Ky Thuat Do 1

AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH TRNG AI HOC BACH KHOA
Nguyen Ngoc Tan - Ngo Van Ky
KY THUAT O
TAP 1
O IEN
NHA XUAT BAN AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH - 2005
MUC LUC
Li m au Chng 1 KHAI NIEM VE O LNG 1.1 ai lng o lng 1.2 Chc nang va ac tnh cua thiet b o lng 1.3 Chuan hoa trong o lng 1.4 Chat lng cua o lng 1.5 Nhng phan t trong thiet b o ien t 1.6 Li ch thiet thc cua ien t trong o lng 1.7 S chon la, tnh can than va cach dung thiet b o 1.8 He thong o lng Chng 2 O IEN AP VA DONG IEN 2.1 C cau ch th kim 2.2 o dong mot chieu (DC) va xoay chieu (AC) 2.3 o ien ap AC va DC 2.4 o ien ap DC bang phng phap bien tr 2.5 Von-ke ien t o ien ap DC 2.6 Von-ke ien t o ien ap AC 2.7 Ampe-ke ien t o dong AC va DC Bai tap Chng 3 O IEN TR 3.1 o ien tr bang Von-ke va Ampe-ke 3.2 o ien tr dung phng phap o ien ap bang bien tr 3.3 Mach o ien tr trong Ohm-ke 3.4 Cau Wheatstone o ien tr 3.5 Cau oi Kelvin 3.6 o ien tr co tr so ln 3.7 o ien tr at 3.8 o ien tr trong V.O.M. ien t Bai tap Chng 4 7 9 9 10 11 12 20 21 21 22 26 26 35 42 48 52 61 70 71 82 82 84 84 91 94 96 105 111 118
4 O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA HO CAM 4.1 Dung Von-ke, Ampe-ke o ien dung, ien cam va ho cam 4.2 Dung cau o o ien dung va ien cam 4.3 o ho cam Bai tap Chng 5 O CONG SUAT VA IEN NANG 5.1 o cong suat mot chieu 5.2 o cong suat xoay chieu mot pha 5.3 o cong suat tai ba pha 5.4 o cong suat phan khang cua tai 5.5 o ien nang 5.6 o he so cong suat 5.7 Thiet b ch th ong bo hoa (Synchronoscope) 5.8 Tan so ke Chng 6 O AI LNG C HOC VAT THE RAN 6.1 Cam bien v tr va s dch chuyen 6.2 Cam bien ien tr bien dang 6.3 Cam bien o toc o 6.4 Cam bien o lc, trong lng 6.5 Cam bien o ngau lc 6.6 o gia toc, o rung va s va cham Chng 7 O NHIET O 7.1 Thang o nhiet o 7.2 o nhiet o bang ien tr 7.3 o nhiet o bang cap nhiet ien 7.4 Dung diod va transistor o nhiet o 7.5 o nhiet o bang IC 7.6 Dung cam bien thach anh o nhiet o Chng 8 O CAC AI LNG C HOC CHAT LONG 125 125 128 139 141 146 146 148 155 159 162 167 171 173 178 178 202 207 215 221 223 228 228 228 234 243 246 248
255
5 8.1 o van toc chat long 8.2 Lu lng ke 8.3 o va do mc chat long Chng 9 O AI LNG QUANG 9.1 Cac ac tnh rieng cua cam bien quang 9.2 ien tr quang 9.3 Diod quang 9.4 Transistor quang 9.5 Cam bien phat xa quang Chng 10 DAO ONG KY, TIA AM CC VA MAY GHI X-Y 10.1 Ong phong ien t (CRT) 10.2 Cac khoi chc nang trong dao ong ky 10.3 Trnh bay tn hieu tren man anh cua dao ong ky 10.4 Dao ong ky hai kenh 10.5 Thanh o (Probe) cua dao ong ky 10.6 Bo tao tre 10.7 ng dung cua dao ong ky 10.8 Von ke t ghi ket qua (Voltmeter Recorder) 10.9 May ghi tren he truc X - Y (X - Y recorder) Phu luc Tai lieu tham khao 255 264 269 273 273 276 284 291 296 310 310 314 317 321 323 325 327 332 333 333 343
Li m au
KY THUAT O c bien soan nham phuc vu cho mon hoc Ky thuat o (o lng ien va ien t - Electrical measurements and Electronic Instrumentation) c bien soan thanh hai tap: KY THUAT O - TAP 1 - O IEN VA THIET B O IEN T C BAN gom 10 chng. KY THUAT O - TAP 2 - O IEN T gom 5 chng. Trong tap 1 cac chng 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, do thac s Nguyen Ngoc Tan bien soan: trnh bay nhng phan c ban ve o lng ien va o lng ien t. Nguyen ly hoat ong cua thiet b o gom bo ch th, mach o va phng phap o cua von-ke, ampe-ke, thiet b o ien tr, ien dung, ien cam, ien nang ke, cos-ke, tan so ke. Trong phan von-ke, ampe-ke, ohm-ke chung toi trnh bay them mach o ien t nham muc ch e sinh vien hieu ro nguyen ly o cua may o ien thong thng chuyen sang nguyen ly may o ien t ngay nay ang c s dung rong rai. Cac chng 6, 7, 8, 9 va bai tap chng 2, 3, 4 do thac s Ngo Van Ky bien soan: trnh bay nguyen ly hoat ong va ac tnh ky thuat cua cac cam bien o cac ai lng c, nhiet, quang, c hoc lu chat. ay la nhng cam bien c ban chuyen oi ai lng khong ien sang cac ai lng ien c s dung trong cac thiet b o lng cong nghiep hien nay (industrial instrumentation) va trong he thong o lng va ieu khien t ong. Cuon sach nay nham cung cap nhng kien thc c ban ve thiet b o lng cho sinh vien cac nganh ien - ien t - May tnh (Cong nghe Thong tin) cua cac trng ai hoc; ong thi cung giup ch cho sinh vien cac nganh khac muon tm hieu ve thiet b o.
Chung toi mong nhan c nhieu y kien ong gop cua quy ong nghiep, cac oc gia e lan tai ban cuon sach c hoan thien hn. Xin chan thanh cam n cac ban ong nghiep, Bo mon C s Ky thuat ien - Khoa ien - ien t, Trng ai hoc Bach khoa a giup va tao ieu kien thuan li cho chung toi hoan thanh quyen sach nay. a ch: Bo mon C s Ky thuat ien - Khoa ien - ien t, Trng ai hoc Bach khoa - ai hoc Quoc gia TPHCM - 268 Ly Thng Kiet, Q10. T: (08) 8647685. Email: nntan@hcmut.edu.vn nvky@hcmut.edu.vn Nguyen Ngoc Tan - Ngo Van Ky
Chng
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

1.1 AI LNG O LNG
Trong lnh vc o lng, da tren tnh chat c ban cua ai lng o, chung ta phan ra hai loai c ban. ai lng ien ai lng khong ien (non electrical) la nhng ai lng vat ly, hoa hoc, sinh hoc, y hoc, ... khong mang ac trng cua ai lng ien. Tuy thuoc vao tng tnh chat cu the cua ai lng o, chung ta at ra phng phap va cach thc o e t o thiet ke va che tao thiet b o. 1.1.1 ai lng ien c phan ra hai dang: ai lng ien tac ong (active) ai lng ien thu ong (passive).
1- ai lng ien tac ong
ai lng ien ap, dong ien, cong suat la nhng ai lng mang nang lng ien. Khi o cac ai lng nay, ban than nang lng nay se cung cap cho cac mach o. Trong trng hp nang lng qua ln, se c giam bt cho phu hp vi mach o. V du nh phan ap, phan dong. Neu trong trng hp qua nho se khuech ai u ln cho mach o co the hoat ong c.
10 2- ai lng ien thu ong
CHNG 1
ai lng ien tr, ien cam, ien dung, ho cam, ... cac ai lng nay khong mang nang lng cho nen phai cung cap ien ap hoac dong ien cho cac ai lng nay khi a vao mach o. Trong trng hp ai lng nay ang la phan t trong mach ien ang hoat ong, chung ta phai quan tam en cach thc o theo yeu cau. V du nh cach thc o nong ngha la o phan t nay trong khi mach ang hoat ong hoac cach thc o nguoi khi phan t nay ang ngng hoat ong. moi cach thc o se co phng phap o rieng. 1.1.2 ai lng khong ien ay la nhng ai lng hien hu trong i song cua chung ta (nhiet o, ap suat, trong lng, o am, o pH, nong o, toc o, gia toc ...). Trong he thong t ong hoa cong nghiep ngay nay, e o lng va ieu khien t ong hoa cac ai lng khong ien noi tren, chung ta can chuyen oi cac ai lng noi tren sang ai lng ien bang nhng bo chuyen oi hoac cam bien hoan chnh, thuan li, chnh xac, tin cay hn trong lnh vc o lng va ieu khien t ong.
1.2 CHC NANG VA AC TNH CUA THIET B O LNG

1.2.1 Chc nang cua thiet b o Hau het cac thiet b o co chc nang cung cap cho chung ta ket qua o c ai lng ang khao sat. Ket qua nay c ch th hoac c ghi lai trong suot qua trnh o, hoac c dung e t ong ieu khien ai lng ang c o. V du: trong he thong ieu khien nhiet o, may o nhiet o co nhiem vu o va ghi la ket qua o cua he thong ang hoat ong va giup cho he thong x ly va ieu khien t ong theo thong so nhiet o. Noi chung thiet b o lng co chc nang quan trong la kiem tra s hoat ong cua he thong t ong ieu khien, ngha la o lng qua trnh trong cong nghiep (industrial process measurements). ay cung la mon hoc trong nganh t ong hoa. 1.2.2 ac tnh cua thiet b o lng Vi nhieu cach thc o a dang khac nhau cho nhieu ai lng co nhng ac tnh rieng biet, chung ta co the phan biet hai dang thiet b o phu thuoc vao ac tnh mot cach tong quat.
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
11
V du: e o o dan ien chung ta dung thiet b o dong ien thuan tuy ien la micro ampe-ke hoac mili ampe-ke. Nhng neu chung ta dung thiet b o co s ket hp mach ien t e o o dan ien th phai bien oi dong ien o thanh ien ap o. Sau o mach o ien t o dong ien di dang ien ap. Nh vay gia thiet b o ien va thiet b o ien t co ac tnh khac nhau. Co loai thiet b o, ket qua c ch th bang kim ch th (thiet b o dang analog), co loai bang hien so (thiet b o dang digital). Hien nay loai sau ang thong dung. ay cung la mot ac tnh phan biet cua thiet b o. Ngoai ra thiet b o lng con mang ac tnh cua mot thiet b ien t (neu la thiet b o ien t) nh: tong tr nhap cao, o nhay cao, he so khuech ai on nh va co o tin cay am bao cho ket qua o. Con co them chc nang, truyen va nhan tn hieu o lng t xa (telemetry). ay cung la mon hoc quan trong trong lnh vc o lng ieu khien t xa.
1.3 CHUAN HOA TRONG O LNG

1.3.1 Cap chuan hoa Khi s dung thiet b o lng, chung ta mong muon thiet b c chuan hoa (calibzate) khi c xuat xng ngha la a c chuan hoa vi thiet b o lng chuan (standard). Viec chuan hoa thiet b o lng c xac nh theo bon cap nh sau:
Cap 1: Chuan quoc te (International standard) - cac thiet b o lng cap chuan quoc te c thc hien nh chuan tai Trung tam o lng quoc te at tai Paris (Phap), cac thiet b o lng chuan hoa cap 1 nay theo nh ky c anh gia va kiem tra lai theo tr so o tuyet oi cua cac n v c ban vat ly c hoi ngh quoc te ve o lng gii thieu va chap nhan. Cap 2: Chuan quoc gia - cac thiet b o lng tai cac Vien nh chuan quoc gia cac quoc gia khac nhau tren the gii a c chuan hoa theo chuan quoc te va chung cung c chuan hoa tai cac vien nh chuan quoc gia. Cap 3: Chuan khu vc - trong mot quoc gia co the co nhieu trung tam nh chuan cho tng khu vc (standard zone center). Cac thiet b o lng tai cac trung tam nay ng nhien phai mang chuan quoc gia (National standard). Nhng thiet b o lng c nh chuan tai cac trung tam nh chuan nay se mang chuan khu vc (zone standard). Cap 4: Chuan phong th nghiem - trong tng khu vc se co nhng phong th nghiem c cong nhan e chuan hoa cac thiet b c dung trong san xuat cong nghiep. Nh vay cac thiet b c chuan hoa tai cac phong th nghiem
12
CHNG 1
nay se co chuan hoa cua phong th nghiem. Do o cac thiet b o lng khi c san xuat ra c chuan hoa tai cap nao th se mang chat lng tieu chuan o lng cua cap o. Con cac thiet b o lng tai cac trung tam o lng, vien nh chuan quoc gia phai c chuan hoa va mang tieu chuan cap cao hn. V du phong th nghiem phai trang b cac thiet b o lng co tieu chuan cua chuan vung hoac chuan quoc gia, con cac thiet b o lng tai vien nh chuan quoc gia th phai co chuan quoc te. Ngoai ra theo nh ky c at ra phai c kiem tra va chuan hoa lai cac thiet b o lng. 1.3.2 Cap chnh xac cua thiet b o Sau khi c xuat xng che tao, thiet b o lng se c kiem nghiem chat lng, c chuan hoa theo cap tng ng nh a e cap tren va se c phong kiem nghiem nh cho cap chnh xac sau khi c xac nh sai so (nh nh ngha di ay) cho tng tam o cua thiet b. Do o khi s dung thiet b o lng, chung ta nen quan tam en cap chnh xac cua thiet b o c ghi tren may o hoac trong so tay ky thuat cua thiet b o. e t cap chnh xac nay chung ta se anh gia c sai so cua ket qua o. V du: Mot von-ke co ghi cap chnh xac la 1, ngha la gii han sai so cua no cho tam o la 1%.
1.4 CHAT LNG CUA O LNG

1.4.1 ac tnh cua cach thc o S hieu biet ve ac tnh cua cach thc o rat can thiet cho phan ln viec chon la thiet b o thch hp cho cong viec o lng. No bao gom hai ac tnh c ban. ac tnh tnh (static) ac tnh ong (dynamic)
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
13
1.4.2 ac tnh tnh (static) Tong quat, ac tnh tnh cua thiet b o la ac tnh co c khi thiet b o c s dung o cac ai lng co ieu kien khong thay oi trong mot qua trnh o. Tat ca cac ac tnh tnh cua cach thc o co c nh mot qua trnh nh chuan. Mot so ac tnh c dien ta nh sau: Mc o chnh xac (sai so) o phan giai: khoang chia nho nhat e thiet b o ap ng c o nhay o sai biet cua tr so o c vi tr so tin cay c Tr so o chap nhan c qua xac suat cua tr so o. 1.4.3 nh ngha sai so trong o lng o lng la s so sanh ai lng cha biet (ai lng o) vi ai lng c chuan hoa (ai lng mau hoac ai lng chuan). Nh vay cong viec o lng la noi thiet b o vao he thong c khao sat, ket qua o cac ai lng can thiet thu c tren thiet b o. Trong thc te kho xac nh tr so thc cac ai lng o. V vay tr so o c cho bang thiet b o, c goi la tr so tin cay c (expected value). Bat ky ai lng o nao cung b anh hng bi nhieu thong so. Do o ket qua o t khi phan anh ung tr so tin cay c. Cho nen co nhieu he so (factor) anh hng trong o lng lien quan en thiet b o. Ngoai ra co nhng he so khac lien quan en con ngi s dung thiet b o. Nh vay o chnh xac cua thiet b o c dien ta di hnh thc sai so. 1.4.4 Cac loai sai so
Sai so tuyet oi: e = Yn Xn
e - sai so tuyet oi;
Yn - tr so tin cay c; Xn - tr so o c
Yn X n |100% Yn
| Sai so tng oi (tnh theo %): er =

o chnh xac tng oi: A = 1|
Yn X n | Yn
o chnh xac tnh theo %:
a = 100% er = (A100%)
14
CHNG 1
V du: ien ap hai au ien tr co tr so tin cay c la 50V. Dung vonke o c 49V. Nh vay sai so tuyet oi: Sai so tng oi: e = 1V
er =
1V 100% = 2% 50V
o chnh xac: A = 10,02 = 0,98, a = 98% = 100% 2%

Tnh chnh xac (precision): 1|
Xn X n Xn
X n - tr so trung bnh cua n lan o.

V du: Xn = 97, tr so o c
97 101,1 | = 96% 96% 101,1
X n = 101,1 tr so trung bnh cua 10 lan o

Tnh chnh xac cua cach o: 1|
Sai so chu quan: Mot cach tong quat sai so nay do loi lam cua ngi s dung thiet b o va phu thuoc vao viec oc sai ket qua, hoac ghi sai, hoac s dung sai khong ung theo qui trnh hoat ong. Sai so he thong (systematic error) phu thuoc vao thiet b o va ieu kien moi trng. Sai so do thiet b o: cac phan t cua thiet b o, co sai so do cong nghe che tao, s lao hoa do s dung. Giam sai so nay can phai bao tr nh ky cho thiet b o. Sai so do anh hng ieu kien moi trng: cu the nh nhiet o tang cao, ap suat tang, o am tang, ien trng hoac t trng tang eu anh hng en sai so cua thiet b o lng. Giam sai so nay bang cach gi sao cho ieu kien moi trng t thay oi hoac bo chnh (compensation) oi vi nhiet o va o am. Va dung bien phap bao ve chong anh hng tnh ien va t trng nhieu. Sai so he thong chu anh hng khac nhau trang thai tnh va trang thai ong:
trang thai tnh sai so he thong phu thuoc vao gii han cua thiet b o hoac do qui luat vat ly chi phoi s hoat ong cua no. trang thai ong sai so he thong do s khong ap ng theo toc o thay oi nhanh theo ai lng o.
Sai so ngau nhien (random error): Ngoai s hien dien sai so do chu quan trong cach thc o va sai so he thong th con lai la sai so ngau nhien. Thong thng sai so ngau nhien c thu thap t mot so ln nhng anh hng nhieu
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
15
c tnh toan trong o lng co o chnh xac cao. Sai so ngau nhien thng c phan tch bang phng phap thong ke. V du: gia s ien ap c o bang mot von-ke c oc cach khoang 1 phut. Mac du von-ke hoat ong trong ieu kien moi trng khong thay oi, c chuan hoa trc khi o va ai lng ien ap o xem nh khong thay oi, th tr so oc cua von-ke van co thay oi chut t. S thay oi nay khong c hieu chnh bi bat ky phng phap nh chuan nao khac, v do sai so ngau nhien gay ra. 1.4.5 Cac nguon sai so Thiet b o khong o c tr so chnh xac v nhng ly do sau: Khong nam vng nhng thong so o va ieu kien thiet ke Thiet ke nhieu khuyet iem Thiet b o hoat ong khong on nh Bao tr thiet b o kem Do ngi van hanh thiet b o khong ung Do nhng gii han cua thiet ke 1.4.6 ac tnh ong Mot so rat t thiet b o ap ng tc thi ngay vi ai lng o thay oi. Phan ln no ap ng cham hoac khong theo kp s thay oi cua ai lng o. S cham chap nay phu thuoc ac tnh cua thiet b o nh tnh quan tnh, nhiet dung hoac ien dung... c the hien qua thi gian tre cua thiet b o. Do o s hoat ong trang thai ong hoac trang thai giao thi cua thiet b o cung quan trong nh trang thai tnh. oi vi ai lng o co ba dang thay oi nh sau: Thay oi co dang ham bc theo thi gian Thay oi co dang ham tuyen tnh theo thi gian Thay oi co dang ham ieu hoa theo thi gian. ac tuyen ong cua thiet b o Toc o ap ng o trung thc Tnh tre Sai so ong.
16 ap ng ong bac zero (bac khong)
CHNG 1
Mot cach tong quat tn hieu o va tn hieu ra cua thiet b o c dien ta theo phng trnh sau ay:
an d n xo dt
n m
+ an 1
d n 1 xo dt
n 1
+ K + a1
dxo + ao xo = dt dxi + bo xo dt
= bm
d xi dt
m
+ bm 1
d m 1 xi dt
m 1
+ K + b1
xo - tn hieu ra cua thiet b o;
xI - tn hieu o
ao an - thong so cua he thong o gia s khong oi bo bn - thong so cua he thong o gia s khong oi. Khi ao, bo khac khong ( 0) th cac gia tr a, b khac bang khong (= 0). Phng trnh vi phan con lai: a o xo = b ox I ;
xo =
bo xi ; ao
K =
bo : o nhay tnh ao
Nh vay ay la trng hp ai lng vao va ai lng ra khong phu thuoc vao thi gian, la ieu kien ly tng cua trang thai ong. V du nh s thay oi v tr con chay cua bien tr tuyen tnh theo ai lng o.
ap ng ong bac nhat

Khi cac gia tr a1, b1, ao, bo khac khong ( 0), con cac gia tr con lai bang dx khong (= 0): a1 o + ao xo = bo xi . dt Bat ky thiet b o nao thoa phng trnh nay c goi la thiet b bac nhat. Chia hai ve phng trnh tren cho ao ta co:
b dx b a1 dxo + xo = o xi . Hoac: o + xo = o xi ; ao dt ao dt ao
Vi: D =
(D + 1)xo = Kxi
dt ; dt
a1 : thi hang; ao
K =
bo : o nhay tnh ao
Thi hang co n v la thi gian, trong khi o o nhay tnh K co n v la n v cua tn hieu ra/tn hieu vao. Ham truyen hoat ong (transfer function) cua bat ky thiet b o bac nhat: xo K = D + 1 xi V du cu the cua thiet b o bac nhat la nhiet ke thuy ngan.
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG ap ng ong cua thiet b bac hai, c nh ngha theo phng trnh
17
a2
d 2 xo dt
2
+ a1
dxo + ao xo = bo xi dt
Phng trnh tren c rut gon lai: ( vi: n =
D2 2 n
+2
D + 1) xo = Kxi n
ao/a2 - tan so khong em t nhien, radian/thi gian

a1 aoa2
- t so em; =
; K =
bo ao
Bat ky thiet b o nao thoa phng trnh nay goi la thiet b o bac hai. Thong thng loai thiet b o bac nhat ch hoat ong o vi ai lng co nang lng. V du: loai can dung lo xo an hoi (lc ke) co nang lng la c nang, nhiet ke co nang lng la nhiet nang. Loai thiet b o bac hai co s trao oi gia hai dang nang lng. V du: nang lng tnh ien va t ien trong mach LC, cu the nh ch th c cau ien t ket hp vi mach khuech ai. 1.4.7 Phan tch thong ke o lng S phan tch thong ke cac so lieu o rat quan trong, t o chung ta xac nh cac ket qua o khong chac chan (co sai so ln) sau cung. e cho s phan tch thong ke co y ngha, phan ln so lieu o lng oi hoi sai so he thong phai nho so vi sai so ngau nhien. Khi o mot ai lng bat ky nao ma biet ket qua o phu thuoc vao nhieu yeu to, th nhng yeu to nay eu quan trong ca. Theo ieu kien ly tng, mc o anh hng cua cac thong so phai c xac nh e cho viec o lng neu co sai so phai c giai thch va hieu c nguyen nhan gay ra sai so. Nhng s phan tch sai so khong c tach khoi so lieu a c co nh trong cac ket qua o lng.
18
CHNG 1
Y ngha so hoc cua s o nhieu lan: hau het gia tr o chap nhan c va bien so o co y ngha so hoc cua thiet b o oc c nhieu lan o. S gan ung tot nhat co the co khi so lan oc cua cung mot ai lng o phai ln. Y ngha so hoc cua n lan o c xac nh cho bien so x c cho bang bieu thc:
x =
x1 + x2 + ... + xn n
trong o: x - tr trung bnh; xn - tr so x lan o th n; n - so lan o.

