra. All the*e te@t* are of immen*e .alue from the *tan%-oint of reli1iou* -oetry. +he Bhakti-:ataka of C2macan%ra Bh2ratU ,a* -erha-* the la*t hymn in -rai*e of the Bu%%ha com-o*e% in San*krit by an /n%ian Bu%%hi*t -oet. #ne of the late*t contribution* ma%e by the Bu%%hi*t* to the literature of /n%ia ,a* in the form of dohs or !9t9s =*on1*> com-o*e% by Bu%%hi*t siddhas =a%e-t* in +2ntrika culture> in A-abhraFGa. +hi* lan1ua1e *eem* to ha.e been the mother of *e.eral mo%ern /n%ian lan1ua1e* inclu%in1 in%i, #riya an% Ben1ali. +he term* an% conce-t* of Bu%%hi*m ,ere tran*mitte% by the *i%%ha* throu1h the me%ium of their A-abhraFGa -oem* to me%iae.al lore of *aint<-oet*. Snfortunately only a *mall -ortion of the *i%%ha literature ha* *ur.i.e% to thi* %ay. Finally mention may be ma%e in -a**in1 of the contribution* of Bu%%hi*t ,riter* to San*krit 1rammar an% le@ico1ra-hy. A Bu%%hi*t *cholar name% Sar.a.arman ,rote the Ftantra, in ,hich he trie% to buil% a ne, *y*tem of San*krit 1rammar. e -o**ibly li.e% in or about the *econ% century !$. /n the ei1hth century a commentary ,a* ,ritten on Ftantra by one 0ur1a*iFha. +he Bu%%hi*t *cholar, !an%ra1omin, =circa 4(( !$> ,rote the )ndravykaraa ,ith an auto<commentary =vNtti> on it. /t became the *tan%ar% 1rammatical treati*e in mo*t Bu%%hi*t countrie* of A*ia. Bruno LiebichA* re*earche* ha.e *ho,n that an e@ten*i.e literature %e.elo-e% aroun% the )ndravykaraa. Another early 1rammarian ,a* /n%ra1omin, -o**ibly a Bu%%hi*t *cholar, ,ho ,rote the =indravykaraa. +he te@t ,a* once famou* in Bu%%hi*t Be-al, but it ha* not come %o,n to u*. +he Bu%%hi*t lo1ician Jinen%rabo%hi ,rote the Fsik"ivaraa(a$jik al*o kno,n a* Dysa, a commentary on the Fsik of Jay2%itya an% 62mana. Bot le** than three Bu%%hi*t 1rammarian* of San*krit *eem to ha.e flouri*he% in the ele.enth century. Sara3a%e.a ,rote a ,ork calle% 2ur!haEa-vNtti in ,hich he *im-lifie% the %ifficult -oint* in the =tdhyyi of "2nini. /t i* *ai% that the te@t of the 2ur!haEa-vNtti ,a* re.i*e% by hi* teacher Sar.arakGita. MaitreyarakGita ,rote the Tantra(rad9(a, a critical commentary on the Dysa. +hi* author al*o ,rote another 1rammatical ,ork calle% the 2htu(rad9(a. Fra1ment* of a manu*cri-t in ei1ht lea.e* of a *ynonymical %ictionary in San*krit ,ere -urcha*e% by F. Peber at Leh in La%akh. +he author of thi* %ictionary i* belie.e% to ha.e been a Bu%%hi*t *cholar an% the*e fra1ment* are *u--o*e% to be the ol%e*t fra1ment* of any %ictionary in San*krit kno,n *o far. Another San*krit %ictionary ,hich *eem* to ha.e ori1inate% in Bu%%hi*t literary circle* ,a* the Ut(alin9 com-ile% by 6y2Xi. +he e@i*tence of thi* %ictionary i* kno,n from ?uotation* from it in *ome later commentarie*. 6y2Xi may or may not ha.e been a Bu%%hi*t by faith but he *eem* to ha.e %ra,n lar1ely on Bu%%hi*t literary *ource*. +he mo*t
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$. #bermiller, Bus-TonIs 1istory o+ Buddhism, "art //, = ei%elber1, 1931> -. 1)).

