TECHNICAL PAPER

The Use of Micro-Bubble Flotation Technology in Secondary & Tertiary Produced Water Treatment
A Technical Comparison With Other Separation Technologies
Reprint of paper presented at the Produced Water Workshop - Aberdeen, Scotland - May 2007

Nicholas Owens Douglas W. Lee GLR Solutions Ltd. Suite S, 1338 36th Ave. NE Calgary, AB Canada T2E 6T6.
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1 ABSTRACT
Over the years a variety of oil/water separation methods have been developed throughout the world, including gravity separation, corrugated plate interceptors, centrifugal separation, hydrocyclones, and induced gas flotation. With increasingly tight legislative limits on OIW (Oil in Water) discharges, it is important that operators have an effective produced water treatment system which enables compliance with regulatory overboard discharge limits, meets specifications for re-injection, steam generation, irrigation and any other downstream process. This paper makes a comparison between various oil water separation technologies commonly used for secondary and tertiary treatment of produced water. It draws on Computation Fluid Dynamic CFD modeling, trial work and case studies. It also describes an overview of each separation method along with generalized configuration and internal designs of the applicable technology. Also this paper examines the current state of gas flotation in the oil and gas industry, and provides an in-depth look at the differences between flotation technologies including their strengths, weaknesses, and their niche in the contemporary marketplace. Different ways currently used to separate oil and solids from produced water will be compared and an explanation offered for why gas flotation technologies incorporating micro-bubbles remain the highest performance option within Secondary water treatment equipment for many companies around the globe.

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2 INTRODUCTION
Many aging oil and gas production fields are experiencing rising water cuts which have increased the necessity for the handling of greater volumes of produced water. The need for more efficient treatment of produced water is exacerbated by the ever tightening discharge regulations, and the want of increased production given the current high price of oil. As a result of this the demand for more cost effective and efficient oil and water separation technologies has greatly increased, and will continue to do so in the future. For previously acceptable oil and grease effluent limits there are a number of widely accepted conventional separation methods that have been in use for a long time, and with great success. However, despite many companies allocating large sums of money to research and development of new products there have been relatively few genuinely new technologies that have emerged over the past few years. Many newer designs have relied on modifications of old designs to improve efficiencies, or different combinations of the same equipment.

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In more recent years some separation technologies have received more attention than others and there have been a number of advancements that have helped greatly increase the efficiencies of them. It is some of these on which this paper will focus. This paper will compare and contrast differences in these approaches to advancing the art of gas flotation.

3 SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES
Oil water separation technologies can be broadly separated into two main types, namely gravity, and non-gravity based. The following sections present a summary of some of the main conventionally available oil and water separation methods that are available in both of these categories, most of which have been successfully used for many years and have thousands of commercial installations world wide. 3.1 Non-Gravity Based Separation Technologies 3.1.1 Hydro-cyclones Hydro-cyclones work by generating centrifugal forces on a stream of liquid (produced water). The difference in specific gravity between oil and the water causes the oil to migrate towards the centre of the vortex that is created in the cyclone, thus forcing it to one end of the cyclone and the water passing out of the opposite end. Figure 1 shows a typical hydro-cyclone in operation. Hydro-cyclones have been in use for many years and have a number of distinct advantages, their biggest one perhaps being their size and weight. They are compact pieces of equipment making them very attractive for offshore application where deck area and mass loading is always a premium. They are also capable of handling relatively large inlet oil concentrations (upwards of 2000 ppm), making them highly versatile in production facilities.
Figure 1 A Typical Hydro-Cyclone

The main drawback to this technology is based on the fact that they require the density of the oil to be substantially different to that of the water to work efficiently. Oils with degrees of API of less than 15-17 cannot be easily separated by this method and can be prone to causing blockages inside the device. Tight, small (<15 micron) or difficult emulsions can also pose serious problems to hydro-cyclones and result in large losses in efficiency.