o lech
o lech lan o th 1: o lech lan o th 2: o lech lan o th n:
d1 = x1 x d2 = x2 x dn = xn x
............................... V du: x1 = 50,1; x2 = 49,7; x3 = 49,6; x4 = 50,2 Y ngha so hoc:
x =
50,1 + 49,7 + 49, 6 + 50, 2 199, 6 = = 49, 9 4 4

d2 = 49,7 49,9 = -0,2
o lech cua tng gia tr o: d1 = 50,1 49,9 = 0,2; d3 = 49,6 49,9 = -0,3; d4 = 50,2 49,9 = 0,3 Tong ai so cua cac o lech: dtot = 0,2 0,2 + 0,3 0,3 = 0 Nh vay khi tong ai so cac o lech cua cac lan o so vi y ngha so hoc x bang khong th khong co s phan tan cua cac ket qua o xung quanh x .
o lech trung bnh: co the dung nh mot bieu thc cua tnh chnh xac cua thiet b o.
o lech trung bnh cang nho th bieu thc o cang chnh xac. Bieu thc o lech trung bnh D c xac nh:
| d1 | + | d2 | +...+ | dn | n V du: D cua cac tr so o cua v du trc |0, 2| + |0, 2| + |0, 3| + |0, 3| D = 4 D =
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
19
o lech chuan (standard deviation): o lech chuan cua mot so lan o la cac gia tr o lech quanh gia tr trung bnh c xac nh nh sau:.
o lech chuan cho n lan o: = [
2 2 2 d1 + d2 + ... + dn ]1 2 (so lan o n
n 30 ).
Neu so lan o nho hn 30 lan (n<30) th o lech chuan c dien ta
2 2 2 d1 + d2 + ... + dn ]1 2 n 1
=[
V du: o lech chuan cua cac so o cu the tren
=[
( 0, 2)2 + ( 0, 2)2 + ( 0, 3)2 + ( 0, 3)2 1 2 ] = 4 1
0, 26 = 0, 294 3
o lech chuan nay rat quan trong, trong s phan tch thong ke so lieu o. Neu giam c o lech chuan se co hieu qua trong viec cai tien ket qua o lng. Sai so ngau nhien: thng c tnh tren c s ng phan bo Gauss cua o lech chuan:
2 2 2 + d2 + ... + dn 2 d1 3 n ( n 1) va gii han cua sai so ngau nhien: lim( eRd ) = 4, 5eRd
eRd =
Nhng tr so nao co o lech vt qua gii han cua sai so ngau nhien eu c loai bo. V du: ket qua o ien tr c thc hien trong tam lan o nh sau. R1 = 116,2; R2 = 118,2; R3 = 116,5; R4 = 117,0 R5 = 118,2; R6 = 118,4; R7 = 117,8; R8 = 118,1
R1 + R2 + ... + R8 = 117, 8 8
Tr trung bnh cua ien tr: R = o lech cua cac lan o:
d1 = 1,6; d2 = 0,4; d3 = 0,7; d4 = 0,8 d5 = 0,4; d6 = 0,6; d7 = 0,0; d8 = 0,3
20
CHNG 1
Sai so ngau nhien cua cac ket qua o
eRd =
2 3
( 1, 6)2 + ... + ( 0, 3)2 = 0,19 0,2 87
Gii han cua sai so ngau nhien: lim( eRd ) = 0, 9 Nh vay ket qua o lan mot co o lech tuyet oi:
| d1 |= 1, 6 > 0, 9 se b loai bo
1.4.8 Gii han cua sai so Phan ln cac nha san xuat thng xac nh sai so cua thiet b o bang sai so tam o, ay cung la gii han sai so cua thiet b o (cap chnh xac cua thiet b o) mac du trong thc te sai so thc cua thiet b o co the nho hn gia tr nay. V du 1: von-ke co sai so tam o 2% tam o (thang o) 300V. Tnh gii han sai so dung e o ien ap 120V. Sai so tam o: 300V0,02 = 6V Do o gii han sai so 120V: 6/120 100% = 5% V du 2: von-ke va ampe-ke c dung e xac nh cong suat tieu thu cua ien tr. Ca hai thiet b nay eu sai so tam o 1%. Neu von-ke c oc tam o 150V co ch th 80V va ampe-ke c oc tam o 100mA la 80mA. Gii han cua sai so tam o cua von-ke: 150V1% = 1,5V Gii han sai so tr so 80V: 1, 5/ 80 100% = 1, 86% Gii han cua sai so tam o ampe-ke: 100 mA0,01 = 1mA Gii han sai so tr so oc: 1/70 100% = 1, 43% Gii han sai so cua cong suat o c: 1,86% + 1,43% = 3,29%
1.5 NHNG PHAN T TRONG THIET B O IEN T

Tong quat thiet b o ien t thng c cau tao bang ba phan nh sau:
Cam bien Bo che bien tn hieu Bo ch th ket qua
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
21
Cam bien: Phan t bien oi cac ai lng o khong ien sang ai lng ien. Bo phan nay ch co khi thiet b o ien t o cac ai lng trong cong nghiep Bo che bien tn hieu: Bien oi tn hieu ien (ien ap, dong ien, ien tr, ...) cho phu hp vi bo ch ket qua. Bo nay bao gom mach phan tam o, mach ieu hp tong tr, mach khuech ai tn hieu u ln cho bo ch th ket qua. Co the la mach cau o (oi vi ai lng ien tr, ien cam, ien dung). Ngoai ra trong bo che bien co the la mach loc, mach chnh lu, mach sa dang tn hieu, mach chopper, mach bien oi tn hieu A/D ... Bo ch th ket qua: Trong phan nay ket qua o c ch th di hai hnh thc kim hoac so hien th.
1.6 LI CH THIET THC CUA IEN T TRONG O LNG

Trong qua kh li ch thiet thc cua c hoc va quang hoc a giup ch cho ky thuat o lng. Hien tai va tng lai ien t a va ong gop rat nhieu trong s phat trien cho thiet b o lng. Cac ai lng ien va ai lng khong ien c cam bien o lng chuyen oi sang tn hieu ien. Cac tn hieu nay c cac mach ien t che bien cho phu hp vi mach o, mach thu thap d lieu o lng. Ngay nay chung ta khong con nghi ng g ve nhng u iem cua mach ien t: o nhay thch hp Tieu thu nang lng t Toc o ap ng nhanh De tng thch truyen tn hieu i xa o tin cay cao o linh hoat cao phu hp vi cac van e o lng.
1.7 S CHON LA, TNH CAN THAN VA CACH DUNG THIET B O

Co nhng thiet b o rat tot, rat chnh xac nhng se cho ket qua sai hoac khong chnh xac neu chung ta khong biet s dung hoac s dung khong ung qui nh cua thiet b o. Do o chung ta phai quan tam en cach thc va qui trnh s dung cua tng thiet b o. Ngoai ra chung ta phai chon thiet b o cho phu hp vi ai lng o. Phan ln cac thiet b o co o nhay cao tng oi phc tap, oi hoi chung ta can than khi s dung neu khong de gay ra h hong hoac lam cho thiet b o khong chnh xac. Vay bat buoc ngi s dung phai oc va tm hieu ky ac tnh, cach s dung, qui trnh hoat ong cua may trc khi cho may bat au hoat ong. La chon thiet b o phai phu hp vi mc o chnh xac theo yeu
22
CHNG 1
cau cua ai lng o. V mc o chnh xac va o nhay cua thiet b co lien quan trc tiep vi gia tien cua may. Ngha la may cang chnh xac, cang nhay th gia cang cao. Nhieu khi theo yeu cau cua ai lng o khong can dung en thiet b qua nhay hoac o chnh xac qua cao. Khi s dung may phai can than, tranh nguy hiem cho may o v qua tam o hoac b chan ong c hoc (do di chuyen hoac va cham c hoc ...), thng oi vi thiet b ch kim. Ngoai ra phai lu y en ieu kien cua tai phoi hp vi thiet b o (oi vi thiet b o ien t) v du nh: ap ng tan so, phoi hp tr khang ... Neu khong thoa cac ieu kien nay cung gay ra sai so thiet b o. e tranh h hong cho thiet b o, luon luon oi hoi ngi s dung may phai oc qua va hieu ro Tai lieu ch dan (Service manual) cho nhng thiet b o mi s dung lan au.
1.8 HE THONG O LNG

1.8.1 He thong o lng dang tng ong (Analog)
He thong o lng mot kenh (H.1.1)
Mach che bien tn hieu ai lng o va ieu khien
Cam bien
Giao tiep
Khuech ai
Mach loc
Thiet b ieu khien
Mach so sanh
Tn hieu chuan
S dung ket qua
Man anh Thiet b oc
Thiet b ghi
Hnh 1.1: He thong o lng tng ong
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
23
Tn hieu o c tao ra t cam bien o lng (transducer) do ai lng o tac ong vao. Tn hieu nay i qua mach che bien tn hieu (signal conditioner). Sau o i vao bo phan trnh bay ket qua (display) va thiet b ghi (record) e cho bo phan oc ket qua s dung ngay ket qua o nay. Ngoai ra he thong o lng con lien ket vi he thong ieu khien t ong bang cach lay tn hieu o ngo ra cua mach che bien tn hieu a qua mach so sanh vi tn hieu chuan e ieu khien oi tng (ai lng) ang c o. V du: ai lng o la nhiet o th oi tng ieu khien cung la nhiet o.
Cam bien Tn hieu o 1 Tn hieu o 2 X2 CB CB
f1m f1m
f10 MOD MOD MOD MOD
X1
f2000 f 20
V2
V1
Bo che bien tn hieu Tn hieu o i Xi Bo che bien tn hieu CB XN CB
f2m f2m im ffim
fF 10
io
MOD MOD
VI
VN
fnm fnm
MOD MOD
f20
fno
Phan kenh theo tan so
Giai ieu che
DEMOD f1 DEMOD f2 Phat Thu fi DEMOD fn Bo thu nhan che bien tn hieu fim DEMOD fim f2m f1m
X1 X2
XI
XN
Hnh 1.2: He thong o lng tng ong nhieu kenh
24
CHNG 1
He thong o lng nhieu kenh: Trng hp can o nhieu ai lng th moi ai lng o mot kenh. Nh vay sau moi tn hieu o c lay ra t mach che bien tn hieu moi kenh se a qua mach phan kenh (multiplexer) e c sap xep tuan t truyen i tren cung mot he thong dan truyen (day dan hay vo tuyen). e co s phan biet cac ai lng o, trc khi a vao mach phan kenh can phai ma hoa hoac ieu che (Modulation MOD) theo tan so khac nhau (v du nh f10,f20) cho moi tn hieu cua ai lng o. Tai ni nhan tn hieu lai phai giai ma hoac giai ieu che (demodulation DEMOD) e lay lai tng tn hieu o. ay cung la hnh thc o lng t xa (telemety) cho nhieu ai lng o.
1.8.2 He thong o lng dang so (Digital) (H.1.3).

Bo ch th so ai lng o quan sat S dung ket qua o
Cam bien Tn hieu vat ly
Che bien tn
S/H
ADC
X ly so
Bo ieu khien logic
DAC May ghi (in)
Thiet b ieu khien
Chng trnh
Hnh 1.3: He thong o lng so ket hp vi P
Thiet b vi x ly (Microprocessor - P) tham gia vao he thong o lng nham muc ch x ly nhanh tn hieu o, chong nhieu tot hn so vi tn hieu o dang Analog khi truyen i xa. Cach ly tot hn va de thc hien hn neu dung phng phap quang hoc (dung cach thc ghep bang tn hieu quang (opto coupler). ay cung la hnh thc thng dung hien nay. Vi s phat trien cua may tnh ca nhan (PC), he thong o lng dung ky thuat so dung PC e t ong hoa he thong o lng mc o cao hn va thuan li hn khi s dung. Do o, chung ta bc sang mot giai oan mi May tnh hoa thiet b o lng (computerized instrumentation). Trong he thong o lng dung ky thuat so, tn hieu dang Analog c chuyen oi sang tn hieu dang so (digital) bang cac mach ADC (analog digital
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
25
converter) e cho bo vi x ly (P) hoat ong, sau o muon co dang Analog e s dung, chung ta dung mach DAC (digital analog converter) e chuyen oi lai. Ngoai ra he thong o lng dang so con co u iem la s hoat ong thong minh nh vao chng trnh phan mem (software) cai at vao may tnh e x ly tn hieu o lng va ieu khien he thong t ong hoa. 1.8.3 Tnh linh hoat trong s ieu khien t xa thiet b o lng He thong o lng dang so nh s ket noi vi may tnh, a ieu khien t xa (remote) cac chc nang cua he thong o lng bang cach s dung cac ng truyen so lieu (BUS) cua bo vi x ly (P). He thong c trnh bay hnh 1.4. Nh may tnh PC ieu khien thiet b o lng thong qua bo giao tiep chuan (interface bus standard) thong dung la IE 488 hoac RS232C. Phan giao tiep truyen so a nang (GPIB - general purpose interface bus) c thiet ke e thc hien s ieu khien. (Chung ta se e cap en van e nay mot chng sau).
Cam bien
Bo ieu che Bo ieu che Bo ieu che
Bo phan chon kenh t on g
Ban phm
ADC
Vi x ly Bo nh chng trnh
Giao tiep RS232
May in
Giao tiep RS232 Giao tiep RS232
ieu khien
Hien th (man hnh)
Bo nh d lieu
Hnh 1.4: He thong thu nhan va x ly d lieu
dung mach giao tiep RS232
26
Chng
O IEN AP VA DONG IEN

2.1 C CAU CH TH KIM
Hien nay c cau ch th ket qua van con dung kim ch th ket qua. Do o chung toi trnh bay tom lc cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong cua cac c cau dang nay c dung trong von-ke va ampe-ke. Con loai c cau ch th ket qua bang so se c e cap en trong phan thiet b o lng ch th so. 2.1.1 C cau t ien (c cau D'ARSONVAL) C cau nay c ky hieu tren mat may o nh sau: ten goi tat theo tieng Anh PMMC (permanent magnet moving coil) co cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong nh sau.
Cau tao (xem H.2.1).
Khung quay: khung bang nhom hnh ch nhat, tren khung co quan day ong boc lp cach ien nho. Toan bo khoi lng khung quay phai cang nho cang tot e sao cho momen quan tnh cang nho. Toan bo khung quay c at tren truc quay hoac treo bi day treo (taut band) (H.2.2).
Hnh 2.1: C cau ch th t ien
27
Hnh 2.2: a) Khung quay Loai truc quay
b) Khung quay Loai day treo Nam cham vnh cu: khung quay c at gia hai cc t NS cua nam cham vnh cu. Loi sat non hnh tru nam trong khung quay tng oi eu. Kim ch th c gan chat tren truc quay hoac day treo. Pha sau kim ch th co mang oi trong e sao cho trong tam cua kim ch th nam tren truc quay hoac day treo. Lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo co nhiem vu keo kim ch th ve v tr ban au.
Nguyen ly hoat ong (xem H.2.3)
Khi co dong ien i vao cuon day, tren khung day se xuat hien lc ien t F: F = N.B.l.I trong o: N - so vong day quan cua cuon day B - mat o t thong xuyen qua cuon day l - chieu cao cua khung; I - cng o dong ien. Momen quay Tq cua lc ien t F: Tq = F.W = N.B.l.W.I trong o W la be rong cua khung quay Momen quay Tq cua lc ien t F: Tq = F.W = N.B.l.W.I Kq = N.B.l.W - he so t le vi s cau tao cua c cau la hang so: Tq = KqI (2.2) (2.1)
28
CHNG 2
ong thi khi o lo xo (hoac day treo) tao ra momen can Tc khi kim ch th quay do momen quay Tq lam xoan lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo: T c = Kc Kc - hang so xoan cua lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo (2.3)
- goc quay cua kim ch th. Tai goc quay i cua kim ch th ng yen:
T q = Tc ; Kq I = Kc I ;
i =
Kq Kc
I = KI (2.4)
Goc quay i t le tuyen tnh vi dong ien I
Hnh 2.3: Nguyen ly hoat ong
S em (can du) cho kim ch th
Khi kim ch th di chuyen di tac ong cua Tq cung xuat hien momen em Td do dong ien ng phat sinh trong cuon day do t thong xuyen qua khung quay thay oi tc thi (H.2.4):
29
id =
ed Ri + RD
(2.5)
trong o: ed:- sc ien ong ng; Ri - ien tr cua khung quay RD: - ien tr em noi hai cuon day.
Hnh 2.4: S em cho kim ch th
Trng hp RD, khong co momen em, kim ch th de b dao ong quanh iem se dng lai cua kim, v cuon day b h mach khong co dong id trong khi van co ed. Trng hp RD0, momen em ln nhat co s em chat lam cho s di chuyen cua kim rat cham va kho khan hn khi b dao ong c hoc do di chuyen c cau o. Trng hp RDRDC, ien tr em ung mc, kim ch th di chuyen nhanh khi co dong ien vao va khong b dao ong quanh v tr dng cua kim.
30
CHNG 2
Theo phng trnh chuyen ong cua kim:

J d 2 dt
2
+ D
d + Tc = 0 dt
(2.6)
trong o: J - momen quan tnh cua khung quay va kim D - hang so em cua he thong Tc - momen can do lo xo kiem soat hoac day xoan. e co s em ung mc th D phai co ieu kien:
D = Do = 2 J .Tc
Neu D > Do: em qua mc; D < Do: em yeu Ngi ta chng minh c rang hang so em: D = vi R = RI + RD; K 'D = R.B.I.W
ac tnh c cau t ien
(2.7)
K 'D R
o nhay dong ien cua c cau ien t: o nhay cua dong ien c nh ngha:
SI = K d = I dI KC
(2.8)
ngha la o nhay cua dong ien tng ng vi s bien thien cua goc quay khi co s bien oi cua dong ien. Trong thc te, ngi ta thng dung Imax (dong ien toi a) cua c cau ch th e xac nh o nhay ngha la o nhay cang ln khi Imax cang nho v max (goc quay ln nhat) cua c cau ch th giong nhau (vao khoang # 105o). Tang o nhay c cau bang cach tang Kq giam KC. o nhay ien ap c cau: SV = Ri th:
d . Neu ien tr noi cua khung quay la dv

(2.9)
Sv =
d 1 = Si Ri dI Ri
Do o co s quan he gia o nhay ien ap va dong ien. u iem: c cau ch th t ien co u iem so vi nhng c cau khac nh nhng iem sau ay:
31
T trng cua c cau do nam cham vnh cu tao ra manh, t b anh hng cua t trng ben ngoai; Cong suat tieu thu nho tuy theo dong Imax cung c cau co the t 25 W 200 W; Co o chnh xac cao, co the at c cap chnh xac 0,5%; V goc quay tuyen tnh theo dong ien cho nen thang o co khoang chia eu an. Khuyet iem: Cuon day cua khung quay thng chu ng qua tai mot lng nho nen thng de b h hong neu dong ien qua mc i qua; Ch s dung dong ien mot chieu, khong hoat ong dong ien xoay chieu; oi vi khung quay co day xoan de h hong khi b chan ong manh hoac di chuyen qua mc gii han, do o can em qua mc khi cho c cau ngng hoat ong.
ng dung
C cau ch th kim thng c dung rong rai trong lnh vc o lng. ien ke gng quay (H.2.5): Khung quay mang gng phan chieu va he thong quang hoc chieu tia sang vao gng va om sang tron ghi ket qua dong ien i qua. Ket qua c ghi tren thc chia hoac tren giay nhay quang (trong cac thiet b ghi).
Hnh 2.5
2.1.2 C cau ien t
32
CHNG 2
|. Con goi la c cau mieng sat di ong (moving iron). Ky hieu

Cau tao: co hai loai lc hut va lc ay.
Loai lc hut (H.2.6) Loai lc ay (H.2.7).
Hnh 2.6: C cau ien t loai hut
Hnh 2.8: C cau em Hnh 2.7: C cau ien t loai ay
33
Ca hai eu co cuon day co nh va mieng sat di ong gan tren truc quay mang kim ch th. Rieng lc ay co mang them mieng sat co nh gan mat trong cua cuon day. Truc quay cung co lo xo kiem soat va c cau ch th co em bang sc can khong kh (H.2.8).
Nguyen ly hoat ong
Cuon day co nh co dong ien I (mot chieu hoac xoay chieu) lc t ong F tao ra lc hut hoac lc ay cho mieng sat di ong. F = nI(AT) (ampe-vong). trong o: N - so vong quay; I - cng o dong. Hoac goc quay cua kim ch th c chng minh: (2.10)
i =
Kq KC
I2
(2.11)
vi: I - dong ien DC hoac AC tr hieu dung (RMS). Nh vay thang o cua c cau ien t khong tuyen tnh nh thang o cua c cau ien t.
Viec em cho c cau ien t
Tieu thu nang lng nhieu hn c cau ien t. Co hien tng t d trong la sat non cho nen kem chnh xac hn. Tnh tre lam tang sai so khi dung dong ien xoay chieu. Giam tnh tre bang cach giam nho mieng sat di ong hoac chon mat o t thong B e cho hien tng tre trong mieng sat nho i. Cho nen co s dung hoa gia t thong va mieng sat di ong. Anh hng cua tn hieu xoay chieu: do co thanh phan cuon cam L cua cuon day co nh cho nen khi tan so tn hieu tang, tong tr Z = L = 2fL cua cuon day tang khong thch hp vi tn hieu o co khoang tan so thay oi ln. Ngoai ra dong ien xoay tren mieng sat di ong tang khi tan so tn hieu tang. Do t trng tao ra bi cuon day co tr so nho cho nen de b anh hng bi t trng nhieu, can phai bao ve bang cach chan t cho c cau Cong nghe che tao de hn c cau t ien Ch c dung trong lnh vc ien cong nghiep Chu s qua tai cao Nhng c cau ien t dung trong von-ke hoac ampe-ke thng co
34
CHNG 2
thong so ky thuat: ien cam cuon day 1Henry; ien tr 20/V; lc t ong F = 300 ampe vong; ngau lc xoan bang 5% khoi lng di chuyen. 2.1.3 C cau ien ong La c cau co s phoi hp gia c cau ien t (khung quay mang kim ch th) va c cau ien t (cuon day co nh tao t trng cho khung quay). Ky hieu tren c cau ho hoac C cau sat ien ong.
Cau tao (H.2.9): c cau ien ong gom co cuon day co nh va cuon day di ong (khung quay). Thong thng cuon day di ong khong co loi sat non tranh c hien tng t tre va dong ien xoay. Cuon day di ong nam trong vung anh hng t trng tao ra bi cuon day co nh, neu cuon day co nh quan tren loi sat t la c cau sat ien ong (H.2.10). Nguyen ly hoat ong: khi co dong ien I1, I2 (mot chieu hoac xoay chieu) i
Cc t
Cuon day
Hnh 2.9: C cau ien ong
Khung quay
Hnh 2.10: C cau sat ien ong
vao cuon day di ong va co nh se tao ra momen quay: Tq = Kq I1 I2 (dong DC) hoac:
Tq = K q 1 i1 .i 2 dt (dong AC) T
T
(2.12)
Vay goc quay: Hoac:
Kq Kc
I1I 2
(2.13)
Kq 1 T = [ i1i 2 dt ] Kc T
KC - hang so xoan cua lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo.
35
e cho thang o tuyen tnh theo I1, I2 th K q /K c la hang so.

ac iem cua c cau
C cau ien ong co u iem va khuyet iem cua c cau t ien va ien t Thng dung lam bo ch th cho von-ke hoac ampe-ke va watt-ke Watt-ke co cong suat tai mot pha va ba pha dung c cau sat ien ong Ngoai ra ngi ta che tao ra t so ke ien ong e dung lam cos-ke (e cap phan o he so cong suat) Chieu quay cua c cau ien ong (sat ien ong) c xac nh trc khi hoat ong vi dong ien xoay chieu (H.2.11). Nh vay, khi kim ch th cua c cau b lech ngc th phai hoan oi cc tnh cua cuon day e kim ch th quay thuan.
Hnh 2.11: Chieu quay cua kim ch th khong phu thuoc vao
chieu dong ien
2.2 O DONG MOT CHIEU (DC) VA XOAY CHIEU (AC)

2.2.1 o dong DC
Nguyen ly o: ca ba c cau ch th a noi tren eu hoat ong vi dong DC cho nen c dung lam bo ch th ampe-ke DC. Nhng can phai m rong tam o (Range) cho thch hp. M rong tam o: e cho ampe-ke co nhieu tam o thch hp, mach o phai co s m rong tam o cho tng loai c cau ch th.
36
CHNG 2
Hnh 2.12: Mach o dong
M rong tam o cho c cau t ien. Dung ien tr shunt (H.2.12). Dong ien o:
I = Im + IS
(2.14)
trong o: I m - dong ien qua c cau ch th.
I S - dong ien i qua ien tr shunt.

ien tr shunt RS c xac nh:
RS = I max Rm I t I max
(2.15)
trong o: Rm - ien tr noi cua c cau ch th.
I max - dong ien toi a cua c cau ch th. I t - dong ien toi a cua tam o.
V du 2.1:
RS = RS =
50A 1K , vi I max = 50A ; Rm = 1k ; I t = 1mA (1mA 50A )
(50 106 103 )V ( 950 10 ) A

6
5 103 ohm = 52, 6 (ohm) 95
oi vi ampe-ke co nhieu tam o th dung nhieu ien tr shunt, moi tam o co mot ien tr shunt, khi chuyen tam o la chuyen ien tr shunt (H.2.13).
37
Hnh 2.14: Mach shunt Ayrton co nhieu tam o Hoac dung cach chuyen tam theo kieu shunt Ayrton (H.2.14).
Hnh 2.13: Mach o dong
Mach o kieu shunt Ayrton co 3 tam o B, C, D. Khi khoa A v tr B (tam o nho nhat). ien tr shunt: RSB = R1 + R2 + R3 v tr C: v tr D:
RSC = R1 + R2 RSD = R1
Con R3 noi tiep vi c cau ch th. Con R2 + R3 noi tiep vi c cau ch th.
V du 2.2: Rm = 1k ; I max cua c cau 50A. Xac nh ba tam o:
B (1mA); C (10mA); D(100mA) cho R1 , R2 , R3