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famou* an% earlie*t e@tant %ictionary i* the Dmalin!nussana, better kno,n a* =marko:a by th Amara*iFha ,ho -o**ibly flouri*he% in the ) century !$. e ,a* a Bu%%hi*t thou1h he %i% not -ay any *-ecial attention to Bu%%hi*t .ocabulary in hi* %ictionary. /t i* *ai% that there are a* many a* 4( kno,n commentarie* on the =markoa. Mention may be ma%e in thi* connection of three im-ortant Bu%%hi*t San*krit te@t* ,hich are ,ell kno,n le@ico1ra-hical collection* of technical Bu%%hi*t term*. +he fir*t i* the 2harmasa !raha attribute% to B212rIuna =K>H it contain* .aluable li*t* of technical term* an% im-ortant name* collecte% un%er one hun%re% an% forty hea%in1*. +he other te@t i* the =rthavinis#aya-s8tra ,hich re*emble* the 2harmasa !raha to a 1reat e@tent but contain* al*o e@-lanation* of technical term* of Bu%%hi*t reli1ion an% -hilo*o-hy. +he thir% i* the famou* &ahvyut(atti, a bilin1ual =San*krit<+ibetan> encyclo-ae%ic le@icon of Bu%%hi*t -ro-er name* an% technical term*. /t ,a* -re-are% Iointly by /n%ian an% +ibetan *cholar* in +ibet early in the th 9 century. +he la*t Bu%%hi*t %ictionary ,riter to be mentione% ,a* "uruGottama%e.a =circa 1' century>. A* a *u--lement to the =marakoa he ,rote the Trikn'asesa. +he =marakoa i* %i.i%e% into three -art* hence it* *econ%ary title : Trikn'i.; "uruGottama%e.a follo,* thi* arran1ement in hi* ,ork ,hich :contain* rare name* of the Bu%%ha an% many ,or%* that are -eculiar to 33 Bu%%hi*t San*krit.; Another %ictionary by thi* author i* calle% the 1rval9.
th

Before lea.in1 thi* *ection ,e ,ant to mention an intere*tin1 ,ork by a 1reat Bu%%hi*t -oet an% abbot of the Ja1a%%ala<6ih2ra =0i*trict Mal%a>. +hi* i* an antholo1y of subhasitas *electe% from the ,ork* of ''7 author* an% containin1 in all 1739 .er*e* an% calle% the Subhitaratnakoa. /t* author ,a* 6i%y2kara ,ho ma%e the antholo1y in the ele.enth century. th Amon1 other thin1* thi* remarkable ,ork -ro.e* that 0harmakUrti, the Bu%%hi*t lo1ician =7 century>, ,a* al*o a 1reat -oet. +he antholo1y re.eal* the e@i*tence of a lar1e number of 3M Bu%%hi*t -oet* ,ho*e ,ork* are no, lo*t for e.er.

Social Life
Many mo%ern *cholar* maintain that Bu%%hi*m i* a mona*tic reli1ion, an a*cetic mo.ement, 34 an% not a *ocial mo.ement. / ha.e critici*e% thi* .ie, el*e,here an% -ointe% out that mona*tici*m i* only one a*-ect of Bu%%hi*t reli1iou* tra%ition an% ,e *houl% not mi*take one -art for the ,hole. / al*o hol% the .ie, that ,or% sa !ha %oe* not mean merely Athe or%er of monk*A. +he community of monk* i* only a -art of the *aF1ha, not the ,hole of it. SaF1ha ha* to be un%er*too% to mean the entire community of tho*e human bein1* ,ho take refu1e = saraa> in the Bu%%ha, the 0harma an% the SaF1ha. SaF1ha i* the all embracin1 uni.er*al *ociety of human* ,e%%e% to the %octrine an% metho% tau1ht by the Sa1e of the S2kya*. +hi* uni.er*al *aF1ha inclu%e* men a* ,ell a* ,omen, a*cetic* a* ,ell a* hou*ehol%er*. /n Bu%%hi*t ,or%*, bhikus, bhikunis, u(sakas, an% u(dsikris, all the*e are member* of the *aF1ha. SaF1ha i* the thir% member of the holy tria% of the Bu%%hi*t tra%ition. /n thi* *-iritual *en*e *aF1ha inclu%e* all kin%* of enli1htene% bein1*, .i7. the -erfectly A,akene% #ne*, = samyaksambuddhas>, the in%i.i%ually A,akene% #ne* =(ratyekabuddhas>, the Porthy #ne* =arahats>, the Bo%hi*att.a* a* ,ell a* tho*e holy bein1* ,ho are in %ifferent *ta1e* of -urification = visuddhi>. +hi* *-iritual an%
M. Pinternit7, 1istory o+ Indian 6iterature, 6ol. ///, "art //, $n1. +r. by Subha%ra Jha =0elhi, 19)7> -. M47. 3M !f. The Subhsita-ratna-koa of 6i%y2kara, e%. by 0. 0. Eo*ambi an% 6. 6. Ookhale, . #. S. 6ol. M' =!ambri%1e, Ma**. 147>H tran*late% un%er the title =n =ntholo!y o+ Sanskrit )ourt Poetry by 0aniel . . /n1all*, . #. S. .ol. MM, =!ambri%1e, Ma**D 19)4>. 34 L. M. Jo*hi, :So#ial Pers(e#tive o+ Buddhist Soteriolo!yL in Reli!ion and So#iety, 6ol. 6///, Bo. 3 =Ban1alore, 1971> --. 49W)5.