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Due to their nature a large pressure drop is often associated with the operation of hydro-cyclones and without sufficient inlet pressures downstream processes can be affected. This pressure drop will be prone to fluctuate as banks of individual cyclonic tubes are brought on or off line depending on fluctuations in the inlet flow rate, due to the fact that each individual hydro-cyclone can handle a limited operating range of flows. Other limitations include the hydro-cyclones ability to deal with process fluctuations (slugging) and solids build up which can blind liquid paths and create additional pressure loss. 3.1.2 Filtration There are various different types of filters commercially available that are capable of separating oil from water. The most common types for oil removal are Sand (Upflow and Downflow), Multi-Media, and Black Walnut Shell Filters, and an English Walnut Pecan mix. However, virtually all filters (with the exception of the Upflow) have one thing in common, in that they are more of a final polishing unit and are not well suited to high inlet oil concentrations (>50 ppm). If higher inlet oil concentrations are fed into these filters they become clogged quickly, cause fractures in the tight media bed, which causes breakthrough and then require excessive amounts of backwashing (cleaning). Thus large waste streams are produced which in turn require treatment, which can be costly. 3.1.2.1 Walnut Shell Filters One of the most effective media for oil removal is crushed black walnut shells. The reason for this is that these shells are highly hydrophilic and oleophobic, meaning that although they do a good job of straining off oil they do not bind with, or hold on to it. Due to these characteristics once the system is mechanically backwashed the oil is easily released and the filter bed is returned to its original condition. Walnut shell filters are very frequently applied in the heavy oil market as they can remove oil to very low concentrations and are not affected by the low degree of API of the Oil. A typical walnut shell filter is shown in Figure 2. In addition to oil these filters are also capable of removing up to 95% of suspended solids (depending on inlet concentrations).
Figure 2 A Sabian Black Walnut Shell Filter

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3.1.2.2 Sand Filters Sand filters have performances very similar to those of walnut shell filters, but, due to a number of important differences they are becoming less common in the oil and gas industry. A comparison of the main differences is shown in Figure 3. Typical Filtration Flux Rate Typical Backwash Duration Approx. Media Life / Attrition Media Regeneration Sand Filters 6 usgpm/ft2 12 minutes 30% per annum Solvent / Surfactant Wash Walnut Shell Filters 12 usgpm/ft2 8 minutes 5% per annum Simple Backwash

Figure 3: Comparison of a Sabian Walnut shell filter and a typical sand filter.

As can be seen from the data sand filters need to be approximately twice the size to deal with the same flow rates, whilst generating much greater volumes of backwash fluid. High media attrition can also lead to significantly higher running costs. Oil will also tend to coat the sand granules requiring a solvent and potentially a surfactant wash cycle periodically. Both of these negatively impact the surface charge of the sand and its removal performance. 3.1.2.3 Multi-Media Filters Multi-media filters operate by having a bed that comprises of different grades of media, where porosity decreases with increasing depth. The result of this is that smaller and smaller particles are trapped in the media as the water travels down through the bed. The two most common media types used are Garnet and Anthracite (Coal). Figure 4 shows a typical configuration of a multi-media filter. In addition to oil, multi-media filters are also very effective in removing suspended solids from water. Due to the fact that oil tends to coat the media in the same way it does with the sand filters, walnut shell filters are more commonly used for oil removal. Therefore these filters are commonly limited to solids removal. They can typically remove: 95% of 5 m particles and 90% of 2 m particles in a produced water stream. Backwashing is usually achieved with water although surfactants are normally required periodically to attain better results.
Figure 4 A typical multi-media filter