Giai: tam B (1mA):
(1mA 50A )( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = 1k 50A

( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = 50 103 950 106 = 52, 6
tam C (10mA):
R1 + R2 =
(1k + R3 )50 106 A 9950 10
6
(1k + R3 ) 199 1k + R2 + R3 1999
tam D (100mA):
R1 =
(1k + R2 + R3 )50 106 99950 10
6
; R1 =
Thay vao ta c: R1 + R2 = Suy ra:

R3 =
1k + R3 = 52, 6 R3 199
(10.467, 4 1000) = 47, 337 200
38
CHNG 2
R1 =
1000 + 52, 6 R1 1052, 6 = = 0, 526 1999 2000
Con R2 = 52, 6 ( 47, 337 + 0, 526) = 4,737 ohm

ap so: R1 = 0, 526 ohm; R2 = 4,737 ohm; R3 = 47, 337 ohm.
M rong tam o cho c cau ien t: thay oi so vong day quan cho cuon day co nh vi lc t ong F khong oi:
F = n1 I 1 = n2 I 2 = n3 I 3 = ...
V du: F = 300 Ampe vong cho ba tam o; I 1 = 1 A ; I 2 = 5 A ; I 3 = 10 A . Khi o
n1 = 300 vong cho tam o I 1 = 1 A n2 = 60 vong cho tam o I 2 = 5 A n3 = 30 vong cho tam o I 3 = 10 A .
M rong tam o cho c cau ien ong: Trong trng hp ampe-ke dung c cau ch th ien ong (sat ien ong) c mac nh hnh 2.15 th s m rong tam o bang cach mac ien tr shunt song song vi cuon day di ong (nh c cau t ien) trong khi cuon co nh c mac noi tiep vi cuon day di ong. Cach tnh toan ien tr shunt cung giong nh ampe-ke c cau t ien.
Hnh 2.15: Ampe-ke c cau ien ong
2.2.2 o dong AC Nguyen ly o: C cau ien t va c cau ien ong eu hoat ong c vi dong AC. Do o co the dung c cau nay trc tiep va m rong tam o dong nh a noi tren. Rieng c cau ien t khi dung phai bien oi dong AC thanh dong DC. Ngoai ra, do tnh chnh xac cua c cau ien t nen c cau nay dung rat nhieu (thong dung) trong phan ln ampe-ke (trong may o van nang Multimeter con goi V.O.M.).
Dung c cau t ien o dong AC
Dung phng phap chnh lu bang diod (H.2.16).
39
Dong ien qua diod noi tiep vi c cau t ien la dong ien xoay chieu a chnh lu thanh dong DC. Tr trung bnh cua dong ien chnh lu:
* I cl tb
1 = i cl dt I max T
(2.16)
Hnh 2.16
Hnh 2.17
Dong chnh lu qua c cau V du: Dong ien AC: VAC = I m sin t Khi o: i cl = I m sin t : ( 0 t
Cau chnh lu diod
T T ) ; i cl = 0 : ( t T ) . 2 2
Vay: I cl tb = 0, 318 I m = 0, 318 2 I hd (tn hieu sin). Trng hp dong ien AC co dang bat ky th I cl tb co tr so phu thuoc vao dang va tan so cua tn hieu. Cu the dong: i AC = 2( mA )sin 100t th dong:
i cl tb = 0, 318 2( mA ) = 0, 636 (mA)
Cau diod (H.2.17). Dong ien xoay chieu c chnh lu hai ban ky, khi 2 i cl dt . o tr chnh lu trung bnh: I cl tb = T
V du: I AC = I m sin t ; I cl tb = 2 0, 318 I m = 0, 636 I m
40
CHNG 2
Dung phng phap bien oi nhiet ien: Bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.18) gom co day ien tr c ot nong nh tr hieu dung cua dong ien xoay chieu can o. Cap nhiet ien (thermocouple) c cung cap nhiet lng do dong ien nay se tao ra ien ap mot chieu (dong ien DC) cho c cau ien t:
2 Eo ( DC ) = K T RI hd
(2.17)
vi: I hd - tr so hieu dung cua dong ien AC R - ien tr cua day ot nong
K T - hang so t le cua bo bien oi nhiet ien.

Khi s dung bo bien oi ch dung trong khoang tuyen tnh cua ac tuyen Eo theo I hd . Phng phap bien oi nhiet ien co u iem la khong phu thuoc vao dang cua tn hieu AC va tan so. Do o e cho dong ien co tan so cao, dang bat ky, ngi ta thng dung bo bien oi nay. Ngoai ra khi dung bo bien oi nay con phai quan tam en s thay oi cua nhiet o moi trng xung quanh, s gia tang nhiet lng khi dong ien o c duy tr se lam cho Eo tang theo thi gian (van e bo chnh hay bu nhiet nay se e cap en trong phan thiet b o ien t von-ke ien t dung bo bien oi nhiet ien).
Hnh 2.18: Bo bien oi nhiet ien
M rong tam o
Dung ien tr shunt cho diod va c cau t ien (H.2.19a). Diod mac noi tiep vi c cau ien t, do o co dong I cl tb qua c cau, con dong ien xoay chieu lai qua ien tr shunt.
41
Hnh 2.19: a) Mach o dong AC co ien tr shunt
b) Mach o dung bien dong V du: i AC Dong xoay chieu dang sin co tr hieu dung I hd , khi i qua diod se co:
i cl tb = 0, 318 2 I hd I max , vi I max - dong toi a cua c cau.

Khi o dong ien xoay chieu con lai se qua ien tr shunt. Cu the: I max = 1 mA; I o = 100 mA (RMS tr hieu dung). Tr hieu dung cua dong ien xoay chieu qua ien tr shunt:
I S = I o
I max
0, 318 2
= (100mA
1mA 0, 318 2
) RMS
= (100 mA 2,2 mA) RMS = 97,8mA (RMS) ien tr shunt c xac nh: RS =
VD + Rm ( I max / 0, 318 2 ) I S ( RM S )
V du: VD = 0, 6V ; Rm = 50 ; I max = 1mA ; I o = 100mA (RMS) Ap dung cong thc tren: RS =

0, 6V + 50 2, 22mA( RM S ) = 7, 269 97, 8mA( RM S )
Dung bien dong (H.2.19b). Theo nguyen ly hoat ong cua bien dong la phai co s can bang cua lc t ong phan s cap va th cap cua bien dong: n1i1 = n2 i 2 V du:
n1 = 5 vong; n2 = 100 vong; i1 = 10 A (RMS)

i2 = n1 i1 ; n2
i2 =
5 10 A = 0, 5 (RMS) 100
42
CHNG 2
Khi s dung bien dong nen lu y ng e h phan th cap bien dong khi phan s cap co dong ien. Kep o dong ien (clamp ammeter) la mot ng dung cua bien dong vi c cau ien t va diod chnh lu co phan m rong tam o (H.2.20). 2.2.3 Anh hng cua ampe-ke tren mach o
Hnh 2.20: Kep o dong
Moi ampe-ke eu co noi tr rieng cua no va co the thay oi theo moi tam o. V du: Ampe-ke c cau ien t tam o 1mA, co noi tr RA = Rm // RS2 = 1000 // 5, 2 = 5,17 . Do o tam o cang ln noi tr
RA (noi tr ampe-ke) cang nho. Viec mac noi tiep no vi ien tr tai can o
dong ien se anh hng en mach o. Neu noi tr ampe-ke rat nho so vi ien tr tai th sai so do anh hng cua ampe-ke tr nen khong ang ke. V du: Khi khong co ampe-ke, dong ien qua tai RL :
I L = 5V /1k = 5mA
Khi co ampe-ke, noi tr RA = 5,17 :
I L = 5V /(1k + 5,17 ) = 4, 975 mA

Do o sai so anh hng cua ampe-ke: 100% [( 4, 975/ 5) 100%] = 0, 5% Neu sai so cua thiet b o cho phep 1% th sai so anh hng nay khong ang ke. Con neu RL = 5k dong qua tai khi khong co ampe-ke I L = 5V / 5 k = 1,0 mA. Con co ampe-ke noi tr RA = 49, 4 th:
I L = 5V /(5k + 49, 4 ) = 0, 990 mA

Do o sai so anh hng cua ampe-ke: 100% [( 0, 99/1) 100%] = 1% Nh sai so tang len gap hai trong trng hp trc.
2.3 O IEN AP AC VA DC
2.3.1 o ien ap DC
Nguyen ly o (H.2.21): ien ap o c chuyen thanh dong ien o i qua c cau ch th. Neu c cau ch th co I max va ien tr noi tiep th:
43
I o =
Vo I max , vi Rm - noi tr cua c cau (2.18) R + Rm
Tong tr vao cua von-ke Z V = R + Rm . Cac c cau t ien, ien t va ien ong eu c dung lam von-ke DC. Bang cach noi them ien tr R e han che dong ien qua c cau theo bieu thc tren.
Hnh 2.22: Mach o ien ap Hnh 2.21: Mach o ien ap
cua c cau ien ong
Rieng oi vi c cau ien ong cuon, day di ong va cuon day co nh c noi tiep (H.2.22).
M rong tam o
Dung c cau t ien M rong tam o bang cach noi tiep ien tr (H.2.23). ay la mach o ien ap mot chieu thng dung trong may o van nang. Tong tr vao cua vonke thay oi theo tam o ngha la tong tr vao cang ln th tam o ien ap cang cao. Cho nen ngi ta thng dung tr so o nhay /VDC cua von-ke e xac nh tong tr vao cua moi tam o.
44
CHNG 2
Hnh 2.23: Mach o ap DC nhieu tam o
V du: Von-ke co o nhay 20 k / VDC . tam o 2,5V la tong tr vao.
Z V 1 = 2, 5V 20k/VDC = 200k .
V du 2.3: Tnh ien tr cho ba tam o V1 = 2, 5V ; V2 = 10V ; V3 = 0, 5V . Cho
von-ke dung c cau t ien I max = 100A ; Rm = 0, 5k

Giai: Mach o cua von-ke c mac theo hnh 2.23b cho ba tam o. Do o
tam V1 = 2,5V:
R1 + R2 =
tam: V2 = 10V : tam: V3 = 50V :
2, 5V 2, 5V 2, 5V = ; R1 = 0, 5k = 24, 5k I M AX 100A 1 104 A

R2 = R3 = V2 V1 7, 5 7, 5V = 1 k = 75k = I max 100A 10 V3 V2 50V 10V = = 400k . 100A I max
e cho von-ke co o chnh xac cao nen chon sai so cua ien tr R1 , R2 , R3 1% o nhay /VDC cua von-ke.
R + Rm 25k = = 10k/VDC V1 2, 5VDC
V du 2.4: Von-ke dung c cau ien t co cuon day co nh co dong
I max = 50mA tam o 0 300V. Xac nh ien tr R noi tiep vi c cau. ien
tr noi Rm = 100 va cong suat cua ien tr.
Giai: R + Rm =
300V = 6k , R = 6k 0,1k = 5,9k 50mA
2 Cong suat cua ien tr P = RI max = 5, 9k (50mA )2 = 14,75 watt
2.3.2 o dong ien AC

Nguyen ly o: oi vi c cau ien ong, ien t von-ke AC dung c cau nay phai mac ien tr noi tiep vi c cau nh trong von-ke DC v hai c cau
45
nay hoat ong vi tr hieu dung cua dong xoay chieu. Rieng oi vi c cau ien t th phai dung phng phap bien oi nh phan ampe-ke ngha la dung diod chnh lu hoac bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.18).
Cach xac nh ien tr noi tiep cho c cau t ien
Hnh 2.24: Mach o ien ap AC
Mach o c mac nh hnh 2.24 diod D1 chnh lu dong ien AC ban ky dng, diod D2 cho dong ien am i qua (khong qua c cau ch th) e cho ien ap nghch cua ban ky am cua ien ap AC khong ri tren diod D1 va c cau ch th. Tranh c ien ap nghch qua ln khi o ien ap AC co gia tr ln. ien tr R1 noi tiep tam o ien ap VAC c xac nh:
VAC ( RM S ) = ( R1 + Rm ) I hd + VD ( RM S )
ma:
(2.19) (2.20)
I cl tb = I max = 0, 318 2 I hd
I hd - dong ien cua ien ap o VAC (tnh theo tr hieu dung) qua c cau
ch th va qua R1 tng ng.
R1 + Rm =
VAC ( RM S ) VD I max /( 0, 314 2 )
(2.21)
V du: Rm = 1k ; I max = 50A . Xac nh R1 tam o VAC = 10 V (RMS) vi VD = 0, 6V (RMS).
R1 + Rm =
10V ( RM S ) 0, 6V 9, 4V ( RM S ) = = 85, 45k ; R1 # 85k 50A /( 0, 45) 110A 1V ( RM S )/110A( RM S ) = 9k/Vac
o nhay /VAC cua von-ke trong trng hp nay:
46
CHNG 2
Nh vay vi cung mot c cau (c cau t ien) tong tr vao cua von-ke AC se nho hn tong tr vao cua von-ke DC. oi vi von-ke ien t tong tr vao cua von-ke khong thay oi theo tam o oi vi ien ap AC hoac DC. Mach o ien ap AC co the dung cau diod (4 diod) hoac (2 diod) va (2 ien tr) nh hnh 2.25. Khuyet iem cua von-ke AC dung diod chnh lu phu thuoc vao dang tn hieu va tan so cao co anh hng cua tong tr va ien dung ky sinh cua diod.
Hnh 2.25: Mach o ien ap AC dung c cau t ien
e cho von-ke AC khong phu thuoc vao dang va tan so cua tn hieu AC th dung von-ke co bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.26), cac ien tr thay oi tam o c noi tiep vi ien tr cung cap nhiet lng cho cap nhiet ien.
Hnh 2.26: Mach o ien ap AC dung bo nhiet ien
Thang o cua von-ke AC c ghi theo tr hieu dung (RMS) mac du dung phng phap chnh lu trung bnh. Con neu dung phng phap bien oi nhiet ien th goi la von-ke co tr hieu dung thc (true RMS).
47
2.3.3 Anh hng cua von-ke tren mach o ien ap Khi von-ke c mac vao phan t can o ien ap th co the xem nh tong tr vao cua von-ke mac song song vi phan t o (H.2.27). V du: Von-ke o ien ap hai au ien tr R2 , dong ien i qua R2 khi khong co von-ke: I = V /( R1 + R2 ) . ien ap vao: V2 = R2 I = R2 V /( R1 + R2 ) V Khi co von-ke dong ien I qua mach: I'= R1 + ( R2 // RV ) ien ap: V ' = ( R2 // RV ) I ' = ( R2 // RV )
V R1 + ( R1 // RV V )
Neu R2 rat nho so vi RV dan en ( R2 // RV ) R2 . Khi o anh hng cua von-ke khong ang ke oi vi mach o.
Hnh 2.27
Hnh 2.28
Mach tng ng khi mac von-ke

V du 2.5:
Mach o ien ap nguon
V = +10V; R2 = R1 = 10k ;
RV = 200k ; V2 =
Khi o von-ke: I ' =
' = V2
10V 10k = 5V 20 k
10V 10V = 10k + (10k // 200k ) 19, 5k
9, 5k 10V = 4, 88V 19, 5k
Sai so do anh hng cua von-ke: [1 ( 4, 88V /5V )] 100% = 2, 4%
48
CHNG 2
V du 2.6: Von-ke o ien ap nguon pin (H.2.28). Von-ke c at tam o 2,5V, tong tr vao Z V = 50k , nguon pin co E = 1,5V, noi tr 5. Khi pin
yeu, noi tr tang 20 va E = 1,4V. Cho biet s ch th cua von-ke trong hai trng hp tren.
Giai: Dong ien qua von-ke khi r = 5: I 1 = 1, 5V / ( 5 + 50k ) = 30A
Von-ke ch: 2, 5V ( 30A / 50A ) = 1, 5V ; khi pin yeu: V = 1,4V noi tr 1, 4V 20 dong ien qua von-ke: I 2 = = 27, 98A. 20 + 50.000 Khi o von-ke ch: 2, 5V ( 27, 98A /50A ) = 1, 39V . Sai so do anh hng cua von-ke: (1 1, 39/1, 4 ) 100% = 1% Do o neu nguon co noi tr cang ln th sai so anh hng cua von-ke khi o ien ap cang tang.
2.4 O IEN AP DC BANG PHNG PHAP BIEN TR

2.4.1 Nguyen ly o Mach o c mac theo hnh 2.29.
B1: nguon cap cho mach o B2: nguon chuan R1: bien tr ieu chnh cho dong ien I R2: noi tr cua nguon chuan G: ien ke (c cau t ien)
Hnh 2.29: Mach o ien ap bang bien tr
Bien tr BA la bien tr o lng. Khoa S co hai v tr 1 va 2 dung e chuan may o va e o ai lng Vx. Dong ien I chay trong mach o:
I = B1 K 1 R1 + R AB
(2.22)
0 K1 1: phu thuoc vao v tr con chay.
49
RAB la toan tr so cua bien tr o lng. G ien ke dung e xac nh s can bang cua mach o. Dong I c gi khong oi (a c nh san). Do o trc khi ong khoa, S c e v tr 1. Nguon chuan B2 c a vao so sanh vi ien ap VBC (con chay C co v tr a nh trc cho nguon chuan B2). Tai v tr vach chuan cua con chay C, ien ke G ch so 0 (ngha la dong ien ke bang khong). B2 = VBC = RBCI. Dong I a c xac nh. Neu ien ke G ch khac 0 dong I nh trc a thay oi. Khi o, ieu chnh R1 e sao cho G ch 0 (ngha la K1 thay oi) dong I co tr so nh cu (v B1 thay oi do nguon pin yeu hoac manh qua qui nh). Sau o khoa K c chuyen sang v tr 2: ien ap VX can o c so sanh vi ien ap VBC. Tiep tuc ieu chnh con chay C cho en khi G ch khong):
' = R' VBC BC I
' = R' Nh vay tai v tr RBC co: VBC BC I = VX
I a c xac nh, do o VX c o bang ien tr R'BC . Thong thng ngi ta khac tr so ien ap o tren v tr dch chuyen cua con chay C (thng c ghi tren thc o hoac a o). u iem cua phng phap o nay la khong b anh hng cua ien tr noi cua nguon VX. V dong ien qua ien ke G bang 0 nen khong co ien ap ri tren ien tr noi cua nguon ien ap can o. 2.4.2 Mach o thc te (H.2.30) e dong I c xac nh mot cach chnh xac va ieu chnh c tuyen tnh khi B1 thay oi, ngi ta dung he thong ien tr (t R6 R12) ket hp noi tiep vi ien tr R13 co con chay C trt tren bien tr va mac song song vi R3 + R4 (e co s ieu chnh c tuyen tnh). Tr so VX c xac nh tren vach chia cua a xoay nhn qua o ca so (H.2.30). Nh vay e cho ien ke G ch 0 khi o VX chung ta phai ieu chnh tam o (thay oi v tr cua khoa F) va ieu chnh nho (thay oi con chay C).
50
CHNG 2
Hnh 2.30: Mach o cu the
2.4.3 Mach o co tr so cu the (H.2.31)
Hnh 2.31: Mach o cu the cua mV- ke
51
Chuyen v tr F e thay oi tam o t 0,1V en 1,5V (R1 = R2 = R3 = ... = R15 = 50). Thay oi H la thay oi he so nhan 0,01; 0,1; 1. Tr so oc c xac nh VX. ay la thiet b o ien ap (mili von-ke) cu the co ba tam ln.
Tam o, v 0 1,6 0 0,16 0 0,016 o chnh xac, V 500 100 10
moi tam o co phan ra 15 khoang nho. V du: tam o t 0 en 0,016V. Co 15 khoang, moi khoang cach nhau 0,001V (1mV). 2.4.4 ng dung cua phng phap o ien bang bien tr
nh chuan cho von-ke DC va ampe-ke DC
Hnh 2.32
Hnh 2.33
Mach nh chuan von-ke
Mach nh chuan ampe-ke
Mach c mac nh hnh 2.32, ien ap E c a vao nh chuan cho von-ke:
E=
VR 1 R1
( R1 + R2 )
(2.23)
trong o VR1 c xac nh bi von-ke dung P/P bien tr a noi tren. Mach c mac nh hnh 2.33, dong ien I qua ampe-ke can c nh chuan i qua ien tr chnh xac RS, ien ap (RSI) c a vao o bang von-ke dung phng phap bien tr.
52 nh chuan cho von-ke AC va ampe-ke AC
CHNG 2
Do khong the o ien ap AC va dong ien AC bang phng phap bien tr c, nen phai dung qua thiet b o trung gian o la von-ke va ampe-ke ien ong (H.2.34).
Hnh 2.34: Mach chuan hoa von-ke va ampe-ke
a) Mach chuan hoa ampe-ke AC; b) Mach chuan hoa von-ke AC
2.5 VON-KE IEN T O IEN AP DC