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i%eal *aF1ha i* the true refu1e *ou1ht by the faithful %i*ci-le* of the Bu%%ha. +here i* ho,e.er no %enyin1 the fact that in -ractical life the Bu%%hi*t* %o make %i*tinction* bet,een a*cetic member* an% lay member* of the *aF1haH for in*tance, they u*e the ,or% bhiku-sa !ha in contra%i*tinction to u(saka-sa !ha, an% bhikuni-sa !ha to %i*tin1ui*h it from bhiku-sa !ha. /n *ome ol% te@t* ,e fin% the bodhisattva!aa contra*te% ,ith the :rvaka-sa !ha. Like,i*e in the contem-orary *ituation ,e refer to the *aF1ha* or communitie* of %ifferent -lace* an% countrie*, for e@am-le the *aF1ha of Sri Lanka, the *aF1ha of Ban1la%e*h or the Be-ale*e *aF1ha an% *o on. Sometime* in one an% the *ame country are foun% *aF1ha* ba*e% on 1eo1ra-hical *e-aration, *ectarian affiliation etc. But the*e narro, an% re*tricte% meanin1* of the ,or% *aF1ha *houl% not be allo,e% to ob*cure our .i*ion of the ariya<sa !ha, the *ociety of the enli1htene% bein1*, ,hich i* our i%ealH nor *houl% ,e lo*e *i1ht of the uni.er*al *ociety of human bein1* ,ho are all unite% throu1h their common %i*like of *ufferin1 an% common ?ue*t of ha--ine**. +o *ay that Bu%%hi*m i* a monki*h or mona*tic reli1ion i* not true. $.en in the +hera.2%a tra%ition thi* ha* ne.er been ,holly true. +he +hera.2%a tra%ition %i% not en.i*a1e *uch an in*e-arable connection bet,een the -ath of -urity an% the -ath of *ocial life, a* for e@am-le, ,a* the ca*e in the Br2hma3ical tra%ition throu1h the *cheme of "ar:rama-dharma. /n the +hera.2%a Bu%%hi*t .ie, the Ioy* of a homele** life of tho*e ,ho take the ochre robe are %eclare% to be *u-erior to the Ioy* of marrie% an% hou*ehol% life. /t ,oul% ho,e.er be erroneou* to *u--o*e that Bu%%hi*m ne1lecte% the *ocial life alto1ether. +here are many %i*cour*e* -re*er.e% in the "ali *utta* ,hich contain -rinci-le* an% -racti*e* to be ob*er.e% by tho*e ,ho li.e in *ociety. A %i.i*ion of the &ajjhima Dikya i* calle% !aha(ativa!!a. +he &aG!alasutta that ,e recite %aily i* nothin1 *hort of a *ummary of *ociolo1ically oriente% *oteriolo1y. /t may be recalle% here that a com-rehen*i.e -icture of the *ocial -er*-ecti.e of +hera.2%a Bu%%hi*m may be 1leane% from the =mbaEEhasutta, the Si!lovdasutta, the Fandarakasutta, the =EEhakan!arasutta, the UPalisutta, the ;haE9krasutta an% the &ahkammavibhaG!asutta. Another authentic -icture of the *ocial ethic* of early Bu%%hi*m i* %ocumente% in the rock e%ict* of $m-eror AJoka. /t i* true that the "ali te@t* make a clear %i*tinction bet,een a*cetic an% lay member* of the *aF1ha. +hi* i* a* it *houl% be in *o far a* their en%* an% mean* are concerne%. S-iritual en%* an% mean* %iffer from *ocial en%* an% mean*. +ho*e ,ho a*-ire to ultimate Free%om = vimutti> from *aF*2ra are certainly *u-erior to an% %ifferent from tho*e ,ho a*-ire to rebirth in ha--y or hea.enly abo%e*. +he career of a*cetic* = :ramaas> i* therefore *ubtle, %ifficult an% e@traor%inary. +he .a*t maIority of lay member* follo, a le** *ubtle, le** %ifficult an% or%inary ,ay of life. But thi* ,ay of life i* 1ui%e% by the teachin1* of the Bu%%ha an% of Bu%%hi*t *a1e*. +he relation*hi- that ha* e@i*te% bet,een the a*cetic an% *ocial member* of the *aF1ha throu1h the a1e* clearly e*tabli*he* the fact that tho*e ,ho inter-ret +hera.2%a Bu%%hi*m a* a*cetic an% anti<*ocial are mi*taken. +he monk* ,ere ne.er *u--o*e% to remain in%ifferent to human bein1* an% their *ufferin1*D the %hamma<.inaya ,a* not meant only for tho*e ,ho ha% 1one forth from home<life. S2kyamuni ,a* a -erfectly A,akene% #ne an% therefore a ,orl% teacher. e ,a* not a teacher of monk* onlyH he ,a* the teacher not only of all human bein1*, monk* a* ,ell a* the laity, but al*o of %i.ine bein1*, satth deva-manussna . e i* reno,ne% a* the Atorch<bearer of mankin%A =ukkdhro manussna >. e ,a* :born for the 1oo% an% ha--ine** of humanity; =manussa-lokahita-sukhya jto>. +he be1innin1* of the Bu%%hi*t mo.ement lay in the Bu%%haA* keen concern for the free%om an% ha--ine** of human bein1* li.in1 in the ,orl%. +here ,oul% ha.e been no Bu%%hi*m ha% he ,ithhel% hi* 1reat com-a**ion = mahkaru>, ,hich ,a* one of the corner<

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*tone* of the Bu%%hi*t mo.ement. An% com-a**ion i* a *ocial emotion, a human .irtue. /t ha* to be -racti*e% in the ,orl% of bein1*. A mo.ement ,hich mo.e* *ociety i* a *ocial mo.ement. An% Bu%%hi*m ha* %efinitely mo.e% *ociety ,here.er it *-rea% in the cour*e of it* lon1 hi*tory. For thou*an%* of year* it ha* mo.e% men an% ,oman to a hi1her life, to noble truth* an% %ee-er -rinci-le*H it ha* in*-ire% race* an% -eo-le* an% nation* to %e.elo- art an% literature, moral* an% manner*, *cience an% -hilo*o-hy, an% to buil% -attern* of ci.ili7ation an% force* of -eace. +he hi*tory of Bu%%hi*t ci.ili7ation ha* been the re*ult of Bu%%hi*t *ocial i%ea* an% i%eal* ,hich are not all a*cetic or mona*tic. Cecently Melfor% $. S-iro ha* a%.ance% the .ie, that there are :three *y*tem* of +hera.2%a Bu%%hi*m;, .i7., :nibb2nic Bu%%hi*m;, :kammatic Bu%%hi*m; an% :a-otro-aic Bu%%hi*m.; By the fir*t *y*tem he mean* Bu%%hi*m of tho*e ,ho a*-ire %irectly to Bir.23aH by the *econ% *y*tem he un%er*tan%* Bu%%hi*m a* -racti*e% by tho*e ,ho a*-ire to a fa.ourable rebirth an% ha--y *tate* in hea.en. +he thir% :*y*tem;, accor%in1 to him, i* :concerne% ,ith manA* ,orl%ly 3) ,elfareD the curin1 of illne**, -rotection from %emon*, the -re.ention of %rou1ht* an% *o on.; +hi* .ie, i* ba*e% on hi* *tu%y of Bu%%hi*t communitie* in Burma %urin1 the %ay* of S Bu. i* *tan%-oint