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3.1.3 Coalescing Media Oleophilic and hydrophobic coalescing media are becoming more widely accepted as a conventional technology in the separation industry. These media are capable of achieving low outlet oil concentrations (<5 ppm OIW) with inlet oil concentrations of up to 1500 ppm. The media is typically supplied in cartridges, which are then compressed to a specific density to maximize cartridge life and separation efficiency. These units can be fairly compact, with the main drawback being that the media are usually sensitive to solids loading. Solids loading can cause channelling, which means that the produced water can bypass the filter media either partially or completely. The technology also requires careful operation and higher operating costs due to cartridge change-outs. The higher the inlet oil concentrations the greater these operating costs will be. Depending on the nature of any emulsions that are present, and specific water characteristics of the stream, this class of technology has been found to exhibit variable performance. With the correct media density oil particles 2 microns and higher can be removed. Care needs to be taken where flocculating chemicals are used upstream as this often pasty material will coat the media rendering it ineffective. Several new technologies that are available and are emerging into the mainstream produced water treatment industry are pre-coalescers. These are often included in pipe or treatment processes upstream of gravity type or centrifugal separation technologies and operate by increasing the overall oil droplet size. Increase sizing makes it easier to remove oil in a subsequent downstream process. These devices are usually composed of numerous fine polyethylene strands packed in close proximity to each other. The strands provide high surface area contact within the flowing produced water and attract small oil particles and aid in their coalescence until they are too large to be held by the media, at which point they are released back into the process stream. Two common examples of these technologies are the Mares Tail (Opus) and PECT-F (Cyclotech). This class of technology has been shown to coalesce oil particles from 20 microns in size, with average size increases of 400-500%. Pre-coalescers are sensitive to suspended solids and paraffinic crudes which tend to solidify and form blockages in the media. However, they can be used to significantly enhance another downstream separation technology. 3.1.4 Absorption and Non-Recoverable Media Typically reserved for very low inlet oil concentrations (< 10 ppm) and flow rates, this type of separation technology comes in many versions. Common types include cartridge filters, bag filters, and oil absorbent media beds or cartridges. Absorbents containing resin, polymer and clay based media have shown to be efficient at removing oil, grease and soluble organics from water. Outlet concentration from this class of technology can be very low (<2 ppm oil and TSS) when operated at design conditions. Depending on the inlet concentrations and water characteristics the media must usually be replaced regularly to maintain design conditions. It should be noted that this is a polishing media and normally will not sustain high inlet levels of oil. Due to the expense of extra

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labour to change the media and the disposal of spent media, which often needs to be transported large distances for disposal, the operating costs for these types of technologies can be very high. There is also the associated negative environmental impact due to the amount of near toxic waste that is generated. 3.2 Gravity Based Separation Technologies Gravity separation technologies rely on the fact that the specific gravity of oil is less than that of water. If oily water is left to stand the oil will rise to the surface of the water where it can be skimmed off. Gravity separation technologies can broadly be divided into two main categories, those that operate with, and those that operate without the assistance of gas in the flotation process. Non gas assisted flotation includes gravity separation tanks and corrugated plate interceptors. 3.2.1 Gravity Separation Tanks Gravity separation tanks are the simplest form of separation technology, and rely on diverting flow into a large settling tank and allowing gravity alone to act on the oil and water. They perform best with lighter oil as performance drops with the oil degree of API. A large amount of time is required for separation to occur and the tanks need to be very large. This makes them poorly suited to offshore applications where space is at a premium. Once the oil is on the surface there are a wide variety of different skimming methods to remove it. Depending on inlet condition the best achievable outlet oil in water concentrations is 50-100 ppm, which today is unacceptable. A further separation stage is required downstream of such tanks. 3.2.2 Corrugated Plate Interceptors In 1962 the first corrugated plate interceptors (CPIs) began to appear. The principle of a CPI is similar to that of a gravity separation tank, but inside are inclined flat plates that act as a coalescing surface for oil droplets. This enables small oil droplets to merge and the larger coalesced oil droplets are therefore able to float to the surface more rapidly. With the same inlet condition, similar outlet performance to gravity separation tanks can be achieved, but the main advantage is that the size of the vessel is greatly reduced, thus leading to large cost savings. To improve performance modern CPIs typically use a series of plates, often in combination with one of the coalescing media discussed above. The disadvantage of CPIs is that they are generally restricted to the removal of oil droplets of greater than 50 microns, with large amounts of chemicals being required to remove lower particle sizes. They are sensitive to fluctuations in flow and perform poorly in upset conditions, and with heavier or emulsified oils, and can become blocked with high solids loading. Due to these limitations onshore facilities typically pair CPIs with gravity tanks. 3.2.3 Gas Assisted Flotation Technologies The use of gas bubbles to assist with flotation is not a new idea and has a number of distinct advantages. Developed and first used in the mining industry for many years, gas flotation units have become the preferred method of secondary oil and water separation for many oil producers today. Gas flotation

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relies on introducing gas bubbles into a produced water stream to assist with separation. The gas bubbles grow and join with the oil droplets and greatly accelerate the separation rate in terms of both time and efficiency. The versatility of flotation technology and the ability to handle upset conditions has helped define their niche in the market. Gas flotation equipment comes in a variety of types and configurations, with it most commonly occurring in horizontal and vertical pressure vessels and lately in larger specially designed API type skim tanks. When compared to other gravity separation technologies gas flotation units are typically smaller per unit of flow treated, and are therefore well suited to both onshore and offshore applications.