2.5.1 Von-ke ien t o ien ap DC transistor
Mach o ien ap DC dung transistor hai moi noi (BJT)
Hnh 2.35: Mach o dung BJT
Mach o c dien ta bi hnh 2.35. Mach o la mach cau o gom transistor Q1, Q2, R2, R3 ien ap ra c lay cc E1, E2 cua Q1, Q2 (hoac cc C1, C2). ien ap vao cua mach o c a vao cc B1 (hoac 1 cc B2 cua Q2) cua Q1. Khi dung ngo vao n cc (ien ap cc B1 so vi iem mass, ien the bang 0V), hoac co the dung vao vi sai hai cc B1 va B2. Nguyen ly hoat ong a ien ap vao bang 0V cc B1 noi vi mass (hoac B1, B2 noi vi mass neu ngo vao theo cach vi sai). Theo ieu kien ly tng cua mach o: IB1 = IB2; Q1, Q2 co ac tnh giong nhau (1 = 2). Cho nen:
53
1 IB va RE1 = RE2; cho nen VE1 = VE2. Khi o dong IM qua c cau ch th bang khong. Khi ien ap vao: Vi > 0; IB1 > IB2; suy ra: IE1 > IE2 Cho nen VB1>VB2 dong IM qua c cau ch th M phu thuoc vao VE1VE2 ngha la phu thuoc vao ien ap Vi. oi vi moi mach o se co Vi cc ai khien cho transistor at en trang thai bao hoa VE1VE2 cc ai. V du: Vi = 1V khien cho VE1VE2 = 1V (mc ien ap bao hoa can o). Khi ien ap vao: Vi<0; IB1>IB2; suy ra: VE1<VE2 dan en VE1VE2 < 0 luc o dong ien IM o qua E2 en E1 (khi o cc tnh cua ong ho M phai ao lai). Chu y: Khi o ien ap Vi (dng hay am) iem mass mach o bao gi cung c noi vi iem mass cua mach can o (neu ngo vao lay theo kieu n cc ngoai tr ngo vao c lay theo kieu vi sai). Khi o hieu ien ap VAVB cua mot mach can khao sat, chung ta phai lan lt o VA so vi mass va VB so vi mass (neu ngo vao theo kieu n cc). Con neu ngo vao cua mach o theo kieu vi sai th chung ta a hai au o vao hai iem A va B (trong khi o iem mass cua mach o c noi vi mass mach can khao sat). Trong thc te neu mach khong thoa ieu ien ly tng ngha la khi: Vi = 0V ma VE1VE2, co khi tren chung ta dung mach o sau ay co bien tr R5 (bien tr chnh 0 cua mach o) ieu chnh con chay R5 e cho mach o phan cc lai sao cho IB1 = IB2 va VE1 = VE2. Mach o thc te c dien ta nh hnh 2.36.
IC1 = 1IB1 = IC2 = 2IB2 IE1 = IE2, IC = (1 )IB , I C =
Hnh 2.36: Mach o co bien tr chnh khong 0
Mach o ien ap co ngo ra c lay hai cc phat con c goi la mach theo ien ap (voltage follower) v ien ap ra co he so khuech ai bang 1
54
CHNG 2
so vi ien ap vao.
Hnh 2.37: Mach khuech ai co he so ln hn 1
Neu muon ien ap ra ln hn ien ap vao (mach o co he so khuech ai ln hn 1) th ngo ra c lay cc thu C1, C2 cua Q1, Q2 nh mach hnh 2.37. oi vi tn hieu co tr so o nho, chung ta co the dung them mot tang khuech ai transistor co phan hoi tiep am e on nh s khuech ai cua mach nh hnh 2.38. Tn hieu ra c lay cc thu C3 cua Q3 va phan hoi tiep am c lay t cc thu C3 ve cc nen B2 qua ien tr R4.
Hnh 2.38: Mach khuech ai hoi tiep am
Mach o ien ap DC dung transistor trng (JFET) Mach o dung BJT co khuyet iem la tong tr vao cua ban than transistor BJT nho (hie vai k). Do o ngi ta thng dung mach o co ngo vao dung JFET e co tong tr vao ln nh hnh 2.39 sau ay ket hp vi mach phan tam
55
o ien ap. Hoac mach o dung JFET kenh N nh hnh 2.40.
Hnh 2.39: Mach o co tang vao la JFET
Hnh 2.40: Mach o dung JFET kenh N
Tong tr vao cua mach o: tong tr vao cua von-ke la tong tr vao cua mach phan tam o: Zi = Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd = 800k + 100k + 60k + 40k = 1M Do o moi tam o (tam o 1V; 5V; 10V; 25V H.2.39) tong tr vao Zi khong oi (1M)
56
CHNG 2
ac iem cua mach phan tam o la mach phan ap vao mach o (mach cau o). V du: tam o 1V, ien ap o 1V c a vao mach o. V mach o co ien ap bao hoa 1V. Khi ien ap ln hn 1V th khoa S chuyen sang cac tam o ln hn (v du chuyen sang tam o 5V) th khi o mach phan ap se tao ra ien ap Vi vao mach o:
Vi = Vo ( Rb + Rc + Rd ) Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd
Nh vay tam o 5V (Vo)max = 5V
Vi =
5V 5V ( Rb + Rc + Rd ) = 200k = 1V Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd 1M
2.5.2 Mach o ien ap DC dung IC Op Amp (mach khuech ai thuat toan) ac tnh c ban Nhng tn hieu o lng thng co tr so nho (hoac rat nho), nhat la nhng tn hieu t ngo ra cua cam bien o lng, cho nen can phai khuech ai nhng tn hieu nay trc khi che bien tn hieu. Nhng net ac trng quan trong cua mach khuech ai o lng gom nhng iem sau ay: He so khuech ai c chon la phu hp vi o chnh xac va o tuyen tnh cao Ngo vao vi sai co kha nang tot nhat e co he so truat thai tn hieu chung ln nhat o on nh cho he so khuech ai oi vi s thay oi nhiet o hoat ong Sai so do s troi (drift) va ien ap offset DC cang nho cang tot.
57
Hien nay mach khuech ai o lng dung vi mach khuech ai thuat toan (instrumentation operational amplifier) a c che tao mang nhng ac tnh c ban noi tren. Do o, chung ta khong can phai ban tam en viec thiet ke mach khuech ai o lng nh khi con dung linh kien transistor ri. Ngoai ra he so khuech ai cua mach khuech ai thuat toan hoan toan phu thuoc phan t ben ngoai do chung ta quyet nh khi thiet ke. Chnh v vay cac phan sau ay chung ta phan tch mach o lng dung trong may o ien t s dung mach khuech ai thuat toan (op-amp).
Dang mach o khong co khuech ai ien ap
Hnh 2.41: Mach o dung Op-Amp co he so khuech ai bang 1
Trong trng hp nay mach khuech ai ieu hp (ngan cach) tong tr ln cua mach phan tam o va mach cua ong ho ch th (H.2.41). Mach khuech ai dung op-amp trong trng hp nay la mach khuech ai khong ao dau (non inverting amplifier) v tn hieu vao ngo (+) cua op-amp. Dang mach o co khuech ai ien ap Trng hp tn hieu o co gia tr nho chung ta dung mach khuech ai khong ao dau co he so khuech ai ln hn 1 (H.2.42).
58
CHNG 2
Hnh 2.42: Mach o dung cho tn hieu nho
Trong trng hp nay: Vo = Vi (1 + R1 /R2 )

V du 2.7: Vi = 0,1 von; R1 = 90k; R2 = 10k; Rm = 1k; Imax = 50A.
Xac nh RS e cho Im qua ong ho ch th cc ai.

Giai: ien ap ra:
Vo = Vi (1 + R1 /R2 ) = 100,1V = 1V
Vo = (RS + Rm)Imax = 1V 1V RS = 1k = 20k 1k = 19k 50A
Mach khuech ai chuyen oi ien ap sang dong ien (H.2.43).
Vo = Vi [1 + ( RS + Rm )/R ]
IM = Vo R + RS + Rm V 1 = Vi 1 = i RS + Rm + R1 R1 R1 + RS + Rm R1
(VI)max = R1 Imax.
V du: Vi = 0,1V, xac nh R1 e cho IM
Imax. Khi c cau Imax = 50A, Rm = 1K.

Giai: Theo cach tnh tren.
co
Vi. = R1Imax Cho nen khi IM Imax = 50A Tai: Vi. = 0,1V
R1 =
Vi 0,1V 105 = = = 2 k Vmax 50A 50
Hnh 2.43: Mach o chuyen oi
ien ap sang dong ien
59
Mach khuech ai dang vi sai
Mach khuech ai dang vi sai c dien ta hnh 2.44. Khao sat mach o tren: Ecm thanh phan chung cua tn hieu o. E1, E2 thanh phan vi sai
V01 = (1 +
R2 R R2 R ) E1 + E2 ( 2 ) + E cm )( E1 + E cm ) + ( 2 )( E2 + E cm ) = (1 + R1 R1 R1 R1
R R R2 R )( E2 + E cm ) + ( 2 )( E1 + E cm ) = (1 + 2 ) E2 + E1 ( 2 ) + E cm R1 R1 R1 R1
V02 = (1 +
V = V02 V01 = (1 + 2
R2 )( E2 E1 ) R1
Hnh 2.44: Mach o dung khuech ai vi sai
2.5.3 Mach o ien ap DC co gia tr nho dung phng phap chopper Mach o ien ap DC co gia tr nho vao khoang vai mV thng c dung trong ien ke ien t (electronic galvanometer). e o nhng ien ap co gia tr nho nh vay phai dung mach khuech ai ghep nhieu tang e tang he so khuech ai. Nhng neu ghep cac tang khuech ai theo kieu ghep trc tiep (ghep DC - direct coupling) th s troi iem phan cc cua tang au se c cac tang sau khuech ai va nh vay, se lan vao tn hieu o. Do o phai dung cach ghep AC (alternative coupling) e s troi moi tang khuech ai oc lap vi nhau. Nh vay tn hieu o phai c chuyen t tn hieu DC sang tn hieu thay oi AC, sau o c khuech ai ln len bang mach khuech ai AC. S o khoi mach o c dien ta hnh 2.45. Trc het tn hieu o DC a vao mach khuech ai theo ien ap co nhiem vu ieu hp tong tr cho mach phan tam o trc o va mach chopper (mach ong-ngat) Mach chopper bao gom mach dao ong ieu khien mach khoa ien t
60
CHNG 2
(thng dung mach ong ngat dung JFET), hoac dung phng phap chopper theo phng phap quang (H.2.46). Sau o tn hieu ngo ra cua mach chopper la tn hieu AC thay oi (xung vuong) co bien o la mc ien ap DC can o va tan so la tan so cua tn hieu dao ong. Tn hieu nay c a vao mach khuech ai ghep AC e khuech ai tn hieu ln len. Sau o tn hieu nay c a vao mach giai ieu che (demodulator) e loai tn hieu dao ong, lay lai tn hieu DC (co ket hp cua mach loc ha thong). Tn hieu DC a c khuech ai a vao mach o ien ap DC (nh a noi phan trc).
Mach ieu hp tong tr +V Mach chopper Khuech ai AC +V Mach giai ieu che +V DEM -OD V V
+
Vi
+
V
DAO ONG
DC 0V
DC 0V
Hnh 2.45: S o khoi cua mach o ien ap DC
co tr so nho dung chopper Sau ay chung ta khao sat mach chopper dung phng phap quang. Mach dao ong tao ra tn hieu ieu khien 2 diod phat quang D5, D6 tuan t chp sang. Hai diod quang (photo diod) D1, D3 cung nhan nguon sang phat ra t D5 va D2, D4 cung nhan nguon sang phat ra t D6. Khi D1, D2 , D3 va D4 nhan c anh sang chieu vao th xem nh tiep iem ong. Khi khong co anh sang chieu vao xem nh tiep iem h mach. Cho nen s dan ien cua D1, D3 va s khong dan ien D2, D4 hoac s dan ien D2, D4 va s khong dan D1, D3 tao cho xung vuong xuat hien ngo ra diod D4 c khuech ai ln len. Tu CS c nap ti tr nh cua tn hieu xung vuong. Sau o mach loc se loai bo tan
61
so tn hieu dao ong e cho ra tn hieu Vo (DC). Hoac mach chopper dung khoa ien t bang JFET nh hnh 2.46 va 2.47:
Hnh 2.46: Mach chopper dung phng phap quang hoc
D1
C K D2
D4
Mach loc Cs V0
Vo
D3
D5
Dao ong
D6
Hnh 2.47: Mach chopper dung JFET
Khi UGS = 0 th JFET kenh P dan. VGS > VP: JFET kenh P khong dan. Vi VP ien ap nghen cua JFET kenh P, JFET hoat ong nh khoa ien t.
2.6 VON-KE IEN T O IEN AP AC

2.6.1 Tong quat e o ien ap AC (xoay chieu) chung ta chuyen oi ien ap AC sang ien ap DC bang ba phng phap sau: Phng phap chnh lu dung diod Phng phap tr hieu dung thc (true RMS) Phng phap tr nh. Trong ca ba phng phap, tr so o cua tn hieu thng c oc theo tr
62
CHNG 2
hieu dung (RMSRoot Means Square). Do o chung ta co moi quan he gia tr chnh lu trung bnh vi tr hieu dung va tr nh vi tr hieu dung. Cho nen co cac he so sau ay: He so dang: He so nh:
Kf = KP =
T r hi e u du ng T r ch nh l u tr ung bnh T r nh T r hi e u du ng
Phan ln cac von-ke ien t o tn hieu xoay chieu c nh chuan theo tr hieu dung cua tn hieu sin. V du: Tr chnh lu trung bnh toan song (hai ban ky) cua tn hieu sin.
U cl tb = ( 2/)U m (Um - bien o tn hieu sin); U hd = U m / 2

Do o he so dang: K f =
U m/ 2 = = 1,11 ( 2/)U m 2 2
Trong trng hp tn hieu khong sin tr so Kf nho hoac ln hn 1,11 phu thuoc vao dang va tan so tn hieu. Do o neu von-ke AC o cac tr so tn hieu khong sin se co sai so cho tr so o khi thang o c chuan theo gia tr hieu dung cua tn hieu hnh sin (cach chia vach o theo hnh sin). V du: Tn hieu xung vuong co dang sau ay: Tr hieu dung: U hd
1 =[ u 2 dt ]1/ 2 = U m T
T
Tr chnh lu trung bnh (hai ban ky).

U cl tb
2 = T
T /2
ucl t = U m
0
He so dang: Kf = 1 =
U hd U cl tb
Trong khi o neu la tn hieu sin th K 'f = 1,11. Nh vay sai so khi o tn hieu xung vuong nay bang von-ke nh chuan theo tr hieu dung cua tn hieu 1,11 1 sin: r = 100% 10% 1,11 V du: Tr hieu dung cua tn hieu xung vuong la 1V th von-ke c nh chuan bi tn hieu sin se ch sai i: 10%1V = 0,10V. Ngha la ch th so 1,10V
63
(hieu dung). 2.6.2 Phng phap tr chnh lu trung bnh

Hnh thc chnh lu trc roi khuech ai sau
oi vi tn hieu AC co tr so ln chung ta dung diod trc. ien ap chnh lu trung bnh c a vao mach o ien ap DC. Vi la tr chnh lu trung bnh. Vi = icltbR1
IM = i cl tb R1 R2
icltb c tnh nh phan o ien dung phng phap chnh lu.

Hnh thc khuech ai trc roi chnh lu sau
Hnh 2.48: Mach chnh lu trc
Hnh 2.49: Mach khuech ai chuyen oi ap
khuech ai sau
sang dong co cau chnh lu
Mach c dien ta hnh 2.49. Trong mach o nay ta dung bo chnh lu, ien ap ri tren diod la VD, e cho ien ap ri tren diod khong anh hng bi mach o, chung ta dung mach khuech ai tren theo hnh 2.49; IM: dong chnh lu trung bnh c xac nh theo bieu thc:
IM =
|Vo | ;|Vo |: tr chnh lu trung bnh cua Vo bang cau diod. R2
V du: Vo = 1V(RMS); R2 = 10k
|Vo | # 0, 636 2 1V ( RM S ) = 0,9V; th: I M =

2.6.3 Phng phap tr hieu dung thc
0, 9V = 90A 10k
Theo y ngha ve tr hieu dung cua tn hieu o la can bac hai tr trung bnh cua bnh phng tr so o c dien ta bang bieu thc:
64
CHNG 2
T
Vhd ( RM S ) = [
1 2 1/2 vi dt ] T
Cho nen chung ta dung mach cho tr bnh phng tn hieu vao ngo ra nh sau: Trong thc te mach o dung phng phap tr hieu dung thc hien nh hnh 2.50. Trong mach o nay Q2 va Q3 tao thanh mach cau o (mach khuech ai vi sai) loai bo thanh phan DC (mot chieu). Bien tr P1 c ieu chnh s phan cc e cho mach hoat ong phan phi tuyen (mach bnh phng) cho tn hieu vao co tr so nho.
Hnh 2.50: Mach cho tr hieu dung thc dung transistor
65
Do o e cho mach hoat ong vi sai ngo vao cua mach o, trc het noi tat ngo vao AB cua mach o, ieu chnh P2 e co ien ap ra cua mach o bang 0 (mach o can bang). Tang khuech ai Q1 nham muc ch bu nhiet cho s phan cc Q2, Q3, Q4 khi nhiet o thay oi. Hien nay co nhng vi mach tong
2 vin 2 vinmo
2 vinmo
vin
Bnh phng
Can bac hai
C Trung bnh
hp IC c che tao, co nhiem vu tao ra tr hieu dung thc cho tn hieu o nh AD531 (Analog device) va 4301 (burrown). S o khoi c dien ta trong hnh 2.51. Trong IC co 3 mach:
Hnh 2.51: IC cho tr hieu dung thc
Mach nhan e co tr so bnh phng Mach lay tr trung bnh Mach lay can bac hai. Tn hieu ngo ra cua mach lay trung bnh xem nh c nhan vi mot he so cua thang o ieu chnh c. Do o co the viet tr trung bnh: Vi 2 n /E o = E o ; e cho: E o = V i
+VCC A1 Vo
2
+VCC
+
VEE AV Vo R1 I1
A2 VEE Rm
TC1 + E1
+ TC2
E2
R2 I2
I2
I2 (DC) I1 (RMS)
66
CHNG 2
Hnh 2.52: Mach o dung phng phap tr hieu dung bang bo bien oi nhiet
ien TC1 va TC2
67
Ngoai ra, trong phng phap tr hieu dung thc chung ta dung bo bien oi nhiet ien e chuyen oi tr hieu dung cua tn hieu o dang bat ky, tan so bat ky sang tn hieu DC nh hnh 2.52. Mach o gom mach khuech ai bang thong rong A1 (video amplifier) tn hieu o c khuech ai tao ra dong ien I1 co tr hieu dung ot nong ien tr R1 cua bo bien oi nhiet ien TC1 (neu Vo co tr hieu dung khong oi) th I1 (RMS) khong oi tao ra nhiet lng khong oi cho cap nhiet ien e tao ra ien ap DC. E1 a vao ngo (+) cua mach khuech ai A2 tao ra dong I2 (DC) qua c cau ch th. Neu nang lng o cua Vo c duy tr th I2 (DC) cung c duy tr se cung cap nang lng qua R2 cua bo bien oi nhiet ien TC2. Nh vay se co ien ap E2 (DC) kh tr s gia tang E1 (DC) do nang lng o c duy tr. Ngoai ra bo bien oi TC2 con dung e bu nhiet cho bo bien oi TC1 khi nhiet o moi trng thay oi. Neu ac tnh nhiet cua hai bo bien oi TC1 va TC2 giong nhau th ien ap ra Vo: Vo = R2 /R1 AV V o . Neu R1 = R2 th
Vo = AV V o V o = Vo/AV
vi: Vo - tr so DC; V o - tr hieu dung AV - he so khuech ai cua mach o. 2.6.4 Phng phap tr nh
Hnh 2.53: Mach o ien ap AC dung mach nhan oi ien ap
Mach bien oi tr so tn hieu o co thanh phan xoay chieu thanh tn hieu DC co tr so bang tr nh. nh cua tn hieu o bang mach nhan oi ien ap hoac mach kep.
68
Mach nhan oi ien ap
CHNG 2
ay la mach o cu the dung phng phap nhan oi ien ap mach khuech ai Q1, dung JFET kenh N lam nhiem vu mach em gia mach phan tam o va mach nhan oi ien ap. Mach nhan oi ien ap bao gom C1, C2 va D1, D2. Bien tr RC dung e ieu chnh ien ap DC ngo ra cua mach nhan oi ien ap.
Mach kep: Mach kep (H.2.54) dien ta ien ap ra DC dng hay am phu thuoc chieu cua diod.
Hnh 2.54a: Hnh 2.54b:
Vo = Em + Vi vi Vi = Em sint Vo = Em + Vi. = Em + Emsint
Hnh 2.54: a) Mach kep nh dng; b) Mach kep nh am
Mach o cu the:
Hnh 2.55: Mach kep va mach loc ha thong
69
Tn hieu ra Vo cua mach kep cho tn hieu DC thay oi, co tr so 2VP + VDVp tr nh cua tn hieu. Dang tn hieu Vo mach kep nh dng. ien ap DC am: Vo 2 Em + VD Dang tn hieu Vo mach kep nh am. ien ap DC dng: Vo 2 Em VD
Day dan ong truc au o
au mass Mach kep trong probe o
Sau o c a vao mach loc ha thong e cho tn hieu DC khong thay oi V2, co tr so gan bang VP. ien ap nay c a vao mach o ien ap DC cua von-ke ien t. Trong thc te mach kep c nam trong probe o (thanh o) c goi la probe AC ket hp von-ke ien t o ien ap DC.
Hnh 2.56: Mach o tr nh
D1 e(t) R1 S VC C A2 R22
A1
a)
E = Em tr nh cua e(t)
Ri V1 e(t) A1 D1
R1 C S A2 E = Em
b)
D2
a) Mach o tr nh khong co hoi tiep; b) Mach o tr nh co hoi tiep Hnh 2.56a: Khi e(t) < VC diod D ngng dan. Khi e(t) > VC diod D dan
70
CHNG 2
ien. VC = e(t) tu ien nap en ien the nh cua e(t) bang Em. Mach khuech ai theo ien ap (he so khuech ai bang 1) co nhiem vu ngan cach tu C vi ngo ra cua mach o. Khoa S dung e xa ien cho tu C e chuan b cho chu trnh o ke tiep. ien tr R1 co nhiem vu ngan khong cho mach khuech ai A1 dao ong khi ien dung nap ien. Khuyet iem ln nhat cua mach o la s bao hoa cua A1 khi e(t) < VC, bi v mach o khong co hoi tiep am. Hien tng nay lam ap ng tan so cua mach b gii han. Hnh 2.56b: Tn hieu trong mach o co cai tien hn so vi mach o trc la hoat ong vi tan so ln hn. Mach khuech ai A1 la mach khuech ai ao dau. Khi e(t) vt qua tr so -VC, V1 tr nen am va D1 dan. S hoi tiep am trong hai mach khuech ai cho ien ap ra E = Em ien ap ri tren diod va ien ap sai lech (do s khong oi xng) cua mach khuech ai A2 b loai bo. Khi e(t) giam V1 tang en tr so ngng dan cua diod D1 e cho s hoi tiep am qua R2 lam cho diod D2 dan e tranh s bao hoa cua mach khuech ai A1. Tr so nh dng cua e(t) c ao dau va nap vao tu C. Nh vay khong co dong ien r nao qua diod D1 va tong tr vao cua A2 rat ln. Muon ao cc tnh E th ao chieu diod D1 va D2.
2.7 AMPE-KE IEN T O DONG AC VA DC

2.7.1 o dong DC Nguyen ly o dong DC trong ampe-ke ien t la chuyen dong ien o Io thanh ien ap o bang cach cho dong ien o Io qua ien tr RS theo mach o nguyen ly sau (H.2.57).
A Io RS Vo I1 + I2 A Io I3 I4 Io RS1 RS2 RS3 RS4 MACH O IEN AP DC
Imax Rm R1
Io B
Hnh 2.57: Mach o dong DC
Hnh 2.58: Mach phan tam o dong ien
71
Phan tam o dong ien bang cach thay oi ien tr (H.2.58). Tam o I4 >I3 >I3 >I2 >I1; cho nen tam o cang ln th ien tr RS cang giam. 2.7.2 o dong AC
Nguyen ly o: e o dong AC th chung ta chuyen dong ien AC thanh ien ap AC bang ien tr RS nh trong trng hp o dong DC. Sau o chuyen ien ap o AC thanh ien ap DC bang nhng phng phap o ien ap AC nh a noi phan tren.
BAI TAP
2.1. Mot ampe-ke dung c cau o t ien co ien tr c cau o R(m) = 99 va dong lam lech toi a Imax = 0,1mA. ien tr shunt RS = 1. Tnh dong ien tong cong i qua ampe-ke trong cac trng hp: a) Kim lech toi a. b) 0,5Dm; (FSD = Imax, full scale deviation). c) 0,25Dm.
Hnh B.2.1 Giai: a) Kim lech toi a Dm
ien ap hai au c cau o. Vm = Im Rm = 0,1mA 99 = 9,9mV I s R S = Vm I S =

Vm 9, 9mV = = 9, 9mA 1 RS
Dong tong cong: I = IS + I = 9,9mA + 0,1mA = 10mA. b) 0,5 Dm: Im = 0,50,1mA = 0,05mA Vm = ImRm = 0,05mA 99 = 4,95mV V 4, 95mV IS = m = = 4, 95mA 1 RS I = IS + Im = 4,95mA + 0,05mA = 5mA
72
CHNG 2
c) 0,25 Dm: Im = 0,250,1mA = 0,025mA Vm = ImRm = 0,025mA 99 = 2,475mV V 2, 475mV Io = m = = 2, 475mV RS 1 I = IS + Im = 2,475mA + 0,025mA = 2,5mA. 2.2. Mot c cau o t ien co I = 100A, ien tr noi khung quay R = 1k. Tnh ien tr shunt mac vao c cau o e tr thanh mot ampe-ke tng ng vi cac trng hp hnh B.2.1. a) Dm = 100 mA = tam o 1. b) Dm = 1A = tam o 2.
Giai: a) tam o 100mA.
Vm = ImRm = 100A 1k = 100mV It = Is + Im Is = It

Im
= 100mA 100A = 99,9mA
RS =
Vm 100mV = = 1, 001 I S 99, 9mA

Vm 100mV = = 0,10001 I S 999, 9mA
b) tam o 1A: Vm = ImRm = 100mV Is = It Im = 1A 100A = 999,9mA; RS =
2.3. Mot c cau o t ien co ba ien tr shunt c mac theo kieu shunt ayrton s dung lam ampe-ke. Ba ien tr co tr so: R1 = 0,05, R2 = 0,45; R3 = 4,5; Rm = 1k; Imax = 50A, co mach o nh hnh B.2.3. Tnh cac tr so tam o cua ampe-ke.
Giai: Khoa ien B:
Hnh B.2.3
Vs = ImaxRm = 50A1k = 50mV.