i* anthro-olo1ical an% :re%uctioni*t.; Pe may ob*er.e in -a**in1 that the*e *o< calle% three *y*tem* are three facet* of one *y*tem9+hera.2%a Bu%%hi*m. +hey are interrelate%. +ho*e ,ho aim at Bir.23a, %o not, -erha-* cannot, remain in%ifferent to the ,elfare of tho*e ,ho aim at a fa.ourable rebirth. !ontrari,i*e tho*e ,ho follo, the *o<calle% karmatic reli1iou* life treat tho*e ,ho a*-ire to Bir.23a a* the -ro-er :fiel% of merit.; +he ,orl%ly ,elfare of human bein1* cannot be %i.orce% from tran*cen%ental concern*, either of the monk* or of the laity, *o that ta*k* *uch a* curin1 illne**, o.ercomin1 %rou1ht* an% famine* etc. are common concern* of all 1ra%e* of Bu%%hi*t*. $.en the Bu%%ha i* kno,n to ha.e %i*cu**e% the -roblem* of life ,ith kin1*, mini*ter*, 1eneral*, tra%er*, craft*men, -rie*t* an% all kin%* of hou*ehol%er*. A* A. E. Par%er remark*, :there i* a 1eneral un%erlyin1 a**um-tion that beyon% the imme%iate aim of in%i.i%ual -eace of min%, or more -robably in e**ential connection ,ith it, lie* the obIecti.e of the ha--ine** of the ,hole of human *ociety an% the *till hi1her obIecti.e 37 of the ha--ine** of all li.in1 bein1*.; /t may be -ointe% out that the lay Bu%%hi*t al*o contribute% *i1nificantly to the 1ro,th of Bu%%hi*t i%ea* an% -racti*e*. +he ri*e of the -o,erful *chool* of the Mah2*2^1hika* an% Sar.2*ti.2%in* re*ulte% in im-ortant *eculari*in1 %e.elo-ment*. +he*e ,ere matche% in the +hera.2%a tra%ition by the -o-ularity of the =(adnas an% Ctakas. At the *ame time *tR-a architecture an% relate% *cul-ture -re*ente% a fre*h area of concrete reli1iou* acti.ity in ,hich monk* a* ,ell a* the laity Ioine%. Another area of *ocial life in ,hich thi* co<o-eration ,a* meanin1fully em-loye% ,a* that of the e%ucation of monk* a* ,ell a* the laity. /t* centre* ,ere mona*tic *chool* an% colle1e* in ,hich the monk* ,ere the teacher* not only of reli1iou* %octrine* an% te@t* but al*o of *ecular art* an% letter*. +he Bu%%hi*t community of ca*tele** an% cla**le** monk* e@erte% im-ortant influence on /n%ian *ociety in 1eneral. +he Br2hma3ical lea%er* an% author* ,ere obli1e% to intro%uce the a*cetic life a* the fourth *ta1e = sa ysa-:rama> in the theory of :ramas. +he -ro.i*ion of vikal(a or o-tion to embrace sa ysa or mona*tic life e.en ,ithout 1oin1 throu1h all the -rece%in1 three *ta1e* ,a* ma%e -o**ibly %ue to the -o-ularity of (ravrajy or ;1oin1 forth; in Jaina an% Bu%%hi*t circle* of /n%ian *ociety. +he tenet of re%eemin1 oneA* %ebt to oneA* father* = (itrs> by -ro%ucin1 *on* ,a* ho,e.er ne.er 1i.en u- by the Br2hma3ical tra%ition.
Buddhism and So#iety< = ;reat Tradition and its Burmese "i#issitudes, =Lon%on, Oeor1e Allen 8 Sn,in, 1971> --. 11W1'. 37 A. E. Par%er, Indian Buddhism =0elhi, Motilal Banar*i%a**, 1971>, -. 147.