4 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE FLOTATION

Before a successful comparison of the various gas flotation technologies can be made it is useful to have a basic understanding of the principles of gas flotation, and what the parameters are that affect the efficiency of the process. This subject has been discussed at length in other papers [1], but a brief summary of the main factors is given below. 4.1 Contact of Gas Bubbles and Oil Droplets For any type of gas flotation to occur the first thing that must happen is for a gas bubble to come into intimate contact with an oil droplet. To ensure that there is a high probability of contact between these two particles it is therefore desirable to have any bubble release/mixing points located at or near to points where the whole of the flow passes. This prevents only very localised mixing from occurring. The amount of time during which the oil droplet and gas bubble are in close proximity is critical, and it is for this reason that bubble size is important. If the gas bubbles rise too fast they will be less likely to come into contact with an oil droplet. Small gas bubbles rise more slowly than big ones and improve contact time. Even distribution within the vessel ensures that the oil droplets of the same size and larger than the gas bubbles will effectively be removed. As technology has improved bubble size has been reduced and Micro-Bubble Flotation (MBF) is the term that is typically used for flotation where gas bubbles are less than thirty microns. 4.2 Adhesion or Encapsulation Once a gas bubble and oil droplet have come into contact it is critical that they unite, and once they are combined they stay together. There are two main ways in which this bonding can occur, namely adhesion and encapsulation: a) Adhesion is a relatively weak bond between a gas bubble and oil droplet, but is the most likely to occur in a gas flotation system. It occurs when there is contact between a small section of the surface of both the bubble and the droplet, and looks as if the two particles are stuck together. As the bond is weak it can be broken fairly easily with turbulent flow. The surface of the gas bubble can also act as a coalescing surface and if two oil droplets adhere to the same gas bubble they can combine.

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b) Encapsulation is a stronger bond and occurs when an oil droplet completely surrounds a gas bubble. This situation is more desirable for the gas flotation process as it is much more difficult to separate the two particles, meaning their chance of reaching the surface together is greatly increased. Figure 5 shows oil encapsulating gas bubbles.

Figure 5 Oil encapsulation of gas bubbles

4.3 Low Turbulence and Shear Forces Once adhesion or encapsulation has occurred between an oil droplet and a gas bubble it is desirable that the two remain in contact until they reach the surface. If there is premature detachment re-entrainment will occur, which will have a detrimental effect on performance. The most likely causes of forced separation are due to large shear forces and turbulent flows inside a flotation tank or vessel, when the two particles are effectively ripped apart from one another. There are two main ways that these forces are generated, the first is due to poor internal design inside a gas flotation vessel, and the second, and the most common is related to the size of the gas bubble. Large gas bubbles that rise quickly create large amounts of turbulent flow in their wake, and it is therefore again better to have small gas bubbles that create significantly lower forces. 4.4 Fluid Dynamics Well designed vessel or tank internals have a huge impact on the efficiency of a gas flotation system. Poor designs can lead to short circuiting, where oil droplets are carried straight to the exit and are not acted upon by the gas bubbles. Localised high downward velocities can also lead to gas bubbles being dragged down and carried out of the vessel. This is highly undesirable especially if there are pumps downstream as the gas can cause them to cavitate. Today these issues are most easily addressed with computer simulations, or CFD modeling. 4.5 Sequential Removal A mixture of CFD and experimental data [2] has shown that a compartmentalised (or multichambered) configuration inside a gas flotation vessel or tank is highly desirable. A multichambered approach involves a certain percentage of oil removal at each stage of the process, with each chamber acting as a separate removal cell. Upsets can also be effectively dealt with as they are held up in the first chamber, making their removal easier and protecting the final chambers from contamination.