IS = VS 50mV = = 10mA R1 + R2 + R3 0, 05 + 0, 45 + 4, 5
73
It = Is + Im = 50A + 10mA = 10,05mA; I = 10mA. Khoa ien C: Vs = Im (Rm + R3) = 50A(1k + 4,5) 50mV.
IS = VS 50mV = = 100mA ( R1 + R2 ) ( 0, 05 + 0, 45 )
I = 50A + 100mA = 100,05mA.I 100mA. Khoa ien D: V5 = Im(Rm + R3 +R2) = 50A(1k + 4,5 + 0,45) 50mV
Is = VS 50mV = = 1 A .I = 50A + 1A = 1,00005A 1A R1 0, 05
2.4. Mot c cau o t ien Imax = 100A, ien tr noi (day quan) Rm = 1K c s dung lam von-ke DC. Tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co Vtd = 100V. Tnh ien ap V hai au von-ke khi kim co o lech 0,75Dm; 0,5Dm; va 0,25Dm (o lech toi a Dm).
Hnh B.2.4 Giai:
V = IM (RS + Rm) Khi:
RS =
V Rm Im
V = Vtd = 100V IM = Imax = 100A
RS =
100V 1k = 999k. 100A

Im = 0,75 100 A = 75A V = Im (RS + Rm) = 75A (999k + 1k) = 75V
Tai o lech 0,75 (FSD) Dm
Tai o lech 0,5 (FSD) Dm: Im = 50A V = 50A (999k + 1k) = 50V. Tai o lech 0,25 (FSD) Dm: Im = 25A V = 25A (999k + 1k) = 25V. 2.5. Mot c cau o t ien co Imax = 50A; Rm = 1700 c s dung lam vonke DC co tam o 10V, 50V, 100V. Tnh cac ien tr tam o theo hnh B.2.5a,b
74
CHNG 2
nh sau:
Hnh B.2.5 Giai: Theo hnh B.2.5a: Rm + R1 =
V I max
R1 = R2 = R3 =
V I max
Rm =
10V 1700 = 198, 3k 50A
50V 1700 = 998,3k 50A 100V 1700 = 1,9983M 50A

V1 I max
Theo hnh B.2.5b: Rm + R1 =

R1 = V1 I max
Rm =
V 10V 1700 = 198, 3k, Rm + R1+ R2 = 2 Im 50A
R2 =
V2 50V R1 R m = 198, 3k 1700 = 800k I max 50A V3 I max
R m + R1 + R 2 + R 3 =
R3 =
V3 R 2 R1 R m Im
= 100V 50A 800k 198; 3k 1700 = 1M 2.6. Mot von-ke co tam o 5V, c mac vao mach, o ien ap hai au ien tr R2 nh hnh B.2.6. a) Tnh ien ap VR2 khi cha mac vonke. b) Tnh VR2 khi mac von-ke, co o nhay 20k/V c) Tnh VR2 khi mac von-ke, co o nhay 200k/V.
Giai: Cha mac von-ke: Hnh B.2.6
75
VR 2 = E
R2 50k = 12V = 5V 70k + 50k R1 + R2
Vi von-ke co o nhay 20k/V Rv = 5V 20k/V = 100k Rv // R2 = 100k // 50k = 33,3k VR 2 = E

RV // R2 33, 3k = 12V = 3, 87V 70k + 33, 3k R1 + RV // R2
Vi von-ke co o nhay 200k/V Rv = 5V 200k/V = 1M Rv // R2 = 1M // 50k = 47,62k

VR 2 = 12V
47, 62k = 4, 86V 70k + 47, 62k
2.7. Mot c cau o t ien co IfS = 100A va ien tr c cau o Rm = 1k c s dung lam von-ke AC co V tam o = 100V (RMS). Mach chnh lu co dang cau s dung diod silicon nh hnh B.2.7, diod co VF(nh) = 0,7V. a) Tnh ien tr noi tiep RS ?
Hnh B.2.7
b) Tnh o lech cua von-ke khi ien ap a vao von-ke la 75V va 50V (tr hieu dung RMS) c) Tnh o nhay cua von-ke. Tn hieu o la tn hieu xoay chieu dang sin.
Giai: a) Tnh RS: ay la mach chnh lu toan ky nen ta co quan he:
I P ( tr d nh ) = I tb / 0, 637 Vm ( tr nh ) = 2 V (RMS: tr hieu dung).

C cau o co: Ifs = Itb = 100A
IP =
100A = 157A 0, 637
76
CHNG 2
Ta co: I m = =
1, 414Vtd 2VF RS + Rm
RS =
1, 414Vtd 2VF Rm IP
(1, 414 100V ) ( 2 0,7V ) 1k = 890,7 k 157A

V = 75V.
1, 414V 2VF (1, 414 75V ) ( 2 0,7V ) = 0, 637 RS + Rm 890,7 k + 1k
Tnh o lech:
I tb = 0, 637 I m = 0, 637
Itb = 75A = 3/ 4 o lech toi a. (Im: dong nh khi V = 75V) V = 50V. Itb = 0, 637
1 (1, 414 50V ) ( 2 0,7V ) = 50A = o lech toi a 2 890,7 k + 1k
Tnh o nhay: Im = 157A I(RMS) = 0,707Ip = 0,707 157A = 111A Tong tr: R =
100V 900, 9k = 900, 9k . o nhay = = 9, 009k/V 100V 111A
2.8. Mot c cau o t ien co: IfS = 50A; Rm = 1700 ket hp vi mach chnh lu ban ky nh hnh B.2.8. Diod silicon D1 co tr gia dong ien thuan IF (nh) toi thieu la 100A. Khi ien ap o bang 20% Vtam o, diod co VF = 0,7V. Von-ke co Vtam o = 50V. a) Tnh Rs va RSH
Giai: a) Tnh RS va RSH
b) Tnh o nhay cua von-ke trong hai trng hp: co D2 va khong co D2. ay s dung chnh lu ban ky nen ta co: Ip = Itb/(0,5 0,637): tr nh trong trng hp chnh lu ban ky. C cau o co Ifs = Itb = 50A I m =
50A = 157A (tr nh) 0, 5 0, 637
Hnh B.2.8
Khi V = 20% Vt, IF(nh) co tr gia 100A. Vay khi V= Vt, IF(nh) co tr gia:
I F ( nh ) =
100% 100A = 500A 20%
77
IF = Im + ISH ISH (nh) = IF Im = 500A 157A = 343A Vp(nh) = ImRm = 157A 1700 = 266,9mV
RSH = I F ( nh ) = RS = Vm ( nh ) I SH ( nh )
266, 9mV = 778 343A
1, 414Vt Vm ( nh ) VF
RS
1, 414Vt Vm ( nh ) VF
I F ( nh )
()1, 414 50V 266, 9mV 0,7V =139,5k 500A
b) Tnh o nhay. Co D2: trong ban ky dng, dong qua D1 co tr gia nh: IF(nh) = 500A Trong ban ky am, dong qua von-ke I(nh):
I ( nh ) =
1, 414Vt 1, 414 50V = = 500A 139, 5k RS
I(hieu dung) = 0,707500 A = 353,5A (RMS)c Tong tr: R = o nhay =
50V ( RM S ) = 141, 4 k ; 353, 5A( RM S )
141, 4 k = 2, 8k/V 50V
Khong co D2 Trong ban ky dng: IF(nh) = 500A. Trong ban ky am: I = 0 Trong chu ky cua tn hieu: I(hieu dung) = 0,5 IF(nh) vi I la dong ien mach chnh chay qua Rs trong ban ky dng.
2 I (hi e u du n g) = T /2
I 2T
( I F sint )2 dt =
2 IF nh ) (
I = 0,5 500A = 250A Tong tr: R =
50V 200k = 200k . o nhay = = 4 k/V 50V 250A
2.9. Mot ampe-ke s dung c cau o t ien co cau chnh lu va bien dong nh hnh ve. Biet rang c cau o co Ifs = 1mA va Rm = 1700. Bien dong co Nth =
78
CHNG 2
500; N s = 4. Diod co: VF(nh) = 0,7V; Rs = 20k. ampe-ke lech toi a khi dong s cap IP = 250 mA. Tnh tr gia RL.
Hnh B.2.9 Giai: Chnh lu toan ky nen ta co:
I m ( tr nh ) =
I tb 1mA = = 1, 57mA 0, 637 0, 637
ien ap Em hai au cuon th bien dong (tr nh): Em = Im(Rs + Rm) + 2VF = 1,57mA(20k + 1700) + 1,4V = 35,5V
Es(tr hieu dung) = ( 0,70735,5V) = 25,1V

Dong lam lech toi a c cau o co tr hieu dung I: I = 1,11Itb = 1,11 1mA = 1,11mA Ta co:
I th= I s
N s N th
= 250mA
4 = 2mA 500
Ith = Iqua c cau o + IL; 2mA = 1,11mA + IL
I L = 2 mA 1,11 mA = 0,89 mA ; RL = E S = 25,1V = 28, 2k

IL 0, 89mA
2.10. Tnh ien ap hai au c cau o t ien (PMMC) co Rm = 850 va Ifs = 100A khi kim lech toi a.
S: 85mV.
2.11. Tnh tr gia ien tr tam o cho c cau o t ien co Ifs = 200A, Rm = lk c s dung lam von-ke DC co Vt = 150V.
79
2.12. Tnh dong ien i qua c cau o t ien khi kim co o lech bang 1/2 o lech toi a (FSD) biet rang c cau o co o nhay la 20 k/V.
S: 25A.
2.13. Tnh tr gia ien tr shunt e cho ampe-ke co: It = 1mA; Rm = 103 tr thanh ampe-ke co It (Itam o) = 150mA. 2.14. C cau o A co tam o t 0 en 10V va ien tr tam o la 18k, c cau o B co tam o t 0 en 300V va ien tr tam o la 298k, ca hai c cau o eu co ien tr day quan Rm = 2k. Hay cho biet c cau o nao co o nhay ln hn.
S: C cau A.
2.15. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o A, B nh hnh B.2.15.
Hnh B.2.15
2.16. Tnh cac tr gia ien tr t R1 en R5 nh hnh B.2.16.
Hnh B.2.16
2.17. Tnh tr gia ien tr R1, R2, R3 hnh B.2.17.
Hnh B.2.17
80
CHNG 2
2.18. Tnh tr gia ien tr R1, R2, R3, R4 trong hnh B.2.18.
Hnh B.2.18 S: R1 = 1; R2 = 9; R3 = 90; R4 = 900.
2.19. Ta o ien ap hai au ien tr 6k trong mach nh hnh B.2.19 bang cach mac von-ke hai au ien tr nay, von-ke co o nhay 10k/V. Gia s von-ke co cac tam o 1V, 5V, 10V va 100V, hay cho biet tam o nhay nhat co the s dung ma sai so gay ra do tai cua von-ke nho hn 3%.
S: tam o 100V.
Hnh B.2.19
Hnh B.2.20
2.20. Trong mach o sau, von-ke A co o nhay 5k/V c noi gia X va Y ch 15V tam o 30V. Von-ke B c noi gia X va Y ch 16, 13V tam o 50V. Tnh o nhay cua von-ke B. 2.21. Dong ien i qua c cau o co tr gia nh Ip = 150A. Tnh tr gia IDC neu c cau o dung mach chnh lu ban ky. 2.22. Dong ien i qua c cau o t ien o c la 0,8mA. Tnh tr gia nh cua dong xoay chieu neu c cau o s dung mach chnh lu toan ky. 2.23. Mot c cau o t ien co Ifs = 1mA va ien tr day quan Rm = 500 ket hp vi mach chnh lu ban ky e tr thanh von-ke AC. Tnh o nhay AC va DC, tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co Vt = 30V.
S: SAC = 450/V; SDC = 1 k/V; Rs = 13,3k.
2.24. Mot c cau o t ien co Ifs = 200A va ien tr day quan Rm = 500 c s dung lam von-ke AC bang cach dung mach chnh lu toan
81
ky. Tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co Vt = 50V. 2.25. Tnh o nhay AC va DC va ien tr Rs trong mach o (H.B.2.25).
Hnh B.2.25
2.26. Mot von-ke AC o tr gia nh va mot von-ke AC o tr gia hieu dung c s dung e xac nh tn hieu nao co dang sin. Hay cho biet tn hieu nao co dang sin biet rang ket qua o co tr gia nh sau:
Tn hieu 1 o tr gia nh-nh: 35,26V o tr gia hieu dung: 12,00V Tn hieu 2 o tr gia nh-nh 11,31V o tr gia hieu dung: 4,00V Tn hieu 3 o tr gia nh-nh 25,00V o tr gia hieu dung: 8,83V
S: Tn hieu 2 va 3 co dang sin.
2.27. Mot von-ke AC c dung e o ien ap hai au ien tr R2 nh hnh B.2.27. Biet rang von-ke dung c cau o t ien co Ifs = 100A, ien tr day quan Rm = 1,5k, s dung mach chnh lu ban ky va co Vt = 10V. Hay cho biet tr gia oc c tren von-ke.
Hnh B.2.27
Hnh B.2.28
2.28. Hai von-ke AC khac nhau c dung e o ien ap hai au ien tr R2 nh hnh B.2.28. Von-ke A co o nhay AC la 10k/V va cap chnh xac la 2% va co Vt = 200V. Von-ke B co o nhay AC la 4k/V, cap chnh xac la 1,5% va Vt = 100V. Cho biet von-ke nao cho ta ket qua chnh xac hn.
82
CHNG 3
Chng
O IEN TR
3.1 O IEN TR BANG VON-KE VA AMPE-KE
Hnh 3.1: a) Mach o RX;
b) Mach o RX
ay la phng phap xac nh phan t ien tr ang hoat ong (o nong) theo yeu cau. Co hai cach mac e o ien tr:
Hnh 3.1a: Von-ke mac trc, ampe-ke mac sau (loi mac re dai). Khi o
ien tr can o RX c xac nh bi:
RX =
V I
(3.1)
trong o: V - cho bi von-ke; I - cho bi ampe-ke. Theo mach o: V = Va + V x (3.2) vi: Va - ien ap ri tren ampe-ke; Vx - ien ap ri tren RX. Ta thay co sai so trong viec xac nh RX do anh hng noi tr cua ampeke. Neu Ra (noi tr cua ampe-ke) rat nho so vi RX th VX > Va. Sai so do anh hng cua ampe-ke khong ang ke.
Hnh 3.1b: Ampe-ke mac trc, von-ke mac sau (loi mac re ngan). ien tr
RX van c xac nh bi:
83
RX =
V I
(3.3)
trong o: I = IX + IV - cho bi ampe-ke vi IV dong ien i qua von-ke. Neu IV IX tong tr vao cua von-ke rat ln so vi RX th sai so do anh hng cua von-ke khong ang ke.
V du 3.1: o ien tr r cua tu ien (RX) khi
hoat ong ien ap qui nh. Mach o c mac theo hnh 3.2. Von-ke co tam o 50V va o nhay 20k/VDC c mac noi tiep vi tu ien C can o. Kim ch th ien ap 10 von. Khi o ien ap ri tren tu ien. VC = VS V = 300V 10V
Hnh 3.2: o ien tr r RX
= 290V Dong ien toi a Imax cua c cau ch th bang 50 A (kim ch 10V) Vay ien tr r cua tu ien 290V RX = = 29 M egohm 10A
V du 3.2: Trong mach hnh 3.1a, von-ke co o nhay 10k/V ch 500 von va
ampe-ke ch 0,5A co RA = 10. Von-ke at tam o 1000V. Xac nh ien tr RX .

Giai: Theo von-ke va ampe-ke: RX =
V 500V = = 1000 I 0, 5 A
Neu phan tch: V = VX + Va = (Ra + RX)I; Ra + RX = V /I = 1000 Suy ra tr so thc cua RX = 1000 10 = 990. Vay sai so do anh hng cua ampe-ke va von-ke:
10 100% = 1% 1000
V du 3.3: Neu von-ke va ampe-ke c mac theo hnh 3.1b th von-ke va
ampe-ke oc bao nhieu? Khi R = 990

Giai: ien tr tng ng gia von-ke va RX.
RV // RX = (10k/V1000V) // 990 = 989,9 Von-ke ch th:

VX = 500V
( RV // RX ) 989, 9 = 500V = 495V 999, 9 Ra + ( RV // RX )
84
CHNG 3
Ampe-ke ch th tr so:
I = IV + I X = VX 495V = = 0, 5 A RV // RX 989, 9
Do o hai v du 2 va 3 la neu o RX bang cach lay tr so oc cua von-ke chia cho tr so oc cua ampe-ke th tr so oc cua v du 3 chnh xac hn v: RX = V /I = 495V / 0, 5 A = 990 . Trong khi tr so o c v du 2: RX = 500V / 0, 5 A = 1000
3.2 O IEN TR DUNG PHNG PHAP O IEN AP BANG BIEN TR

Mach o c mac theo hnh 3.3.
Hnh 3.3: o ien ap bang phng phap
bien tr suy ra RX theo RS Nguon cung cap E tao ra dong ien I qua RX la VRX ien ap ri tren ien V V R I tr mau VS: RX = X . Suy ra: RX = RS RX . VS RS I VS VRX va VS c o bang phng phap bien tr. o ien tr bang phng phap so sanh nay khong phu thuoc vao dong ien I cung cap cho mach o.
3.3 MACH O IEN TR TRONG OHM-KE

Trong may o van nang (multimeter V.O.M) co phan o ien tr (ohmke). Trong trng hp dung ohm-ke e o ien tr th trang thai o la phan t ien tr o (RX) khong co nang lng (o nguoi), mach o se la nguon nang lng rieng (nguon pin). 3.3.1 Mach nguyen ly o ien tr Mach o c mac theo hnh 3.4.
O IEN TR
85
Hnh 3.4: a) Mach ohm-ke; b) Thang o khong tuyen tnh cua ohm-ke
ay la mach ohm-ke kieu mac noi tiep, dong ien qua c cau ch th R1:
Im =
Eb RX + R1 + Rm
vi: R1 - ien tr chuan cua tam o; Rm - ien tr noi cua c cau. Khi RX 0; Im Imax (dong cc ai cua c cau ien t). Khi RX ; Im Imax (khong co dong qua c cau).
V du 3.4: Eb = 1,5V; Imax = 100A; R1 + Rm = 15k.
Xac nh ch th cua kim khi RX = 0 va s ch th tr so ien tr khi Im = 1/ 2 thang o; 1/ 4 thang o; 3/ 4 thang o.

Giai: T phng trnh tren khi RX 0: I = 1, 5V / 0 + 15k = 100A
Tai tr so 1/ 2 thang o: I = 100A / 2 = 50A Khi o ien tr RX = 1, 5V (R1 + Rm) = 30 15 = 15k 50A Khi dong Im = 1/4 thang o: Im = 25A ien tr RX c xac nh: RX = 1, 5V / 25A 15k = 45k Tai dong Im = 3/4 thang o: Im = 75A ien tr RX = 1, 5V /75A 15k = 5k Nh vay gia tr thang o ien tr khong tuyen tnh theo dong ien I (H.3.4b). 3.3.2 Mach o ien tr thc te Trong thc te nguon pin Eb co the thay oi. Khi RX 0, Im qua c cau khong bang Imax, do o mach o co the mac them R2 (H.3.5) bien tr nay dung e chnh iem 0 cho mach o khi Eb thay oi. Nh vay trc khi o phai ngan mach hai au AB, ieu chnh R2 e sao cho ohm-ke ch 0.
86
CHNG 3
Hnh 3.5: Mach ohm-ke co chnh 0
Theo mach tren ta co: Ib = Neu R2 // Rm R1, th: I b =
EB RX + R1 + R2 // Rm Eb Rx + R1 Vm I ( R // Rm ) = b 2 . Rm Rm
Nh vay ien ap:
Vm = Ib(R2 // Rm)
Se co dong Im qua c cau ch th: I m =
Do o moi lan o cho RX 0 ieu chnh R2 e co:

Im = Eb ( R2 // Rm ) = I max R1 Rm
Sao cho khi Eb co s thay oi th s ch th RX se khong thay oi.

V du 3.5: Eb = 1,5V; R1 = 15k; Rm = 1k; R2 = 1k; Imax = 50A. Xac nh tr so
oc cua RX khi Ib = Imax; Im=
1 3 I max ; Im = I max 2 4
Giai: Tai Im = Imax = 50A; Vm = ImaxRm = 50A1k = 50mV.
Do o: I2 =
Vm 50mV = = 50A . Nh vay dong: Ib = 100A. 1k R2
Vay: RX + R1 # #
Eb neu RX + R1 Ib
R2 // Rm
500.
1, 5V = 15k . RX + 15k = 15k; RX = 0. 100 1 max = 25 ; Vm 25mV I2 = 25A. 2 1, 5V ; RX # 15k 50
Khi Im =
Suy ra Ib = 50A. Vay RX + R1 #
O IEN TR
87
Tng t nh cach tnh tren. m =
3 max = 37, 5. 4
Ib = Im + I2 = 37,5A + 37,5A = 75A.
RX + R1 =
1, 5V = 20k , RX = 5k. 75
V du 3.6: Trng hp Eb = 1,3V, tnh cac tr RX nh v du 1. Giai: Khi RX = 0 th Im = 50A (ieu chnh R2).
b =
b 1, 3V = 86, 67. R1 + RX 0 + 15k

Vm 50 1k = = 1, 36k 2 36, 67A
I 2 = I b I m = 86, 67A 50A = 36, 67A

R2 =
tr ch th 1/2 thang o Im = 25A.

2 =
Vm 25mV = = 18, 38 ; Ib = 25A + 18,38A = 43,38A R2 1, 36k
RX + R1 =
1, 3V = 29, 96k . 43, 38
RX = 29,96k 15k = 14,96k # 15k. Giong nh tr so cua v du 1 khi Eb = 1,5V. tr ch th 3/4 thang o Im = 37,5A.
2 =
37, 5mV = 27, 57 , Ib = 37,5A + 27,57A = 65,07A. 1, 36k
RX + R1 =
1, 3V 19, 97 k . 65, 07
RX = 19,97k 15k = 4,97k # 5k. Ket qua o v du 2 va v du 1 gan giong nhau mac du Eb giam. V a ieu chnh R2 e cho Im = Imax. Mach o ien tr vi nhieu tam o trong may o van nang (H.3.6). Khi thay oi tam o (X1 hoac X10 hoac X100...) dong ien qua c cau ch th Im van bang nhau nhng tr so oc c tren thang o c nhan vi gia tr tam o (H.3.7).
88
CHNG 3
Hnh 3.6a: Mat ngoai ohm-ke
Hnh 3.6b: Mach o ien tr co nhieu tam o V du 3.7: Khi RX = 24 (H.3.7a).
Hnh 3.7: Mach o cho tng tam o: a) Mach cho tam o X1
O IEN TR
89
b) Mach cho tam o X100; c) Mach cho tam o X10K

b =
1, 5V = 31, 254 mA . 24 + 14 + [10 // 16.685]
m = 31, 254 m
10 = 18,72A (gia thang o) 10 + 16.685
Khi RX = 2400 (H.3.7b).

b =
1, 5V = 0, 311mA 2400 + 1470 + [1k // 15, 695k ]
Dong Im qua ong ho:
I m = b
940 = 0, 311m 0, 059 = 18, 62 15.695
Neu thang o X1: Im = 18,72A tng ng RX = 24 vi: Im = b

(10 // 16.685 ) 10 # b 10 + 16.685 10 + 16.685 1, 5V 5, 989 104
= 1, 5/[ RX + 14 + (10 // 16.685 )] 5, 989 104

) (14 + 10 ) = 27,2 24 = 3,2 33 106 Nh vay thang o cua ohm-ke khong tuyen tnh hoan toan, moi tam o eu phai chnh 0 .
RX = (
3.2.3 Nguyen ly o cua ohm-ke tuyen tnh Thang o cua ohm-ke theo nguyen ly dong ien nh a e cap tren khong tuyen tnh theo ien tr o. Do o trong cac mach o ohm-ke tuyen tnh trong may o ien t ch th kim hoac ch th so, chung ta chuyen tr so o ien tr RX sang ien ap o VX bang cach cung cap nguon dong ien I khong oi (bat chap tr so RX). VX = RX I. Sau o RX c o bi mach ien ap, VX tuyen tnh theo RX. Nh vay: Khi RX 0, VX 0 Von. Khi RX , VX tien en gia tr ln nhat cua mach o V du: Mach o ien ap co ien ap ln nhat 1,5V th khi RX th VX 1,5V. Nh vay neu von-ke co ien tr chnh may trc khi o, th phai chnh RX cho mach o. Khong chnh RX0 nh mach o dung nguyen ly dong trong phan trc (chung ta se e cap trong phan may o ien t). 3.2.4 o chnh xac cua ohm-ke
90
CHNG 3
Do mach ien tr khong tuyen tnh theo thang o, nen sai so tang nhieu khoang o phi tuyen. V vay khoang thang o co sai so cho phep trong khoang t 10 90% khoang hoat ong vi ieu kien chnh 0 cho moi tam o. Nh a noi phan trc khi ohm-ke ch th 1/2 thang o th ien tr RX bang noi tr cua mach ohm-ke. Neu 1/2 thang o cua s ch th dong ien co sai so 1% cua thang o ien tr dan en sai so la 2% ket qua o ien tr. Khi: RX = R1 va I b =
Eb . T sai so 2% cua dong Ib ( 1/2 thang R1 + RX
o) se co sai so cho phan o ien tr la 2% cua (RX + R1) Gia s R1 co sai so khoang 1%, khi R = R1 th sai so tai RX (tai 1/2 thang o) se la 2% (2 R1) = 4 %.
V du 3.8: phan tch sai so cua ohm-ke khi kim ch th 0,8 thang o va 0,2
thang o.
Giai: 0,8 thang o:
I b = 0, 8max =
b Eb Eb R RX + R1 = = = 1 0, 8max 0, 8 Eb /R1 0, 8 RX + R1
Eb E # b. R1 + RX R1
V khi RX 0 (H.3.4): b =
Vay: RX = 1,25R1 R1 = 0,25R1; R1 = 4RX. Neu sai so cua thang o la 1 % cho s ch th cua kim th tai 0,8 thang o, sai so cua s ch th dong ien la 1,25% Imax. Nh vay sai so phan o ien tr:
RX (%) = 1,25% (4RX + RX) = 6,25% RX