3)

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A fun%amental tenet of Bu%%hi*t *ocio<moral i%eolo1y ,a* that all bein1* are boun% by their karma. /t i* the %ee%* of a -er*on ,hich %etermine hi* or her fortune* in thi* an% the ne@t life. +he %octrine reco1ni*e% the free%om of e.ery -er*on to *elect a ,ay of life *uitable to hi* or her e?ui-ment. /n other ,or%* it i* oneA* inner ,orth an% moral e@cellence, -urity of life an% nobility of character, control of min% an% the *en*e* an% an in*i1ht into the real nature of thin1*, in *hort, -ro1re** in the tri-le, trainin1 of s9la, samdhi, an% (raj$ ,hich %etermine oneA* *u-eriority o.er other*. Bo %i*tinction of birth or ca*te, colour or *e@, ,a* of any .alue *o far a* oneA* hi1her or holier life an% it* ,ay* an% mean* ,ere concerne%. +hi* ,a* a re.olutionary %octrine from the *tan%-oint of the Br2hma3ical tra%ition ,hich 7ealou*ly 1uar%e% the le1en% of the %i.ine ori1in of ca*te* an% their %utie*. Bu%%hi*m ma%e -rofoun% im-act on /n%ian *ocial life in *e.eral ,ay*. /t* lea%er* an% teacher* continuou*ly critici*e% the theory of ca*te* an% ri%icule% the fal*e claim* to *u-eriority ba*e% on birth =jti> an% colour =vara>. #n the other han%, Bu%%hi*m o-ene% the %oor* to hi1her reli1iou* life an% the hi1he*t 1oal for all tho*e ,ho *ou1ht them, inclu%in1 the member* of the lo,er *trata of *ociety. Althou1h Bu%%hi*m ,a* not concerne% ,ith the abolition of ca*te*, it %i% o--o*e the ca*te<*y*tem an% re-eate%ly tau1ht the e.il* of ca*tei*m. Another a*-ect of Bu%%hi*t *ocial contribution ,a* to,ar%* the emanci-ation of ,omen from *ocial inhibition*. Bu%%hi*m, alon1 ,ith Jaini*m but unlike Br2hma3i*m, 1a.e e?uality of o--ortunity in reli1iou* culture to ,omen. Some of the female member* of the earlie*t a*cetic or%er kno,n to hi*tory ,ere the Bu%%hi*t Ther9s ,ho*e reli1iou* -oetry ha* come %o,n to u* in the Ther9!th. Another a*-ect of Bu%%hi*t contribution in ancient /n%ia lay in the area of *ocial harmony an% racial inte1ration on a national *cale. /t ,a* throu1h Bu%%hi*t influence an% teachin1 of *ocial harmony an% tolerance that forei1n in.a%er* *uch a* the Oreek*, Saka*, "ahla.a*, EuG23a* an% R3a* ,ho came to /n%ia an% *ettle% here, in the cour*e of centurie* imme%iately -rece%in1 an% follo,in1 the !hri*tian era, ,ere a**imilate% by /n%ian *ociety. +hi* ,a* a -ermanent contribution to *ocial inte1ration an% national 1ro,th an% it coul% not ha.e been *o ea*ily accom-li*he% in a *trictly Br2hma3ical *cheme of *ocial 1ra%ation ,ithout the ,hole*ome effect* of the Bu%%hi*t %i*re1ar% for vara<or1ani*ation an% re*-ect for the liberty of the in%i.i%ual. Pe are of the .ie, that ha% Bu%%hi*m been a li.in1 force at the time of the +urki*h in.a*ion*, the -roblem* of in%u<Mu*lim communal %i*cor% in me%iae.al an% mo%ern /n%ia ,oul% not ha.e taken *uch a *tron1 turn a* they %i%. Becau*e of the re.i.al of the tra%itional Br2hma3ical *ocial *cheme, reinforce% ,ith fre*h reli1iou* inIunction*, an% becau*e of the %ecline of Bu%%hi*m in /n%ia after the tenth century !$, the ma** of early me%iae.al /*lamic follo,er* in /n%ia coul% not be a**imilate% an% %i1e*te% by /n%ian *ociety. Arnol% J. +oynbee ha* ri1htly remarke% that :/f either Bu%%hi*m or Jaini*m ha% *uccee%e% in ca-ti.atin1 the /n%ic Porl%, ca*te mi1ht ha.e been 1ot ri% of. A* it turne% out, ho,e.er, the role of uni.er*al church in the la*t cha-ter of the /n%ic %ecline an% fall ,a* -laye% by in%ui*m, a -ar.enu archai*tic *yncreti*m of thin1* ne, an% ol%H an% one of the ol% thin1* to ,hich in%ui*m 1a.e a ne, 35 lea*e of life ,a* ca*te.; +he Bu%%hi*t me**a1e of *ocial e?uality an% communal harmony ha% left a %ee- im-re**ion on the min% of the /n%ian -eo-le ,hich continue% after the tran*formation of the cla**ical Bu%%hi*t mo.ement. A number of in*tance* in the myth* an% *torie* of the &ahbhrata re.eal that moral an% intellectual attainment* carrie% 1reater -re*ti1e than mere birth in a Br2hma3a family. +he Bha1a.a%1Uta, ,hile *tatin1 the theory of the %i.ine ori1in of four ca*te* =/6. 13> ne.erthele** teache* that the ,i*e -eo-le are im-artial to,ar%* a learne% an% %i*ci-line% Br2hma3a, the co,, an ele-hant, a %o1 an% an outca*te =6. 15>. +he ta*k of fi1htin1 the e.il* of
35

= Study o+ 1istory =abri%1e% by 0. !. Somer.ill> 6ol. /, Be, York, 19)9, -. 34(.