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4.6 Skimming Method and Location When an oil droplet and gas bubble reach the surface the bubble will usually burst, leaving a layer of oil on the surface that needs to be removed. Having a large build-up of oil on the surface (a low interface) is undesirable as reentrainment can easily occur, and a large amount of oil will also reduce the effective volume of the tank or vessel that is available for separation. There are a variety of different skimming methods available, but a good skimmer is generally considered to be one that removes oil from as large a surface are as possible, and does not skim unnecessarily high volumes of water.

5 DIFFERENT FLOTATION TECHNOLOGIES

5.1 Bubble Generation Methods There are a number of different ways of producing bubbles and introducing them into the flotation chamber, and different companies use one or multiple methods for their various products. They can however be broadly classified into the following sections. 1. Sparging This is the simplest way of introducing gas into the process stream and was the first to be used commercially. A typical setup is shown in figure 6, and involves a pipe being inserted directly into the chamber, through which gas is forced. Sparging is simple and cheap, but has a number of problems. Early spargers were not easy to maintain as the diffuser heads or holes in the piped were prone to blockage due to solids settling, or more commonly chemical reactions between the gas and the liquid would occur immediately at the point of gas injection. However, the main problem is that the bubbles created are very large, meaning that their high rise velocities and low surface area make it difficult for them to attach to oil droplets, and if they manage to do so the large amount of turbulent flow that the mechanical sparger and bubbles generate makes premature separation more likely. The location of introduction is usually in the centre of the chamber meaning that large parts of the flow never see any gas bubbles, making effective separation very difficult. Nowadays few companies use this method of gas introduction, with most switching to eductor based designs.
Figure 6 A typical sparging tube

2. Eductors An eductor, sometimes called a venturi, is a device that contains a throat through which a fluid (water) passes (Figure 7). The higher fluid velocities in the throat create a partial vacuum which is used to draw in a second stream (gas) into the fluid. The magnitude of P and the flow rate through the device determines the amount of gas that is drawn into the main flow. The advantage of these devices is that they are fairly simple to operate and maintain and are very

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reliable. They have two main disadvantages however, the fist being that a large pressure drop is generated across them, which, especially at larger flows requires a larger pump. The second issue is with regard to bubble size. The size of the gas bubbles that are generate is determined by the width of the throat inside the eductor. This can be relatively large, meaning only large bubbles are generated, which, as noted above is not desirable. Almost all gas flotation vendors currently use eductors in various products, but many designs have some sort of diffuser type nozzle to try and reduce bubble size. Some systems use a striker plate to divert/ diffuse the flow while others use in-line static mixers to create shear to try and break up the bubble. This goes some way to addressing the problem of bubble size but larger bubbles are still present.
Figure 7 A typical Eductor

3. Pumps Several types of specialist pump exist that will introduce small gas bubbles into a stream of produced water. These pumps operate in slightly different ways, and a summary of them is given below. Regardless of the type pumps are advantageous for their small footprint, making them ideal for offshore applications. Their disadvantage is that they do not perform as well when operated at very high temperatures. DGF pumps: Dissolved Gas Flotation (DGF) pumps work by water and gas being drawn into the eye of the pump suction, where there is a natural vacuum due to a specially designed back-vane impellor. Once gas reaches the forward edges of the impellor it is sheared, and there is subsequently a high pressure region which causes gas to dissolve into the water stream. Once a pressure drop is encountered downstream (usually across a globe valve) the bubbles break out of solution, and can then be used for flotation. The big advantage of this type of pump is that the bubbles produced are typically much smaller than those created with eductors, and therefore more effective for flotation. The main problem with DGF pumps is their limitations for use with insoluble gases or in high temperature water conditions. These conditions limit the ability of the pump to dissolve or vacuum induce gas from a vessel headspace without cavitation. Due to the single stage pump design additional challenges can be had due to lower discharge pressures. This is especially important in 50 Hz applications where even less pressure and shear is generated due to slower impeller rotation speeds. ONYX Micro-bubble pumps: Like the DGF pump, the ONYX pump (Figure 8) takes gas and water into its suction. Inside it utilizes a multi-stage centrifugal design to impart impact and shear on the large gas bubbles to shatter them and generate the small micro-bubbles (circa 30 micron). This physical method of bubble generation (the gas is not dissolved) entrains approximately 40% more gas than a DGF pump, and is the only micro-bubble generating pump that utilizes

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ANSI, or optionally API, components (couplings, bearings, seals, shafts etc.), giving a high degree of suitability for the oilfield environment. Use of the pump for MBF allows for smaller footprints and weights which are critical in offshore applications. Due to its multistage design high outlet pressures can be achieved at 50 or 60 Hz.