0,2 thang o: R X + R1 =
Eb R = 1 = 5 R1 ; RX = 4R1 0, 2max 0, 2
Sai so cho toan khung thang o 1%, 0,2 thang o, sai so cho ch th la R 5%. Sai so cho RX: RX = 5%( X + RX ) = 6, 25% 4
O IEN TR
91
Theo s phan tch sai so cua thang o ien tr tren, e o chnh xac hn nen chon tam o cho ien tr khoang 1/2 thang o, v tai o sai so c chng minh v du tren la 4%, trong khi o 0,2 thang o va 0,8 thang o sai so eu ln bang nhau va bang 6,25%.
3.4 CAU WHEATSTONE O IEN TR

e cho ien tr c chnh xac hn, chung ta dung cau Wheatstone e o ien tr bang hai phng phap Phng phap can bang Phng phap khong can bang 3.4.1 o ien tr dung cau Wheatstone can bang ay la phng phap thng dung trong phong th nghiem v nhng u iem cua no.
Nguyen ly cau Wheatstone
Cau Wheatstone c mac nh hnh 3.8.
Hnh 3.8: Cau Wheatstone o ien tr
Hnh 3.9: ien ke G
Khi cau Wheatstone can bang la dong ien qua ien ke G = 0: VP = VQ va VR = VS Neu dong I1 qua P va R, dong I2 qua Q va S. Khi o I1P = I2 > Q va I1R = I2S. Suy ra:
R S P = hoac R = S . Q P Q
Vi tr so P, Q, S biet chnh xac, ien tr R c xac nh. Ket qua o R khong phu thuoc vao nguon cung cap E. ay cung la u iem cua phep o. o chnh xac cua R phu thuoc vao o nhay cua ien ke G. o nhay cua ien ke ln dan en s can bang tot hn.
92
CHNG 3
Ngoai ra sai so cua ien tr P, Q, S cung anh hng cua sai so R. V du: Sai so cua S la 0,5%; P, Q la 1%. Th sai so cua R:
R = S + R + Q = 2,5%.
Vi bat ky R e ieu chnh cau Wheatstone can bang chung ta thng thay oi t so P/Q (tam o) va S la bien tr (hop ien tr) co gia tr thay oi tng 0,1 (hoac tng 1,0) nh cac cau o Wheatstone trong cac phong th nghiem. V du: P /Q = 1/10 ; S = 237,5. Khi cau can bang, do o R c xac nh: R = 23,75. 3.4.2 o ien tr dung cau Wheatstone khong can bang
Hnh 3.9: Mach tng ng Thevenin cua cau Wheatstone
a) ien ap ngo ra e h cua cau; b) ien tr r ngo ra c) Mach Thevenin khi tai la rg cua ien ke Trong cong nghiep, ngi ta thng dung nguyen ly cau Wheatstone khong can bang ngha la nh ien ap ra (hoac dong ien ra) ngo ra cua cau e o ien tr R hoac s thay oi R cua phan t o. Phng phap nay can nguon E cung cap cho cau o c on nh, v ien ap ra co phu thuoc vao nguon E. Ngoai ra cung con phu thuoc vao o chnh xac cua cac phan t cau Wheatstone. o nhay cua cau phu thuoc vao nguon cung cap E va noi tr cua bo ch th (hoac tong tr vao cua mach khuech ai neu ien ap ngo ra cua cau c a vao mach khuech ai). T mach cau o hnh 3.9, ien ke G c thao ra khoi cau o. ien ap ngo ra cua cau:
VR VS = Eb[
R S ] R+ P Q+S
Tong tr ngo ra cua cau c xac nh: r = [P // R] + [Q // S] Nh vay mach tng ng Thevenin cua cau c xac nh (H.3.9c). Do
O IEN TR
93
o dong ien Ig qua ien ke khi cau khong can bang:
Ig =
VR VS , r + rg
rg - noi tr cua ien ke G
V du 3.9: Xac nh s thay oi ien tr R nho nhat ma ien ke G phat hien c khi o nhay cua ien ke G = 1A/diV (diV: mot vach chia cua thang o). P = 3,5k; Q = 7k va S = 4k khi R = 2k va noi tr cua ien ke G: rg = 2,5k; Eb = 10V. Giai: Theo bieu thc mach tng ng Thevenin:
VR VS = Ig (r + rg) 3, 5k 2k 7 k 4 k vi: r = (P // R) + (Q // S) = + = 3, 82k 5, 5k 11k Khi Ig thay oi 1A th co s thay oi: VR VS. (VR VS) = Ig(r+rg) = 1A(3,82 + 2,5)k = 6,32mV R + R S ] ma: ( VR VS ) = E b [ R + R + P S + Q Nh vay Rmin co c khi: (VR VS) = 6,32mV; Rmin (2+3,5)k Rmin + 2k 4 k ) 6,32mV = 10 V ( 2k + Rmin + 3, 5k 7 k + 4 k
Rmin + 2k 4 k 6, 32mV = = 6, 32 106 = 362 5, 5 103 = 3, 476 5, 5k 11k 10V
Nh vay e cho Rmin cang nho th ( VR VS ) cang ln, o nhay cang tang th Eb cang ln, nhng s tang Eb co han che. Do o, can phai khuech ai ( VR VS ) va tong tr Z i cua mach khuech ai phai ln ( r g c thay bi Z i cua mach khuech ai). 3.4.3 Tam o ien tr cua cau Wheatstone e cho ien tr o bi cau Wheatstone c chnh xac th gia tr o cua no phai ln hn gia tr ien tr tiep xuc va ien tr day noi. Nh mach hnh 3.10 do anh hng cua day noi co ien tr noi gia R va S khi o ien ke G c xem nh noi a hoac b a en ket qua o:
Hnh 3.10: ien tr day noi
gay ra sai so cau Wheatstone
94
CHNG 3
R=
( S + Y )P Q
hoac R =
SP Q+Y
Trong thc te ien tr R o c chnh xac co gia tr nho nhat vao khoang 5. Nh vay e o nhng ien tr nho hn 1 ( 1/10 ; 1/100 ; 1/1000 ) chung ta phai dung ky thuat o ac biet. Ngoai ra, cau Wheatstone cung c dung e o cac ien tr ln vai M (megohm) hoac vai tram M, phai dung cach thc o ac biet (se noi phan sau). Nhng cung gii han tr 1012 ohm.
3.5 CAU OI KELVIN

ay la cau o ac biet c dung e o ien tr gia tr nho. 3.5.1 ien tr bon au Nhng ien tr co gia tr nho nh ien tr shunt can phai co au ien tr c xac nh chnh xac, e tranh sai so do s tiep au the xuc cua au ien tr vi day dan ien co au dong dong ien ln i qua. Do s xuat hien hieu ng nhiet ien co the co, cho nen ien tr c che tao bon au (H.3.11), hai au dong au the ien thng co be mat tiep xuc vi day dan Hnh 3.11: ien tr bon co dien tch ln; con hai au nho goi la au au the (potential terminal) c noi vao ampeke (miliampe-ke), gia tr ien tr c tnh hai au nay va khong co ien ap ri tren au the nay do hieu ng nhiet ien. 3.5.2 Cau oi Kenvin Cau oi Kelvin c mac hnh 3.12. Trong cau o nay co ien ap ang ke ri tren ien tr Y cua oan day noi a, b. Neu t so cua phan t P /r = p/R (P=p va R=r) th khi o sai so do ien ap ri tren day dan Y se b loai bo. Phng trnh cau can bang nay phc tap hn cau Wheatstone. Khi cau can bang th Vg = 0: dong I dong i1 qua ien tr P va R; qua ien tr Q va S dong i2 qua P va r; dong I i2
au dong
Hnh 3.12: Cau oi
Kelvin o ien tr nho
O IEN TR
95
qua ien tr Y. Bi v khong co ien ap ri tren ien ke G cho nen: i1R = i2r + IS Suy ra: Con co: Chia: IS = i1R i2R = R( i1 i 2 r /R ) i1P = IQ + Pi2, IQ = P ( i1 pi 2 /P )
I Q P( i1 i 2 p/P ) Q P = ; = . Neu p = P va r = R I S R( i1 i 2 r /R ) S R
Vay, vi ieu kien can bang cua cau va luon luon co p = P va r = R th phan t o Q c xac nh:
Q=S
P p =S R r
Q khong phu thuoc vao ien tr day dan, Y, S la ien tr mau co sai so nho, P la hop ien tr thay oi co o chnh xac cao va o phan giai nho (co the tng bc thay oi la 0,1 (hoac 1)), R la ien tr thay oi tam o cho cau.
Hnh 3.13: Cau Kelvin vi ien tr Q, S co bon au
Cau o Kelvin thc te dung ien mau S co bon au nh hnh 3.13. V Q va S thng co ien tr nho t vai microohm (), vai m (miliohm) en 1 cho nen dong I+i1 thng co tr so han che (vai ampe). V vay phai co bien tr Rb va ampe-ke theo doi. o chnh xac cua cau o Kelvin cung giong nh cau Wheatstone (a c phan tch). oi vi nhng ien tr o Q co gia tr nho hn 0,1 (microohm) o chnh xac se kem i nhieu.
V du 3.10: Dung S = 1m; Q = 23,5; R = 1000 dong qua ampe-ke 5 ampe,
nguon Eb = 6V th ien ke G ch 0. Nh vay:
96
CHNG 3
Q=
23, 5 1m = 23, 5 106 1000
V du 3.11: Mot ien tr (bon au) co tr so khoang 0,15 c o bi cau
Kelvin. ien tr mau 0,1. Xac nh t so cho cau o R/P hoac r/p.
Giai: Theo cong thc khi cau can bang.
Q=S
P p P R r 0,1 10 = S = 0,1 = 0,15 . Suy ra = = = r r R P p 0,15 15
Nh vay tren cau o Kelvin chnh P = p = 15. R = r = 10 hoac P = p = 150 va R = r = 100.
3.6 O IEN TR CO TR SO LN
Trong phan nay chung ta e cap en phng phap o ien tr co gia tr ln (vao khoang vai megohm tr len) dung von-ke, microampe-ke, cau Wheatstone va megohm-ke chuyen dung. Khi o ien tr co tr so rat ln nh o ien tr cach ien cua vat lieu thong thng se co hai phan t ien tr. ien tr khoi (volume resistance). ien tr r be mat (surface leakage resistance). Hai phan t ien tr nay xem nh song song vi nhau, nh vay hai ien tr co tr so co the so sanh c se anh hng ang ke en ien tr khoi can o cua vat lieu cach ien. 3.6.1 Phng phap o ien tr ln dung von-ke va microampe-ke Cau o ien tr cach ien cua vo boc gia day dan trong va day dan ben ngoai (vo giap bang kim loai) cua day dan ien ong truc co vo boc giap (H.3.14). Khi dong ien i vao day dan th se co hai dong ien i qua micro ampe-ke, o la dong IV i qua lp cach ien cua vo boc, dong IS i qua be mat cua day dan va lp cach ien. Cho nen ien tr song song gia lp cach ien va be mat [RV//RS] c xac nh bi von-ke va micro ampe-ke. Neu RS so sanh c vi RV th RS se anh hng rat ln en RV can o. e tranh anh hng cua RS bang cach loai bo dong IS qua microampe-ke, ngi ta thng dung day dan ien (khong co vo boc hoac vecni) quan quanh lp vo cach ien va noi trc microampe-ke. Nh vay dong ien IS i qua RS luc trc se i qua day dan nay (H.3.14b) do o anh hng cua RS vao RV b loai bo. Vong day dan nay c goi la vong day bao ve tranh ien tr r be mat RS.
O IEN TR
97
Hnh 3.14: o ien cach ien lp vo boc
a) Dong r be mat IS; b) Co vong day bao ve

V du 3.12: Mot cap day dan ien loai ong truc lp giap bang kim loai ben
ngoai cung, ngan cach day dan ien ben trong bang lp cach ien. Neu mach c mac noi nh hnh 3.14a th dong ien qua microampe-ke la 5A khi ien ap th nghien la 10.000V. Neu mach c mac nh hnh 3.14b th dong ien o c la 1,5A. Xac nh ien tr khoi cach ien cua lp cach ien. Sau o xac nh ien tr r be mat hnh 3.14a.
Giai: ien tr khoi cach ien:
RV =
10 103 = = 6,7 109 (ohm) V 1, 5 106
Dong ien qua ien tr r be mat: IS = 5A IV = 5A 1,5A = 3,5A v IV + IS = 5A
RS =
10 103 = = 2, 9 109 (ohm) S 3, 5 106
Nh vay neu chung ta khong loai bo dong IS bang vong day dan bao ve th se 9 9 o c ien tr: RS // RV = (2,9 // 6,7)10 = 2,0210 ohm Nho hn ba lan ien tr khoi cach ien that.
98
CHNG 3
Trong trng hp o ien tr cach ien cua mot mau cach ien be mat (H.3.15) khi o e loai bo dong ien r be mat ngi ta dung vong bao ve bang kim loai hnh vanh khan ben ngoai ban cc mat tren e o ien tr cach ien.
IL Cao the
A IV
Chat cach ien
Vong bao ve
Hnh 3.15: o ien tr cach ien loai bo ien tr r be mat
Trong trng hp dung cau Wheatstone e o ien tr cach ien e loai bo ien tr r be mat, chung ta cung dung vong bao ve nh hnh 3.16a va c phan tch thanh mach tng ng (H.3.16b), ien tr b va c la hai ien tr r be mat va be mat di cua vat lieu can o ien tr cach ien. V b rg (ien tr cua ien ke).
b // rg rg va c
S c // S S
Nh vay b va c khong anh hng en ien tr R la phan t o cua cau.
Hnh 3.16: a) Cau Wheatstone o ien tr cach ien be mat
b) Mach tng ng 3.6.2 Megohm-ke chuyen dung
O IEN TR
99
Bo ch th thng dung cho megohm-ke (loai co ien) la t so ke t ien (H.3.17). C cau ch th nay gom co hai cuon day. Cuon day lech (deflecting coil). Cuon day kiem soat (control coil).
Hnh 3.17: Megohm-ke chuyen dung
Hai cuon day nay quan tren truc quay mang kim ch th. Momen quay T2 = Kq2()I2 va T1 = Kq1()I1. Hai momen nay luon luon oi khang nhau va Kq1, Kq2 la ham so theo goc quay cua kim ch th e sao cho tai goc i cua kim ch th ta co: Tq1 = Kq1(i)I1 = Tq2 = Kq2(i)I2. Suy ra
1 K q2 ( i ) = = K ( i ) 2 K q1 ( i )
Vay goc quay i cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao tr so dong ien I1 va I2 (c cau ch th nay khong co tr ban au v khong co lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo nh c cau ien t ma ch co truc quay do o khi khong co dong I1, I2 kim ch th v tr bat ky). Theo mach cu the cua megohm-ke: Nguon E c cung cap bi may phat ien quay tay (hoac nguon phat bang mach ien t dung pin nh cac may mi sau nay). Dong I1 qua cuon day kiem soat:
1 =
, R1 - ien tr chuan, r1 - ien tr noi cua khung quay kiem R1 + r1 2 = RX + R2 + r2
soat dong I2 qua cuon day lech.
100
CHNG 3
RX - ien tr o; R2 - ien tr chuan; r2 - ien tr noi cua khung quay lech. Khi RX ; I2 0: Dong ien I1 keo kim ch th lech toi a ve pha trai thang o co tr so . Khi RX 0; I2 I2max (cc ai) T so 2 1 tr so cc ai kim ch th lech ve pha phai (tr so 0) Khi RX tr so bat ky khi o goc quay i. 1 = va 2 = R1 + r1 RX + R2 + r2
R + R2 + r2 1 /( R1 + r1 ) = = K ( 2 ) ; X = K ( i ) 2 /( RX + R2 + r2 ) R1 + r1
Nh vay goc quay i phu thuoc vao tr so o RX. ac biet khi kim ch th gia thang o: 1 = 1 RX = R1 + r 1 R2 r 2 2 Neu: r2 = r1 RX = R1 R2. Nh vay thay oi tam o cho thang o bang cach thay oi tr so R2. Trong mach nay co au Guard e gan vao vong bao ve (guard ring) hoac day bao ve (guard wire) e loai bo ien tr r be mat (RS) khi o ien tr cach ien 3.6.3 ng dung o ien tr cach ien va cho day b cham at cua day ien li
Tong quat: Ngi ta thng o ien tr cach ien cua cac ng day tai ien hoac phan phoi ien trong cong nghiep. V du theo tieu chuan thiet ke mang ien, ien tr cach ien c th nghiem vi megohm-ke 1000V (hoac 2000V), nguon ien ap cap cho megohm-ke. ien tr cach ien c o gia hai au day dan ien vi nhau hoac tng day dan ien vi day trung tnh vi ieu kien day dan c thao ra khoi nguon ien li va tai (v du ien tr cach ien qui nh toi thieu 1M).
O IEN TR
101
o ien tr cach ien khi tat nguon ien
Trc khi o, mach c ngat ra khoi nguon. ien tr cach ien cua day dan A so vi mass. Mot au cua day A c noi vao au L cua megohm-ke con au E cua megohm-ke c noi au mass cua day dan (day trung tnh cua he thong ien) (H.3.18). Nh vay ien tr c o la RA//(RAB + Rb). Neu RAB + Rb rat ln so vi RA th RA t sai so. Sau o lau Rb, Rc cua ba day dan c xac nh ien tr cach ien vi day trung tnh. Con ien tr cach ien gia hai day A B c o RAB//[RA+RB]. Tng t nh vay ien tr cach ien cua day BC RBC//[RB+RC].
Hnh 3.18
Hnh 3.19
o ien tr cach ien dung M ke
Von ke V, V1 o ien tr cach ien
o ien tr cach ien trong trng hp co nguon
Trong trng hp day dan co nguon cung cap. Khi o chung ta dung vonke V o ien ap nguon cung cap, von-ke V1 lan lt o ien ap VA, VB cua day A, day B so vi day trung tnh (H.3.19). Dong ien I1 qua RB.
1 = V VA V = RB RB + [ R A // RV ]
vi: RA, RB - ien tr cach ien day dan A, B oi vi mass RV - tong tr vao cua von-ke Tng t khi von-ke c mac gia day B la co dong I2 qua RA.
2 = V VB V = RA R A + ( RB // RV )
T hai phng trnh tren suy ra:
102
CHNG 3
RA = R V
V VA VB V VA VB ; RB = R V VB VA
Neu nh RA RB khi von-ke V1 c mac gia day A vi trung tnh, c xem nh von-ke V1 mac noi tiep vi RB hai au von-ke V. Do o: R B = R V ( V 1) VA RV, th: RA = RV ( V 1) VB
Tng t nh vay neu RB
Nh vay neu ien ap V cua li ien khong oi th ien ap o gia mot cuon day dan ien vi trung tnh phu thuoc vao ien tr cach ien cua day dan ien th 2. Cho nen von-ke co the khac o theo ien tr cach ien.
Hai von-ke o ien tr cach ien
Hnh 3.20
Ba von-ke o ien tr cach ien
Hnh 3.21
T tren ta suy ra tr cach ien gia hai day dan ien co the o c bang cach mac nh hnh 3.20. Trong ieu kien bnh thng cua s cach ien, moi von-ke se cho ket qua ien ap nguon cung cap day dan. Bat ky s giam ien tr cach ien nao cua mot trong hai day dan, cung se lam giam cach o cua von-ke nay, trong khi von-ke con lai se tang tr so len. Trng hp ba day dan cua nguon ien ba pha, ien tr cach ien cua ba day dan c ch th bi ba von-ke (H.3.21). Neu nh ien tr cach ien cua day dan A giam xuong th von-ke VA giam, con VB, VC se co s gia tang tr so.
O IEN TR
103
Hnh 3.22: Von-ke c mac vi bien ap o
oi vi nguon ien cung cap tren 1kV th cac von-ke c mac qua bien ap ba pha o lng nh hnh 3.22. Bien ap ba pha dang nay khong thuan li khi hoat ong trong trnh trang xau xay ra la mot trong ba pha b cham at. Nh vay cuon s cap cua pha b cham at ngan mach, ien ap cac pha con lai tang len lam chay cuon s cap cua bien ap cho nen phai co s bao ve cho phan s cap cua bien ap.
o ien tr oan day ien b cham mass
Van e quan trong la xac nh c v tr cua cap dan ien b cham mass e mat thi gian va chi ph cho viec boc d ca oan day (neu loai cap ngam chon di at). Nhng h hong thng xay ra nh sau: Lp cach ien cua cap b be Lp cach ien b giam o cach ien, co s phong ien lam hong lp cach ien.
Hnh 3.23: Vong Murray o ien tr cham mass
Phng phap thng dung e xac nh v tr cham mass la vong th nghiem (test loop). Nhng phng phap nay u xac nh cho hong. Mach thng dung la vong Murray va vong Varley. ay cung la mot ng dung cua cau Wheatstone (H.3.23). Khi cau Wheatstone can bang (ieu chnh R2 va thay
104
CHNG 3
oi R1).
R2 Ra + Rb R X . Suy ra: RX (R1 + R2) = R1 (Ra + Rb) = R1 RX
Vay RX =
R1 ( Ra + Rb ) R1 + R2
Neu oan day RX co chieu dai LX; Ra co chieu dai La; Rb co chieu dai Lb. Cac day co cung ien tr suat, La = Lb = L va cung thiet dien A:
L L LX R1 = [ a + b ] ; A R1 + R2 A A LX = R1 2L ' R1 + R2
V du 3.13: oan day cap co cham mass c xac nh bang vong Murray can
bang khi R1 = 100 va R2 = 300. oan day A, B co chieu dai La = Lb = 5000m. Day cap dan ien ong chat va ong nhat.
Giai: Chieu dai cho cap b cham mass
L X = [ R1 /( R1 + R2 )] 2 L a = (100/ 400) 2 5000m = 2500m

hoac dung vong Varley.
Hnh 3.24: Vong Varley
Mach ien mac theo hnh 3.24, cau Wheatstone co them ien tr R3. ay la phng phap xac nh them ien tr day cham at chnh xac nhat va s ngan mach trong mot day cap co nhieu day dan ien. No c cai tien thch hp nhat t vong Murray. Gia s cho b cham mass tren day dan ien co ien tr Ra. Noi hai au day dan. Sau o khoa S v tr a ieu chnh R3 e sao cho cau can bang.
R R R2 Ra + Rb = . Suy ra: Ra + Rb = 3 2 R1 R3 R2
Nh vay ien tr day dan c xac nh. Sau o chuyen khoa S sang v
O IEN TR
105
' sao cho cau (vong VARLEY) can bang. Chung ta tr b, ieu chnh en tr R3
co:
R2 Ra + ( Rb RX ) ' = R 1 R a + R 1 Rb R1 R X ; R2RX + R2 R3 = R1 ' RX + R3

' RX(R1 + R2) = R1 (Ra + Rb) R2 R3
' R1 ( Ra + Rb ) R2 R3 R1 + R2
Vay:
RX =
V du 3.14: Trong mach hnh 3.24 R1 = 1k, R2 = 2k, chieu dai cua oan day
cap La = Lb = 10Km, ien tr cua day cap 0,02/m. Khi khoa S a ieu chnh R3 =100 th cau can bang, con khi S b, R3 = 99 th cau can bang. Xac nh LX cho day cham mass. Giai: Khi khoa S a:
Ra + Rb = R2 R3 2000 100 = = 200 R1 1000
Khi khoa S b:
RX =
' R1 ( Ra + Rb ) R2 R3 R1 + R2
(1000 200) ( 2000 99) = 0, 67 3000
Vay chieu dai: L X =
0, 67 = 335m 0, 02/m
3.7 O IEN TR AT
Coc o ien tr at
Thanh dan ien bang kim loai (thng bang ong) hoac nhieu thanh dan ien c ong xuong at, vung at can o ien tr, khi o chung ta co coc at. Sau o cac coc at nay c noi vao mach o bang nhng day dan ien.
ien tr at
ien tr cua vung at can o tiep xuc vi coc at se c xac nh bi ien ap ri tren ien tr at khi co dong ien i qua no. Trong thc te ien tr at phu thuoc vao ieu kien moi trng xung quanh (nhiet o, o am), thanh phan cua at.
106
Khoang cach gia cac coc at
CHNG 3
e cho ien tr at cua cac coc at khong anh hng vi nhau (ngha la cac ien tr coc A la RA khong b anh hng bi vung at cua coc B co ien tr at la RB). Ngi ta khao sat thc te nh hnh 3.25. Dong ien I i qua vung at gia hai coc at se tao ra ien ap: VAC = RAI vi: RA - ien tr at cua coc A VBC = RBI RB - ien tr at cua coc B Khi coc P c ong gia coc A va B bat ky v tr nao, th von ke gia coc AC co tr so thay oi theo ng bieu dien (H.3.25b). Nh vay ngoai pham vi 10m th ien ap VAC khong thay oi (cac iem ngoai 10m ang the). Nh vay hai coc at cach nhau 20m se co ien tr at khong anh hng len nhau. (Trong thc te hai coc cach nhau 10m en 20m co the xem nh hai coc at rieng biet).
Hnh 3.25: Khao sat ien tr at, va ien ap ri
tren ien tr at cung dong I i qua