'M

ca*tei*m an% untouchability ,a* continue% by the Bu%%hi*t siddhas, the a%e-t* in +2ntrika culture, %urin1 the early me%iae.al centurie*. A lar1e number of the*e *i%%ha* came from lo,er ca*te familie*, but their 1reatne** ,a* a**ure% by their *ucce** = siddhi> in e*oteric culture =sdhana>. +hi* mi**ion of *ocial reform ,a* then re*ume% by the *aint<-oet* of the bhakti mo.ement throu1hout the Mi%%le A1e*. +hou1h the*e *aint<-oet* = snts> ,ere 1enerally *-eakin1 ,ithin the fol% of the Br2hma3ical in%u reli1iou* tra%ition, yet they re.olte% freely a1ain*t many fun%amental %o1ma* an% authentic cu*tom* of tra%itional Br2hma3i*m. +heir *ocial an% moral teachin1* ,ere more in kee-in1 ,ith Bu%%hi*m than ,ith Br2hma3i*m. All of them %i*re1ar%e% the rule* of the vara-:rama-dharma *cheme an% attacke% *ocial %i*tinction* ba*e% on birth an% -rofe**ion. Many of them ,ere born in s8dra familie*. +hey became e@alte% throu1h their -ure character, *incere %e.otion an% ma1nanimity. +he *aint* of Ear32\aka an% Mah2r2G\ra, .i7., Ba*a.eJ.ara, Jn2neJ.ara, B2ma%e.a, C2ma%2*a, +uk2r2ma an% $kan2tha, ,ere all a1ain*t ca*tei*m an% rituali*m. Like,i*e the *aint<-oet* = snts> of Borth /n%ia, .i7. !aitanya, C2m2na%a, EabUr%2*a, Ca.i%2*a, Ouru B2nak, 0hann2, Sena, "U-2, 02%u an% the Mu*lim Su+is, ,ere e?ually *tron1 critic* of the Br2hma3ical *cheme of ca*te* an% ritual*. +he *ocial reform* initiate% by the Bu%%hi*t* an% continue% by me%iae.al *aint<-oet* ,ere finally le1ali*e% an% accom-li*he% =at lea*t in theory> by the 1o.ernment of the /n%ian Ce-ublic in 19M9.

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The Buddhist Publication Society

+he B"S i* an a--ro.e% charity %e%icate% to makin1 kno,n the +eachin1 of the Bu%%ha, ,hich ha* a .ital me**a1e for all -eo-le. Foun%e% in 1945, the B"S ha* -ubli*he% a ,i%e .ariety of book* an% booklet* co.erin1 a 1reat ran1e of to-ic*. /t* -ublication* inclu%e accurate annotate% tran*lation* of the Bu%%ha`* %i*cour*e*, *tan%ar% reference ,ork*, a* ,ell a* ori1inal contem-orary e@-o*ition* of Bu%%hi*t thou1ht an% -ractice. +he*e ,ork* -re*ent Bu%%hi*m a* it truly i*9a %ynamic force ,hich ha* influence% rece-ti.e min%* for the -a*t '4(( year* an% i* *till a* rele.ant to%ay a* it ,a* ,hen it fir*t aro*e. For more information about the B"S an% our -ublication*, -lea*e .i*it our ,eb*ite, or contactD +he A%mini*trati.e Secretary Bu%%hi*t "ublication Society ".#. Bo@ )1 4M San1haraIa Ma,atha Ean%y, Sri Lanka $<mailD b-*ab-*.lk Peb *iteD htt-Dbb,,,.b-*.lk +elD ((9M 51 ''3 7'53 Fa@D ((9M 51 ''' 3)79