Figure 8 The ONYX Micro-bubble pump

4. GLR Reactors Gas Liquid Reactors (GLR) are specialist bubble making devices supplied uniquely by GLR Solutions Ltd. They consist of a small vertical pressure vessel which contains a special internal nozzle. Fluid containing large gas bubbles passes into the GLR unit where impact and shear forces shatter the large gas bubbles and create m icro-bubbles. These are typically in the range of 5-50 micros, which are some of the smallest bubbles produced by any commercial technology and therefore produce some of the highest oil water separation rates in the industry. There are no moving parts, or parts requiring special maintenance, inside making operating cost very low. A typical GLR reactor is show in Figure 9.

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The main disadvantage of GLR Reactors is their size. For large flow rates these vessels can become rather large, meaning that if space is an issue, i.e. offshore, they are not always suitable.
Figure 9 A Gas Liquid Reactor

5.2 Tanks and Vessels When gas flotation is carried out inside a horizontal or vertical vessel the process is typically called Induced Gas Flotation (IGF). In more recent times gas flotation is also carried our inside large API type tanks. This could still be considered to be Induced Gas Flotation, but is more commonly referred to as Tank Based Flotation. It is also increasingly common to retrofit many existing horizontal and vertical vessels such as degassers into flotation units, giving significant footprint and weight advantages. 5.2.1 Horizontal Vessels Horizontal IGF vessels are most often found on shore as they tend to be larger than vertical units, and offer better performance. Depending on the manufacturer horizontal IGF vessels differ in design considerably, with some vessels contain single cells (or chambers) and others contain multiple chambers. Some vessels contain partial inter-chamber walls, other have full length walls. Despite these difference there are also various features that most IGF units have in common. Figure 10 shows a horizontal IGF designed by GLR Solutions Ltd. This is followed by a comparison of various common similarities and difference that there are between different IGF units on the market.
Figure 10 A Horizontal Revolift

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5.2.2 Chamber Dividing Walls The majority of vessels on the market contain multiple internal chambers for oil removal. Separated by dividing walls the aim of each chamber is to act as a separate oil removal cell with the walls helping by trying to reduce short circuiting from the main inlet directly to the main outlet. The majority of the units on the market contain partial walls with a gap, hole or baffle that is open at the bottom, with this void allowing water to flow freely from one chamber to the next. Figure 11 shows a unit, with the underflow baffle (gap) marked on it.
Figure 11 A unit with a partial dividing wall (underflow baffle)

These partially enclosed walls are becoming less common on new installations as although they go some way to reducing short circuiting it still tends to occur along the bottom of the vessel. Oil that passes under one on the baffles has a chance of passing under the remaining baffles and making its way to the exit of the vessel. More modern designs tend to eliminate this problem by completely sealing off this wall and channelling the flow to where it is desired. Figure 12 shows an example of a chamber wall that is completely sealed off. Flow passes under a baffle or weir that is parallel to the length of the vessel and exits the chamber through a small hole further up the vessel. As the flow has to pass through a much more complicated route short circuiting can be almost completely eliminated.

Interconnecting Hole Outlet Weir

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5.2.3 Water Weirs / Water Introduction The location and method that water is introduced into a chamber is important to the process as it can be used to enhanced separation performance. As mentioned previously, older designs that have partial dividing walls use these gaps in the walls to introduce the flow from one chamber to the next. To prevent short circuiting more modern designs tend to introduce the flow higher up the chamber, meaning that any oil droplets have a more challenging path to get to the outlet. Some do this partially by adding a second baffle next to the partial wall; others divert the flow by adding an elbow type an arrangement to send the flow upwards (Figure 12). Some of the newest designs take this one step further by having weir structures inside each of the chambers. These can be used to optimise flow patterns, minimise short circuiting and maximise performance. CFD has played a large part in this development.