Nguon ien ap cung cap cho mach o
Nguon tn hieu cung cap cho mach o la nguon tn hieu xoay chieu dang sin hoac xung vuong. Chung ta tranh dung nguon DC do anh hng cua ien giai se lam tang sai so o ien the ien cc. Neu dung ien li cua ien lc th phai dung bien ap cach ly tranh anh hng dong trung tnh (neu co do ien the li mat oi xng) va coc at cua day trung tnh. 3.7.2 Mach o ien tr at
Dung von-ke va ampe-ke
Phng phap trc tiep Mach o c mac nh hnh 3.26.
O IEN TR
107
Coc A: coc o ien tr at RX; Coc P: coc phu o ien ap; Coc C: coc phu o dong ien
Hnh 3.26: Mach o ien tr at bang von-ke va ampe-ke
Theo mach tng ng cua ien tr at cua coc A, P, C (H.3.27) ien tr cho bi von-ke V: VAP = RX I + RPIV vi I = I + IV cho bi ampe-ke. Neu: IV I th I I. Do o: RX
VA
Hnh 3.27
Hnh 3.28
Mach tng ng cua ba coc A, P, C
Mach o ien tr at bang phng phap gian tiep
Vay ien tr c xac nh bi tr so oc cua von-ke va ampe-ke. Do o neu chung ta quan tam en sai so do von-ke va ien tr coc phu thuoc ien ap th RX co sai so tng oi:
R = [ RB /( RB + RV )]100%
trong o: RB - ien tr at cua coc phu ien ap B RV - tong tr vao cua cua von-ke Nh vay e sai so cang nho th RB RV .
108
CHNG 3
Phng phap gian tiep: Trong trng hp nay o ien tr at tng coc nh hnh 3.28. Von-ke va ampe-ke co gia tr ien tr tng coc:
R A + RP = V1 1 V2 2
Sau o lan lt o ien ap cua hai coc BC va CA:

RP + RC =
Tng t nh vay: RC + R A =
V3 3
Sau o t ba phng trnh nay chung ta xac nh RA, RB, RC Trong phng phap nay ca ba coc at (gom coc o va hai coc phu) eu c xac nh, loai tr c anh hng sai so do ien tr coc phu gay ra nh a e cap trong phng phap trc tiep.
Dung cau Kohlrausch o ien tr at
ay la dang cau Wheatstone e o ien tr cua dung dch co tnh chat ien giai bang hai ien cc, no cung c ng dung e o ien tr at (H.3.29) ien tr RA+RB c xac nh khi cau can bang (giong nh phng phap gian tiep dung von-ke va ampe-ke).
R A + RB = R1 R3 R2
Hnh 3.29: o ien tr
Phng phap o ien tr at dung cau can bang co u iem la loai bo c dong ien tan chay qua vung at can o ien tr.
May o chuyen dung e o ien tr at
bang cau o
May o dung t so ke t ien: mach o nguyen ly hnh 3.30.
Dong ien I1 i qua cuon day I cua t so ke i qua vung at can o ien tr. Dong ien I2 i qua cuon day 2 co t so phu thuoc vao ien ap ri tren coc o va coc phu ien ap. ieu chnh bien tr RS, I2 thay oi. V VAP = (RS + r2) = RX I1. Suy ra I 2 /1 = RX /( RS + r2 ) ieu chnh RS cho en khi: I1 = I2 RX = RS +r2
O IEN TR
109
Nh vay vi RS tai tr so 2 /1 = 1 , se xac nh c RX khi r2 a biet trc. Trong thc te dong I1 qua t so ke la DC, con dong i1 chay qua vung at o la AC, do o co bo bien oi I1 (DC) sang i1 (AC) a vao coc o. Sau o dong i1 (AC) chuyen sang I1 (DC) tr ve may phat G mot chieu bang bo chnh lu, con ien ap VAP (AC) c chnh lu sang ien ap VAP (DC) tao ra dong ien I2 (DC). Nh vay trong cac may o co ien, dung may phat (quay tay) thng co truc quay gan lien vi bo bien oi DC sang AC, hoac chnh lu t AC ve DC dung hien tng c ien.
RS
I1 I2 G
M R RS
G MC
E1
I1 A
E2 P
I2 B
I1
E1 A
E2 P
I2 B
a)
Hnh 3.30: May o dung t so ke
b) a) Mach o nguyen ly; b) Mach o thc te
May o dung c cau ch th t ien (H.3.31): Mach o co hai v tr cua SW1
(cong tac chuyen mach) la v tr C dung e chnh may, ien tr chuan RC thay the ien tr at can o. v tr M: Mach o hoat ong vi ien tr at can o. T nguon phat xoay chieu G tao ra dong ien I i qua ien tr RC (khi chnh may) hay qua RX khi o ien tr at se tao ra ien ap: RCI1 hoac RXI1. ien ap nay c so sanh vi ien ap I2Ras vi I2 phu thuoc vao KII1, trong o KI la t so bien dong CT va Ras phu thuoc vao v tr S cua bien tr RV. Neu I2Ras khac RXI1 th V1 = I2Ras I1RX 0. Khi o V2 = KVV1 c chnh lu qua c cau ien t, kim ch th khac
110
CHNG 3
khong. Con chay S cua Rs c ieu chnh cho en khi V1 = 0, khi o kim ch th cua c cau ien t ch khong: I1RX = K1I1Ras Do o: RX = KIRas Nh vay ien tr Ras xac nh ien tr at RX.
Hnh 3.31: Mach o cua may o ien tr at
CT: Bien dong, VT: Bien ap
1- Coc phu ap; 2- Coc phu dong; 3- Coc at o
Hnh 3.32: S o khoi may o Hnh 3.33: Cach ong coc Mach o ien tr at co s ket hp vi mach ien t dung c cau t ien:
O IEN TR
111
S o khoi cua may o (H.3.32). Nguon tn hieu xung vuong tan so 500 Hz c tao ra nh mach dao ong dung transistor, co dong cung cap cho ien tr at can o vao khoang t 1020mA. Mach so sanh tach song ong bo (dung phng phap tach song ong bo), co nhiem vu va chnh lu va so sanh hai ien ap xoay chieu. EX = RX I va ES0 = RS0 KI I ieu chnh con chay e cho G ch 0 RX =
1 1 RS0 . Vi (KI = ). n n
Cach ong coc at e o cho nhng may o ien tr at sau nay (loai ien t): Ba coc at E (coc o); P (coc ien ap); C (coc dong ien) c noi vao
may o theo hnh 3.33. Khoang cach gia cac coc la t 5 en 10m. V tr cac coc tao ra mot goc ln hn 100o. Khoang cach EC, EP can phai ln hn cac coc trong trng hp ong thang hang.
Cach o ba ien ap ri tren coc at (H.3.34)
Co nhng may o ien tr at co phan o ien the ri tren coc at 1 vi coc at 2, khi o bo ch th tren may o cho biet ien ap ri tren hai coc. V du, o ien ap ri tren coc at c xem la coc an toan cua tai vi coc trung tnh cua li ien (H.3.34).
1- Coc phu ap (Coc trung tnh); 2- Coc at o
Hnh 3.34: o ien ap ri tren coc at
Neu ket qua o c ien ap di 10V th kha nang an toan chap nhan c va khi o chung ta co the o ien tr at cua coc at an toan cho tai. Trong trng hp ien ap tren ln hn 10V th viec o ien tr at cua coc at b anh hng va kha nang an toan phai lu y do co s hien dien cua dong r va s hien hu cua dong trung tnh do s mat can bang cua li ien.
3.8 O IEN TR TRONG V.O.M. IEN T

3.8.1 Nguyen ly
112
CHNG 3
e o c ien tr trong may o ien t, ngi ta cung chuyen ai lng ien tr sang ai lng ien ap, sau o a vao mach o ien ap cua von-ke ien t. Mach o ien tr co hai dang: Noi tiep Mac re. 3.8.2 Mach o ien tr dang noi tiep Mach o c mac nh hnh 3.35 Mach o tren co nam tam o 1 10 100 1k 10k. Ngha la tr so oc c nhan vi he so nhan cua tam o. V du: tam 100 tr so oc tren mat ch th la 36 th ket qua o cua RX = 3600. Mach thay oi tam o gom co cac ien tr chuan noi tiep vi RX, cac ien tr chuan nay la loai ien tr chnh xac, sai so nho hn 1%. Tam o ien tr cang ln th ien tr chuan moi tam o cang tang. Dong ien cua moi tam o giam tng ng (tam o tang 10 th dong ien giam 10). Khi RX = 0 (noi tac hai au AB), Vo = 0V Khi RX (hai au AB e h), Vo # 1,5V V tong tr vao cua mach o ien ap DC rat ln so vi ien tr chuan cua tam o, cho nen ien ap ri tren ien tr chuan khong ang ke trong trng hp AB e h.
Hnh 3.35: Mach o ien tr dang noi tiep
Trng hp RX bat ky vi tam o tng ng co ien tr chuan R1. Chung ta co: RX Vo = E RX + R1
O IEN TR
113
Hnh 3.36: Thang o ien tr V du 3.15: tam o 1k ien tr o co tr so RX = 1k. Khi o Vo co tr
so nh nhau.
1k = 0,75V 1k + 1k Nh vay kim ch th se ch so 1 gia thang o. Neu RX = 0,5K th: 0, 5k Vo = 1, 5V = 0, 5V 1k + 0, 5k Nh vay kim ch th ch so 0,5 1/3 thang o. Neu RX = 2k th: 2k Vo = 1, 5V = 1V 1k + 2 k Vo = 1, 5V
Nh vay kim ch th so 2 2/3 thang o. Vay thang o ien tr trong trng hp nay khong tuyen tnh. 3.8.3 Mach o ien tr dang mac re Mach o c mac theo hnh 3.37. Trong mach o nay: Khi RX = 0, khi o Vo = 0V Khi RX th Khi RX co tr so bat ky.
Vo = E R2 R1 + R2
Vo = E
[ R2 // RX ]
R1 + [ R2 // RX ]
=E
RX R2 RX R2 + R1 ( R2 + RX )
Theo bieu thc nay khi:

RX = ( R1 // R2 ) = R1 R2 R2 1 th Vo = E 2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Khi o kim ch th 1/2 thang o
114
CHNG 3
Hnh 3.37
Hnh 3.38
Mach o ien tr dang mac re

V du 3.16: Co mach o ien tr sau ay:
Mach o ien tr loai mac re
C cau ch th co: Imax = 50A, Rm = 2k, E = 1,5V Khi RX = 10 tam 1.. RX = 100 tam 10 Th I M = (1/ 2 ) I max xac nh R1, R2. Giai: Mach tng ng Thevenin cho mach o (H.3.39).
Et = E R2 R1 + R2
Rt = [R1 // R2] V mach o co mach khuech ai he so khuech ai bang 1 cho nen: Vi = Vo, khi RX th: Vi (Vo)max = RmImax. (Vi)max = (Vo)max = 100mV Do o khi: RX = 10 = Th:
R1 R2 R1 + R2 R2 1 1 Et = E 2 2 R1 + R2
Hnh 3.39
Mach tng ng Thevenin
(1) (2)
Vo = Vi = 50mV =
T phng trnh (1) va (2) ta co: 100mV 1 R2 = ( R1 + R2 ) = ( R1 + R2 ) E 15
O IEN TR
115
R1R2 = 10(R1 + R2) = 1015R2 Suy ra: R1 = 150 va R2 = 150/14 = 10,7 . Trong trng hp RX = 100 ( tam 10). Th R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 ) = 100 Suy ra R1 R2 = 100(R1 + R2) = 10015R2 R1 = 1500 va R2 = 107,14 Vay mach o co the ve lai nh tren co hai tam o (H.3.40).
Hnh 3.40: Mach o ien tr co hai tam o
3.8.4 Mach o dong ien dung nguon dong khong oi Trong cac mach o ien tr tren ta dung nguon ap khong oi, nhng ien ap o c chuyen t ai lng ien tr co dong ien i qua thay oi theo ien tr o, cho nen ien ap o nay a vao mach o khong tuyen tnh theo ien tr RX, dan en thang o khong eu. e cho ien ap o tuyen tnh theo ien tr RX, ngi ta s dung nguon dong ien Hnh 3.41: Mach o nguyen khong oi khi RX thay oi: Vo = IRX ly nguon dong khong Trong trng hp nay RX Vo tr so ln nhat cua tam o ien ap RX 0 th Vo = 0V Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh (linear ohmmeter) thng c dung trong may o a dung ien t ch th so (digital multimeter).
Mach co nguon dong khong oi dung transistor (BJT)
116
CHNG 3
Nguon dong ien khong oi cung cap cho ien tr RX la dong IC cua Q1, R1, R2 ien tr phan cc cho cc nen Q1 theo ien ap cua mach a cho. Nh vay ien tr RE co ien ap 5V khong oi. Gia s, ieu chnh RE e cho IC = 1mA. Khi o ien tr RX = 5k th Vo = 5k 1mA = 5V (tr so ln nhat cua tam o). Khi o ien tr ln hn 5k th phai chuyen tam o bang cach thay oi nguon dong IC. V du: thay oi RE e cho dong IC = 0,1mA, khi o ien tr o c en 50k. Neu khong muon thay oi dong I (hoac khong the cho IC qua nho khi RX tang len ln) th thay oi tam o ien ap tng ng vi ien tr RX.
Hnh 3.42
Hnh 3.43
Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh
Mach o dung nguon dong khong oi
O IEN TR
117
Dung nguon dong khong oi bang Op-Amp
Theo ac tnh mach khuech ai dung Op-Amp: Vo = ( RX /R ) E . Chung ta xem nh dong I khong oi: I = E /R ; Vo = IRX. Khi RX thay oi th Vo thay oi tuyen tnh theo RX. V du: E = +3V; R = 3k. Xac nh Vo theo RX. Ta co: Vo = IRX, vi: I = E /R = 3/ 3k = 1mA Vay Vo = RX (1mA) V du: RX = 100 Vo = 100mV. Neu Vo co tr so bao hoa 5V (ac tnh Op-Amp) th khi o RX = 5k la ln nhat. Vay muon thay oi tam o th thay oi R e co s thay oi I (nguon dong) tng ng vi moi tam o. Mach o cu the dung nguon dong on nh nh s ieu khien cua mach khuech ai Op-Amp. D1, D2, D3, D4 la loai 1N4154. R1 = 330; R2 = 3,3 k ; R3 = 33 k ; R4 = 330 k RS = 2,2M; R6 = 1M (ien tr tam o).
Hnh 3.44: Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh dung Op-Amp
118
CHNG 3
R = 10k: ien tr chnh tr so ln nhat cho mach o ien tr RZ = 10k: ien tr chnh 0 cho mach o Q1, Q2 (BC107): transistor co he so khuech ai ln Q3 (BC309C): transistor tao nguon dong ien cho mach o ien tr.
S hoat ong cua mach o: Mach co hai Op-Amp 741.
Op-Amp(1): Co nhiem vu ket hp vi Q3 tao ra dong ien IC3 cua Q3 c on nh khong b thay oi iem phan cc do nhiet o cua moi trng va cua ban than transistor Q3. Op-Amp(2): Dung lam mach o ien tr, mach nay co he so khuech ai bang 1.
Qui trnh chnh Op-Amp ke: Trc het cho RX = 0 e chnh v tr 0 cho
thang o (co the chnh tr so ) moi lan thay oi tam o eu phai chnh tr so ln nhat cho thang o e tranh sai so phi tuyen do ien tr tam o gay ra.
BAI TAP
3.1. Mot ohm-ke loai noi tiep co mach o (H.B.3.1). Nguon Eb = 1,5V, c cau o co Ifs = 100A. ien tr R1 + Rm = 15k. a) Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o khi Rx = 0 b) Tnh tr gia Rx e cho kim ch th co o lech bang 1/2 FSD, 1/4 FSD va 3/4 FSD (FSD: o lech toi a thang o).
Hnh B.3.1
O IEN TR
119
Giai:
a) I m = b)
Eb 1, 5V = = 100A (FSD) Rx + R1 + Rm 0 + 15k
o lech bang 1/2 FSD: 100A Im = = 50A (v c cau o tuyen tnh). 2 E E 1, 5V Rx + R1 + Rm = b Rx = b ( R1 + Rm ) = 15k = 15k Im Im 50A o lech bang 1/4 FSD: 100A 1, 5V Im = = 25A ; Rx = 15k = 45k 4 25A o lech bang 3/4 FSD: Im = 0,75100A = 75A; Rx =
1, 5V 15k = 5k 75A
3.2. Mot ohm-ke co mach o (H.B.3.2). Biet: Eb = 1,5V; R1 = 15k; Rm = 50; R2 = 50, c cau o co Ifs = 50A. Tnh tr gia Rx khi kim ch th co o lech toi a: (FSD); 1/2 FSD va 3/4 FSD.
Giai: Kim lech toi a (FSD):
Im = 50A; 50A50 = 2,5mV

I2 =
Vm
Im Rm =
Hnh B.3.2
Vm 2, 5mV = = 50A R2 50
Eb 1, 5V = = 15k I b 100A
Dong ien mach chnh: Ib = I2 + Im = 50A + 50A = 100A.

Rx + R1 =
Rx = (Rx + R1) R1 = 15k 15k = 0 Kim lech 1/2 FSD: Im = 25A; Vm = 25A50 = 1,25mV; I 2 = Ib = 25A + 25A = 50A
1, 25mV = 25A 50
Rx + R1 =
1, 5V = 30k ; Rx = 30k 15k = 15k 50A
120
CHNG 3
Kim lech 3/4 FSD: Im = 0,75 50A = 37,5A; Vm = 37,5A50 = 1,875mV
I2 =
1, 875mV = 37, 5A ; Ib = 37,5A + 37,5A = 75A. 50 1, 5V = 20k Rx = 20k 15k = 5k 75A
Rx + R1 =
3.3. Mot Ohm-ke co mach o bai 2. Co nguon Eb giam xuong ch con 1,3V. Tnh tr gia mi cua R2? Tnh lai cac tr gia Rx tng ng vi o lech cua kim: 1/2 FSD, 3/4 FSD.
Giai: Khi Rx = 0; I b
Eb 1, 3V = = 86, 67A Rx + R1 0 + 15k Vm 2, 5mV = = 68,18 I2 36, 67A
Im = 50A (FSD); I2 = Ib Im = 86,67A 50A = 36,67A Vm = ImRm = 50A50 = 2,5mV; R2 = Kim co o lech 1/2 FSD: Im = 25A; Vm = 25A50 = 1,25mV
I2 = Vm 1, 25mV = = 18, 33A R2 68,18 Vm 1, 3V = = 30k Rx = 30k 15k = 15k Ib 43, 33A
Ib = Im + I2 = 25A + 18,33A = 43,33A

Rx + R1 =
Kim co o lech 3/4 FSD: Im = 0,7550A = 37,5A; Vm = 37,5A50 = 1,875mV

I2 = 1, 875mV = 27, 5A ; 68,18
Ib = 37,5A + 27,5A = 65A
Rx + R1 =
Vm 1, 3V = = 20k Rx = 20k 15k = 5k Ib 65A
3.4. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o va o lech cua kim ch th cua ohm-ke co mach o nh hnh ve khi ta s dung tam o R1 trong hai trng hp: a) Rx = 0 va b) Rx = 24.
O IEN TR
121
Hnh B.3.4 Giai: Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R1 trong hai
trng hp Rx = 0 va Rx = 24 nh sau: Khi Rx = 0: I b =

Ib = 1, 5V 14 + [10 //( 9, 99 k + 2, 875k + 3, 82k )]
1, 5V = 62, 516mA . 14 + (10 // 16, 685k ) 10 10 + 16, 685k
Dong Im chay qua c cau o:

I m = 62, 516mA
Im = 37,5A = Ifs: kim lech toi a. Khi Rx = 24:
Ib =
1, 5V = 31, 254 mA 24 + 14(10 // (16, 685k )

10 = 18,72A: kim lech 1/2 FSD 10 + 16, 685k
I m = 31, 254 mA
3.5. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o va o lech cua kim ch th cua Ohm-ke co mach o nh bai 4, khi ta s dung tam o R100 va R 10K trong trng hp Rx = 0.
122
CHNG 3
Hnh B.3.5 Giai: Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R100 va Rx = 0.
Ib =
1, 5V 1470 + [1k //( 9k + 2, 875k + 3, 82k )] 1, 5V = 622, 38A 1470 + (1k // 15, 695k )
1k = 37, 5A = I fs : kim ch th lech toi a. 1k + 15, 695k
I m = 622, 38A
Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R10k va Rx = 0.
Ib =
15V 236k + [10 k //(2, 875 k + 3, 82 k )]
15V = 62, 5A 236k + [10k // 6, 695k ]

10k = 37, 5A = I fs : kim ch th lech toi a. 10k + 6, 695k
I M = 62, 5A
3.6. Ta o ien tr bang cach dung phng phap V va A c mac re dai. Ampe-ke ch 0,5A, von-ke ch 500V. Ampe-ke co Ra= 10, von-ke s dung tam o 1000V va co o nhay la 10k/V. Tnh tr gia R.
Giai: E + EA = 500V; I = 0,5A
Ra + R =
E + E A 500V = = 1000 0, 5 A I
Hnh B.3.6
R = 1000 Ra = 1000 10 = 990 3.7. Cac ampe-ke, von-ke va ien tr R bai 6 c mac re ngan. Hay tnh o ch cua von-ke va ampe-ke (nguon cung cap van la 500V)
Hnh B.3.7
O IEN TR
123
Giai: Noi tr cua von-ke:
Rv = 1000V10k/V = 10M. RV // R = 10M // 990 = 989,9 o ch cua von-ke: E =

500V ( RV // R ) 5000V 989, 9 = = 495V Ra + ( Rv // R ) 10 + 989, 9
o ch cua ampe-ke = I + I V =
E 495V = = 0, 5 A . RV // R 989, 9
c cau o co Ifs = 75 A va
3.8. Mot Ohm-ke noi tiep co ien tr R1 = 50k
RM = 100 . ien tr mac shunt R2 = 300 , nguon cung cap E = 5V. Hay cho
biet tr gia ien tr Rx o c tng ng vi o lech cua kim: 0,25%; 50%; 75%; va 100%FSD. 3.9. Mot Ohm-ke noi tiep co cac thanh phan sau: nguon cung cap Eb = 3V , ien tr noi tiep R1 = 30k , ien tr shunt R2 = 50 , c cau o co Ifs = 50A , ien tr c cau o Rm = 50. Cho biet tr gia Rx o c tng ng vi o lech: 1/4 FSD, 1/2FSD va FSD. 3.10. Hay ve mach o cho ohm-ke noi tiep co nhieu tam o. Hay giai thch s hoat ong cua mach. 3.11. Gia s ohm-ke bai 3.9 co Eb giam xuong con 2,5V, hay xac nh tr gia mi R2 can phai ieu chnh, va nh the tnh lai cac tr gia Rx tng ng vi o lech: 1/2FSD va 3/4FSD. 3.12. Ta o Rx bang cach dung phng phap von-ke + ampe-ke co cach mac re dai. Ampe-ke co noi tr Rx = 10 , von-ke co o nhay 10k/V . Ampe-ke va von-ke co cap chnh xac la 1%. Tnh tr gia that cua Rx khi ampe-ke ch 0,5A tam o 1A, va von-ke ch 500V tam o 1000V. 3.13. Ta o Rx bang phng phap von-ke + ampe-ke co cach mac re ngan. Ampe-ke co Ra = 0,1 , von-ke s dung tam o 5V, co o nhay 10k/V . Khi von-ke ch 5V, ampe-ke ch 0,6mA tam o 1mA. a) Tnh tr gia o c Rx . b) Tnh tr gia that Rx neu von-ke va ampe-ke co cap chnh xac 1%. 3.14. Hay tnh R 3 e cau Wheatstone co the o c Rx trong khoang t:
1 e n 100k bang phng phap can bang.
124
CHNG 3
Hnh B.3.14
Hnh B.3.15
3.15. Tnh dong ien I g i qua ien ke (H.B.3.15). 3.16. Neu ien ke hnh B3.16 co o nhay Sg = 10mm /A , hay xac nh o lech cua ien ke?
Hnh B.3.16
3.17. Cho mach o nh hnh B.3.17. Xac nh Eo theo Eb va phan t cau o trong cac trng hp sau: a) R1 = R + R; R2 = R3 = R4 = R ( R b) R1 = R3 = R + R; R2 = R4 = R ( R
R ) R ) R )
c) R1 = R3 = R + R; R2 = R4 = R R ( R
Hnh B.3.17
O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA HO CAM
125
Chng