Figure 12 Methods of Introducing Bubble

5.2.4 Oil Skimming Once oil has been floated to the surface the location and method that it is removed is critical for successful operation. Skimming methods can be most easily divided into two categories, mechanical and non-mechanical. Mechanical skimmers typically rely on rotating paddle-wheels or discs to remove oil from the surface of the water. These can be highly effective if the oil is concentrated in a compact region, and skimming volumes can be easily controlled by adjusting the speed of rotation. Figure 13 shows a typical paddle wheel in operation. The main disadvantage of mechanical skimmers is that they have lots of moving parts and therefore require a relatively large amount of maintenance.
Figure 13 A Mechanical Skimmer

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Non-mechanical skimmers can be further subdivided into two main categories; floating and fixed. Floating skimmers are buoyant and float on the surface of the water, whereas fixed skimmers, or troughs, are static and do not move. Floating skimmers are well suited to applications where water levels vary e.g. offshore. In these environments fixed skimmers can flood, and then be followed by periods of no flow. The main disadvantage of floating skimmers is their area of influence. Floating skimmers are typically round, with the area that is available for skimming being limited to the circumference of the oil skimmer. Once a region is skimmed the proportion of water that is skimmed tends to increase, and areas that are not close to the skimmer tend to build up with oil. Fixed skimmers tend to be much simpler in design, are usually longitudinal troughs (often containing v-notches) that have a much greater skimmer area. This means that more even skimming occurs, and the skim is of a greater quality. Skimming volumes are controlled by raising or lowering the water level inside the vessel. Due to their simplicity they usually require little or no maintenance, significantly reducing operating costs. Figure 14 shows a comparison of the two types.

Figure 14 Fixed and Floating skimmers

5.2.5 Bubble Injection Except for systems utilising spargers, where gas is directly injected into the process vessel, the majority of flotation units operate by taking a slipstream of the clean outlet water. This slipstream, typically 20-30% of the inlet flow, is then utilised as the steam to which bubbles are added using one of the methods described above. This bubble rich stream is then recycled back into the IGF vessel, and flotation is therefore able to occur. Figure 15 shows a typical process flow for a For the flotation process to occur efficiently the release point where the bubble stream and water stream mix is critical. Some systems which utilise larger bubbles release the gas stream near the bottom of a chamber, with the aim being that as the bubbles rise like a blanket they come into contact with oil droplets. This method is not particularly efficient as the bubbles rise fast, and

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usually spread our in a cone shape and miss part of the flow. It is not possible to do this with smaller gas bubbles as their lower rise velocities mean they would be drawn down. Most modern systems mix the bubble and water streams to the inlet piping, before the flow even enters the vessel. This has several advantages as there is an increased chance of intimate contact between oil and gas particles, and there is a lesser change of gas bubbles missing any part of the flow. A boost of additional bubbles is typically needed in each chamber, with ideal locations being ones where contact with the entire flow is most likely.

Figure 15 A Typical IGF Process Flow

5.2.6 Flow Patterns Historically flotation systems have evolved on a trial and error basis. Engineering judgement, pilot testing and data collected from commercial installations were used to modify existing designs to try and improve performance. Today, advances in computer technology have lead to the development of highly efficient CFD modeling packages that enable new designs to be tested, analysed and modified before a single pilot unit is built. This has drastically reduced research and development costs and has been one of the main driving forces behind the higher optimisation and efficiency of many of the newer designs available on the market. Flow patterns can be easily monitored and any undesirable characteristics or short circuits easily identified. Figure 16 shows a plot of the surface of the water for one chamber of an IGF generated using CFD modelling. The different Figure 16 A Typical CFD surface plot colours represent different fluid velocities on different parts of the surface. These techniques are continually pushing the limits of IGF efficiencies to their maximum.
Figure 16 A Typical CFD surface plot

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5.2.7 Vertical Vessels Vertical IGF vessels are relatively new when compared with the original horizontal versions, and their development has been largely driven by the offshore market where space is a premium. The reduced footprint that vertical vessels offer is highly attractive in freeing up deck space, although the height of these vessels tends to increase and are larger than horizontal vessels of the same flow rate. Internally the process performs in much the same way, although there are several significant differences in the overall design on these vessels. Vertical vessels do not lend Figure 17 A two chambered vertical IGF themselves to multi-chambering as well as horizontal ones. Since the number of flotation chambers affects the performance of the separation process designers are faced with one of two options, they must either have multiple single chambered vessels in series to achieve the desired performance, or come up with a way of multi-chambering a single vertical vessel. Both types of design are commercially available, with multichambered vessels (Figure 17) being slightly squatter than the singe chambered versions. More than two chambers, either inside one vessel or two separate single chambered vessels, are unusual in the field, meaning that the performance of vertical IGF systems will not be as good as horizontal ones. Several companies have tried to mitigate this problem by developing vertical units that utilise a number of different processes inside the same vessel. One design uses centrifugal inertia forces as well as single chamber gas flotation to aid separation. This goes some way to improving performance and making up for the loss of chambers. 5.2.8 Tank Based Flotation Until very recently a traditional process flow for a produced water treatment stream would go from a large gravity skim tank or CPI to an IGF (figure 18). Depending on operational parameters a skim tank typically reduces oil concentrations from a few thousand to a few hundred parts per million (ppm) of free oil, with the IGF then reducing concentrations down to tens of ppm levels. It has been shown [2] that it is possible to successfully combine these two stages together, with the result being a drastic reduction in costs and an increase in space and efficiency. The combined process works by combining the benefits of a vessel based IGF system with a gravity separation tank, with the resultant design being a multi-chambered skim tank, typically much smaller than a gravity separation tank to treat the same volume would be.

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Figure 18 Tank Based Flotation Layout

Depending on a streams process conditions and specifications these multichambered skim tanks typically contain two or four chambers (Figure 19), and typically have residence times of 60 to 90 minutes. The internal baffles and walls can either be installed into existing skim tanks or built from new, depending on the application. Refitting older vessels is usually significantly cheaper that building new tanks or IGF vessels and is in part what has driven the success of this technology. CFD modelling is the reason behind the successful development of this technology, with optimal designs being achieved before any expensive pilot testing is required. Figure 19 shows a typical CFD output showing particle traces for packets of water molecules flowing through one of the four chambers. These traces can be used to identify possible short circuits and design inefficiencies that would otherwise remain invisible.

Figure 19 A Four Chambered Flotation Tank & CFD Particle Trace

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CONCLUSION
1) I n recent years the mechanisms of gas flotation have become better understood and as a result there has been significant development and evolution of flotation technology 2) G  as flotation is best utilised for secondary and tertiary oil removal, especially when inlet concentrations are below 1,000 ppm. This has lead to them replacing many other technologies such as corrugated plate interceptors. 3) H  ydrocyclones remain a proven and cost effective method for bulk removal of oil from water and are most suitable for application in front of flotation. 4) Filtration units are most suitable for polishing applications downstream of flotation equipment. 5) C  omputational Fluid Dynamic Modelling has played a large part in the development of gas flotation equipment. Recent work in this area has exposed several design flaws in many conventional flotation units on the market 6) V  ertical Gas Flotation vessels can provide improved performance through additional chambers. 7) T  ank Based Flotation is becoming increasingly popular and is likely to continue to do so in the future. It has proven to be a viable technical alternative to conventional flotation units with the added benefits of buffering of surges and upsets in an overall smaller footprint.

REFERENCES
[1]  DOUGLAS W. LEE, DR WILLIAM .J.D BATEMAN, NICHOLAS OWENS, Efficiency of Oil / Water Separation Controlled by Gas Bubble Size and Fluid Dynamics within the Separation Vessel, Produced Water Society Seminar 2007 [2]  FELISE MAN, NICHOLAS OWENS, DOUGLAS W. LEE, Induced Gas Flotation (IGF) within an API Skim Tank A Case Study of Design Approach and Results, Produced Water Society Seminar 2006

1. GLR Solutions Ltd. was acquired by Exterran Holdings Inc. in January, 2008

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