4.1 DUNG VON-KE, AMPE-KE O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA HO CAM
4.1.1 o ien dung Mach o c mac theo hnh 4.1. Tong tr cua ien dung CX c xac nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke (neu s hao mat do ien moi cua tu ien khong ang ke).
Z CX =
V 1 I = ; Suy ra: CX = I CX V
Hnh 4.1: Mach o CX dung von-ke va
Hnh 4.2: Mach o CX, RX dung von-ke,
ampe-ke
ampe-ke va watt-ke
Nguon tn hieu cung cap cho mach o phai la nguon tn hieu hnh sin, co o meo dang nho (hoa tan c xem khong ang ke). Bien o va tan so cua tn hieu phai on nh (khong thay oi). Neu tn hieu co song hai (hoa tan) bac cao th se tao ra sai so ang ke cho ket qua o. Trong trng hp mach o dung them watt-ke (H.4.2), ien tr r RX cua ien dung CX c xac nh bi bieu thc sau: RX = P/I2
126
2 Tong tr cua ien dung: Z = V /I = RX + (1/CX )2 2 Va ien dung can o: CX = 1/ Z 2 RX
T ba bieu thc tren ta suy ra: CX = 1/[ V 2 /I 2 ( P /I )2 ] Do o: CX =
2
V 22 P 2 1 sin , (v = ) 2 CX
S hao mat cong suat do ien dung cho bi:
P = VI cos = I 2
: goc mat cua ien dung. Neu goc mat nho: tg sin = PCX/I2.
S chnh xac cua phng phap o nay co the bang hoac ln hn phng phap o trc. Phng phap dung watt-ke khong chnh xac khi xac nh nhng ien dung co goc mat nho. e o goc mat c chnh xac, ngi ta thng dung phng phap cau o (e cap phan sau). 4.1.2 o ien cam
Hnh 4.3: Mach o LX, RX dung von-ke
Hnh 4.4: Mach o LX, RX dung von-ke,
va ampe-ke
ampe-ke va watt-ke
Mach o ien cam LX c mac nh hnh 4.3. Tong tr cua ien cam LX V 2 2 c xac nh: Z = = RX + L2 X I va ien cam: LX = 1 Z 2 R X 2
vi: Z - c xac nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke; RX - c xac nh trc. Trong trng hp dung them watt-ke nh hnh 4.4 cuon day co ien cam 1 LX c xac nh: L X = V 22 P 2 2 vi P la cong suat ton hao cua cuon day c xac nh bi watt-ke .
127
4.1.3 o he so ho cam M
Hnh 4.5: Mach o M dung von-ke va
Hnh 4.6: o M cua hai cuon day mac
ampe-ke
noi tiep (quan cung chieu)
Theo mach o hnh 4.5, he so ho cam M gia hai cuon day c xac nh bi: M = V /I ; V va I cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke. Ngoai ra chung ta cung biet: M = n1 n2 /R n1, n2: so vong day quan vao cuon day 1 va 2. R: t tr cua mach t Trong trng hp hai cuon day c mac noi tiep vi nhau tren cung mach t, co cung chieu quan (cc tnh cua cuon day c nh tren hnh 4.6), th tong so ien cam cua hai cuon day c xac nh: La = L1 + L2 + 2M Do o La c xac nh bi tong tr Za cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke:
La =
1 2 Za ( R1 + R2 )2 vi Za - tong tr cua hai cuon day.
Trong trng hp hai cuon day c mac noi tiep vi nhau tren cung mach t co chieu quan ngc nhau (cc tnh cua cuon day c nh tren hnh 4.7, khi o tong so ien cam cua hai cuon day c xac nh. Lb = L1 + L2 2M va Lb cung c xac nh bi tong tr Zb cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke theo bieu thc: La =
Hnh 4.7: o M cua hai cuon day
mac noi tiep (quan ngc
1 2 Zb ( R1 + R2 )2
128
CHNG 4
T hai gia tr cua La, Lb co the suy ra he so ho cam M nh sau: La Lb = 4M Hoac M = ( L a L b )/ 4 4.1.4 o ien dung va ien cam trong may o a dung (V.O.M) Co mot so may V.O.M ngoai chc nang o ien ap, dong ien, ien tr, con co chc nang o ien dung hoac ien cam. Vi khoang tam o cho ien dung, ien cam han che. Mach o cung dung nguyen ly o tong tr, nhng tr so nay c chuyen sang nhng ai lng xoay chieu, c ch th tren thang o, theo gia tr (n v mH hoac F) cua ien dung hoac ien cam. Theo mach o nguyen ly hnh 4.8.
Hnh 4.8: o CX va LX bang V.O.M
eS: nguon tn hieu a biet c bien o va tan so (co trong may o V.O.M). Bo ch th G bao gom mach chnh lu dong xoay chieu vi c cau ien t. Dong ien I (tr hieu dung) qua G phu thuoc vao tr so CX hoac LX. Khi ES (tr hieu dung) va = 2f (tan so cua tn hieu eS) a c xac nh va on nh th ta co I = ESCX hoac I = ES/LX.
4.2 DUNG CAU O O IEN DUNG VA IEN CAM

4.2.1 Cau Wheatstone xoay chieu e n gian ta coi cau o AC c cau tao giong nh cau o Wheatstone mot chieu (cau o DC). Cac phan t cua cau la ien tr, ien dung hoac ien cam. Nguon cung cap la tn hieu sin (o meo dang nho), tan so am tan (khoang 1kHz hoac tan so ien li). Phng phap o dung cho cau o AC giong nh cau o DC. oi vi phng phap can bang hoac khong can bang, chung ta ch e cap en phng phap can bang cho cau o AC.
ieu kien can bang cho cau o AC Theo mach o cua cau o AC (H.4.9):
Z1 . Z3 = Z2 . Z4 T phng trnh nay ta co s can bang theo
Hnh 4.9
Cau Wheatstone AC
129
ieu kien: Can bang suat: Z1 Z 3 = Z 2 Z 4 Can bang pha: Z1 + Z 3 = Z 2 + Z 4 Neu khai trien so phc cua phng trnh can bang, ta co: Can bang phan thc: Re[Z1Z3] = Re[Z2Z4] Can bang phan ao: Im[Z1Z3] = Im[Z2Z4]
Thiet b ch th s can bang cua cau o AC Tai nghe (earphone hoac headphone): gia thanh re, tng oi nhay, c dung pho bien co kha nang phan biet c s can bang cua cau mot cach tng oi chnh xac. Tuy nhien con phu thuoc vao o thnh tai cua ngi lam th nghiem.
Hnh 4.10: Cac thiet ke ch th can bang
a) Tai nghe; b) ien ke AC c) ien ke AC co khuech ai; d) Dao ong ky tia am cc Von-ke ien t hoac ien ke AC: ien ke DC/ ket hp vi mach chnh lu hoac bo bien oi AC/DC chung ta co ien ke AC. Muon tang o nhay cho cau AC chung ta them mach khuech ai cho ien ke AC (H.4.10). Thiet b nay chnh xac hn va khach quan hn so vi tai nghe. Ngoai ra con co the co nhieu tam o nhay khac nhau thay oi theo ien ap khong can bang cua cau. Dao ong ky tia am cc: Theo ieu kien thuan li cua phong th nghiem, neu co c dao ong ky, chung ta cung co the dung e kiem tra s can bang cua cau mot cach chnh xac hn vi moi tn hieu tan so bat ky cung cap cho cau.
Cac phan t mau (ien tr mau, ien cam mau, tu ien mau) dung trong cau AC
ien tr mau
130
CHNG 4
Hnh 4.11: a) Mach tng ng cua ien tr tan so cao
b) Kieu quan so vong thuan nghch ke can bang nhau c) Kieu quan Curtis va Grover oi vi phan t ien tr hoat ong tn hieu xoay chieu, gia tr ien tr thng ln hn trong trng hp hoat ong vi dong ien DC. Hieu ng ngoai mat cua day dan (skin effect) phu thuoc vao tan so tn hieu, thiet dien day dan va ien tr suat. tan so am thanh (1kHz) hieu ng nay khong ang ke khi day co ien tr suat ln va thiet dien nho c s dung. oi vi tn hieu AC co tan so cao i qua ien tr mach tng ng cua ien tr co dang mach tng ng nh hnh 4.11a. e giam c ien cam ky sinh ngi ta quan so vong thuan nghch ke can nhau. Tuy nhien e anh hng cua tu ien ky sinh giam ngi ta quan day dan theo kieu Curtis va Grover, khi ien tr co gia tr ln ngi ta quan tren ba mong theo kieu an ro. Tu ien: Trong thc te dong ien I qua tu ien khong lech pha 900 oi vi ien ap ri tren tu ien v co ton hao ben trong tu ien. Ton hao nay do ien moi trong tu ien co ien tr r (khong cach ien hoan toan). Do o mach tng ng cua tu ien c dien ta theo hnh 4.12. Neu goi la goc mat cua ien dung do ton hao cong suat tren ien dung, th ta co: P = VI cos = VI sin, vi = 2 Neu nho, cong suat hao mat tren ien dung P = VI. Cac tu ien mau dung trong cau o xoay chieu c che tao bang cac ien moi co ton hao rat t (o cach ien tot), goc mat co nh khong phu thuoc vao tan so tn hieu va nhiet o cua moi trng. Co nhieu loai tuy theo khoang tr so tu ien can s dung.
131
Hnh 4.12: a) Mach tng ng cua ien dung khi ln
b) nho; c) Gian o vect V-I Tu ien co ien moi la khong kh: Tr so ien dung rat nho khoang vai tram pF, goc mat nho khong e bui hay am. Tu ien mica: ien moi la vat lieu mica co ien dung t vai pF 4 (picofarad) en 0,1F (microfarad), goc mat nho (khoang 10 rad). Tu ien bang Polystyrene: Co ac tnh khong phu thuoc vao tan so nhng anh hng v nhiet o rat ln, ch s dung di 70oC, co goc mat nho, co the tch nho hn tu ien mica neu co cung tr so. Ngoai ra, trong cong nghiep chung ta thng gap tu ien giay. ien moi la giay tam dung dch cach ien, thng co tr so ln nhng goc mat cung ln. Cuon day: Co ien cam L, ien tr R cua day quan va co mach tng ng tan so cao nh hnh 4.13 con ien dung ky sinh gia cac vong day quan cua cuon day khong ang ke tan so tn hieu am tan, nhng c quan tam en tan so cao.
Hnh 4.13: a) Mach tng ng cua cuon day khi Q nho
b) tan so cao; c) Khi Q ln Cac ien cam mau c che tao di dang ong day co kch thc xac nh chnh xac. Cac ien cam mau thay oi c nh hai ong day ghep noi tiep va phan thay oi c la loi cua cuon day. Tr so ien cam thay oi c phu thuoc vao v tr cua loi.
132
CHNG 4
4.2.2 Cau o n gian o ien dung va ien cam Cau o ien dung: Mach o c mac theo hnh 4.14. Z1: la tu ien mau C1 (co the thay oi c tr so) Z2: tu ien can o CX Z3, Z4: la nhng ien tr mau thay oi c hoac la nhng hop ien tr thay oi. Khi cau can bang D ch 0. Z 1 Z4 = Z 2 Z3;
R 1 1 R3 = R4 ; Suy ra: CX = 3 C1 R4 j CX j C1
Vi gia tr cau o CX bat ky, chung ta ieu chnh t so R3 R4 va C1 (neu la tu ien mau thay oi c) cho cau can bang e xac nh CX.
Hnh 4.14
Hnh 4.15
Cau o CX n gian
Cau o LX n gian
Cau o ien cam cuon day: Mach o c theo hnh 4.15 Z1: cuon day mau L1; Z2: cuon day do LX R3, R4: la ien tr mau (hop ien tr) thay oi c. Khi cau o at c ieu kien can bang: Z2R4 = Z1R3; jLXR4 = jLR3; L X = ( R3 /R4 ) L Trong hai cau o n gian tren chung ta ch xac nh thuan tuy gia tr CX va LX. Khong xac nh s hao mat tren ien dung cung nh tren ien cam can o. 4.2.3 Cau pho quat (universal bridge) o ien dung va ien cam
He so hao mat cua ien dung: Trong thc te mach tng ng cua ien dung co hai dang tuy theo s hao mat cua ien dung. Do o chat lng cua ien dung c anh gia qua he so D cua ien dung (D factor).
133
Trng hp ien dung co hao mat nho: tr so D nho mach tng ng bao gom [CX + RX] (H.4.16). He so D c xac nh bang bieu thc: Re Z X / Im( Z X ) = D = tg Nh vay vi ZX = RX +
RX 1 ; D= = RX CX j C X (1/)CX
Theo bieu thc tren D thng co gia tr nho (D<0,1).
Hnh 4.16: Mach tng ng cua C, L
Trng hp ien dung co hao mat ln, he so D ln. Mach tng ng cua ien dung [CX//RX]. Tong tr Z cua ien dung co dang: He so D c xac nh: D =
1 1 = + j CX ZX RX
(D > 0,1: D ln).
1/RX 1 = ; CX RX CX
He so Q cua cuon day: Pham chat cua cuon day co ien cam LX c xac nh bang he so Q. Neu cuon day co s hao mat nho (ien tr cua cuon day nho) th co mach tng ng RX noi tiep LX co he so Q cua cuon day la:
Q= pha n a o ZX , (ngc lai vi he so cua ien dung) pha n th c ZX LX ( tr so nho ) , (Q < 10: Q nho). RX
Q* =
Neu cuon day co s hao mat ln (ien tr cua cuon day ln) th mach 1 1 1 tng ng (RX // LX): = + ZX RX j RX
Q= 1/ L X R = X (tr so ln); 1/RX L X
(Q > 10: Q ln).
Tuy theo gia tr cua D (ien dung ky sinh), Q (ien cam) ln hn hoac nho se co mach cau o pho quat cho tng loai.
Cau pho quat o ien dung: Cau pho quat o ien dung gom co hai loai ien dung co he so D ln va nho (H.4.47).
134
CHNG 4
Hnh 4.17: Cau pho quat o ien dung: a) Cau Sauty; b) Cau Nernst
Trong mach cau [RX + CX]. Khi cau can bang:

R1 j /C1 RX j /C3 = R3 R4
Can bang phan thc: RX = R1 ( R4 /R3 ) Can bang phan ao: 1/CXR4 = 1/C1R3; RX = ( R3 /R4 )C1 T ket qua o c CX, RX chung ta xac nh c he so D cho ien dung:
D = C X R X = R3 R C1 4 R1 = C1R1 R4 R3
Cho nen cau o pho quat cho chung ta gia tr D khi , R1, C1 c xac nh.
V du 4.1: C1 = 0,1F; R3 = 10k. ieu chnh: R1 = 125; R4 = 14,7k th cau can
bang xac nh CX, RX, D biet rang tan so tn hieu so cung cap cho cau f = 100 Hz.
Giai: Theo ieu kien can bang cua cau:
CX = RX =
R3 10k C1 = 0,1F ; CX = 0,068F R4 14, 7 k R3 14,7 k 125 = 183, 3 R1 = R4 10k
He so D = CXRX = 2100Hz0,068F183,8 = 0,008
135
Trong phng phap o CX dung cau pho quat dang nay. Tr so o CX, RX khong phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu. Con trong mach cau o ien dung [C1//R1], C1, R1 cung c chuyen sang dang [C1//R1] khi cau can bang dan en: Z 1Z 4 = Z2 Z3 ; R3(1/R1 + j Can bang phan thc Z3(1/Z1) = Z4(1/Z2) C1)R4(1/RX + j CX)
R3 R R = 4 ; RX = 4 R1 R1 RX R3
Can bang phan ao R3C1 = R4CX; CX = (R3/R4)C1 T o ta xac nh c he so D: D = 1/( CXRX) = 1/( C1 R 1 ) Nh a phan tch tren tuy theo o r cua tu ien chung ta co RX mac song song vi CX, RX la ien tr cua chat ien moi con CX la tr so thc cua tu ien, nh vay neu o r cua tu ien cang nho th RX cang ln. Neu o r ln th RX co gia tr nho. Cho nen mach tng ng cua ien dung trong cau o tao thuan li cho viec xac nh CX, RX. u iem cua cac cau o tren khong phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu. Nhng ve phng dien tong tr cua hai mach tng ng eu co tong tr nh nhau. Do o co s quan he gia thanh phan thuan tr RP va khang tr XP vi thuan tr RS va khang tr XS, chung c xac nh nh sau: Trong mach tng ng [CS + RS]: Z S = RS j(1/CS Trong mach tng ng [CP // RP]: ) = RS jXS
YP = 1/RP + j CP = GP + j BP ; YP = 1/Z P = tong dan

vi: GP - ien dan thuan (n v Siemen); BP - khang dan Theo ac tnh co cung tong tr nh nhau: Z S = Z P = 1/YP
RS j X S =
Hoac:
G j BP 1 = P 2 2 GP + j BP GP + BP R + jXS 1 = S 2 2 RS j X S RS + XS
GP + j BP =
Can bang phan thc:
GP =
R 1 1 2 + 2 2 ]/RS = 2 S 2 ; RP = [ RS RP RS + XS CS
Can bang phan ao:
136
CHNG 4
BP =
Suy ra:
XS
2 RS
2 XS
CP =
2 RS
2 2 + (1/CS )
1/CS
CP =
CS
2 2 2 CS 1 + RS
Cau pho quat o ien cam: Cau pho quat o ien cam cung gom co hai dang dung cho loai ien cam co he so Q nho va Q ln (H.4.18). Trong mach cau o [LX + RX]: Cau Maxwell.
Khi cau thoa ieu kien can bang: Can bang phan thc: Can bang phan ao:
RX R = 1; RX R3
R X + j L X 1 = R1 ( + j C3) R4 R3 RX = R1 R4 R3
LX = C3 R1 ; R4
L X = C 3 R1 R 4
Do o he so Q cua cuon day [LX +RX] c xac nh:

Q=
L X C3 R1 R4 = = C3R3. RX R1 R4 / R3
Hnh 4.18: Cau pho quat o ien cam cuon day
a) Cau Maxwell-Wien;
b) Cau Hay
V du 4.2: Trong cau Maxwell (H.4.18), ien dung mau C3 = 0,1F, tan so tn hieu
cung cap cho cau f = 100Hz. Khi cau can bang R1 = 1,26k; R3 = 470 va R4 = 500, tnh ien cam LX va RX, he so Q.
Giai: Theo ieu kien can bang cua cau:
LX = C3R1R4 = 0,110 F1,2610 500 = 6310
H = 63mH
137
RX = R1
R4 1, 26 103 500 3 = 1,3410 = 1,34k = R3 470 L X 2 100 H z 63 103 H 6 = = 2954010 # 0,03 3 RX 1, 34 10
Tr so Q cua cuon day:
Q=
Con trong mach cau o [LX//RX], cau Hay, khi cau thoa man ieu kien can bang:
R1 R4 =
1 j j j 1 ( R3 ); ( )R1 R4 = R3 C3 1/RX j /L X RX LX C3
R1 R4 = R3 ; RX RX = R1 R4 R3
Can bang phan thc: Can bang phan ao:
R1 R4 1 = ; L X = C 3 R1 R 4 L X C3 R1 R4 /R3 RX = = 1/R3C3 L X C3 R1 R4
He so Q cua cuon day trong trng hp nay c xac nh nh sau:

Q=
Tng t nh mach tng ng cua ien dung, mach tng ng cua ien cam [LS + RS] va [LP // RP] cung c dien ta nh sau: ZS = RS + jLS = RS + jXS, Nh vay: YP = Suy ra: Do o:
1 1 1 = YP = + = GP j BP ZP RP j L P
1 1 = GP j BP = ZS RS + j X S GP = RP = RP = RS
2 RS 2 RS
+ RS
2 XS 2 XS
; ;
BP = L P =
XS 2 2 RS + X S 2 2 RS + XS XS
2 RS + 2 L2 R 2 + 2 L2 S S ; LP = S 2 RS LS
Cau o cuon day
Cau Owen o cuon day, dung ien dung mau. Khao sat mach hnh 4.19, e co ieu kien can bang cua cau:
138
CHNG 4
RX = C1 R2
1 ; C3
L X = C1 R2 R3
Trong cau nay L c o vi o chnh xac kha cao, khong dung ien dung mau phu thuoc vao tu C3, la hop ien dung co o chnh xac kem hn hop ien tr mau R3, thch hp vi cuon day co Q nho (Q = 2fLx/Rx)
Hnh 4.19
Hnh 4.20
Cau Owen o cuon day

Cau o ien dung (H.4.20)
Cau Schering o ien dung
Cau Schering thng c dung e o ien dung va o ton hao trong vat cach ien cao cap. Khi o ien dung nho, C1 la ien dung khong kh. Khi o ien dung ln, C1 la tu mica that tot e goc mat bang khong. ieu kien can bang:
RX = R4 C3 ; C1 CX = C1 R3 R4
Goc mat: tgX X = R3C1. Khi o s cach ien tong tr nhanh C1 va (Cx+Rx) rat ln so vi nhanh 4 va 3 neu cau s dung ien ap cao.
Cau Grover (H.4.21)
Tng t nh cau Sauty nhng cac cuon day dung e so sanh tu ien can o vi tu ien mau. Phng trnh can bang ve oi so cho ta:
Z1 + Z 4 = Z 2 + Z 3
Hnh 4.21: Cau GROVER o
ien dung
139
Vi cac tu ien co goc mat nho va cac cuon day co he so pham chat Q nho:
Z1 = tg 1
L3 L1 Q3 Q1 ; Z 3 = tg 1 R3 R1
Z 2 = tg 1 ( Z 4 = tg 1 (
1 ) = ( 2 ) R2 C2 2
) = ( X ) RX CX 2
1
T X + Q1 = 2 + Q3. Suy ra: X 2 = Q3 Q1 Cung vi gia thiet tren ta co the chng minh: CX /C2 = R1 /R3
4.3 O HO CAM
4.3.1 Cau Maxwell e o ho cam (H.4.22)
Hnh 4.22: Cau Maxwell o he so ho cam M
Khi cau can bang G ch iem 0 ta co: jM1i1 = j(L1 + l)i2 + R1i2 jMXi1 = jLXi2 + R2i2 Chia hai phng trnh tren cho nhau, ta co:
M1 j ( L1 + l ) + R1 = MX j L X + R2
M1(jLX + R2) = MX[j(L1 + l) + R1] Can bang phan thc va phan ao:
M1 R l + L1 = 1 = MX R2 LX
Trong mach chung ta co: M1 la ho cam mau (co the thay oi c), MX la ho cam muon o, l la cuon day them vao e can bang ien cam trong mach,
140
CHNG 4
R1 thng la hop ien tr. 4.3.2 Cau Heavyside
Hnh 4.23: Cau Heavyside o he so ho cam M
o ho cam dung cuon day mau nh tren hnh 4.23, M la ho cam can o cua hai cuon day. Cuon day th cap co ien cam la L2. Khi cau can bang: G ch iem 0 th: R2i1 = R4i3 (R3 + jL3)i3 = (R1 + jL1)i1 jM(i1 + i3) Chia (a) cho (b), rut gon, sau o can bang phan thc va phan ao. Ta co c: R1 =
L R R2 L 3 R2 R3 ; M = 2 4 R2 + R4 R4
(a)
(b)
T phng trnh tren va theo hnh ve th M phai dng cho nen t so cua bieu thc tnh M co ieu kien nh sau: L 2 /L 3 > R2 /R4 4.3.3 Cau Carey Foster cai tien
Hnh 4.24: Cau Carey Foster cai tien o he so ho cam M
141
Dung tu ien mau e o he so ho cam. Khao sat mach hnh 4.24. Khi cau can bang co phng trnh sau:
[ R2 + (
1 C2 )]i1 = R4 i 3 j
(1)
jM(i1 + i3) = (R1 + jL1)i1 [R1 + j(L1 M]i1 = jMi3 Chia (2) cho (1) ta c. R1 + j ( L1 M ) j M = R2 j /WC2 R4 Suy ra:
(2)
R1 R4 + j R4 ( L1 M ) =
M + j M R2 C2
T o can bang phan thc va ao ta c: M = R1R4C2; L1 = R1(R4 + R2)C2 Theo ket qua tr so M phai dng, nh vay cc tnh phai mac ung nh hnh 4.24 (khac vi cau Heavyside). Cung theo phng trnh tren, M phai nho hn L1.
BAI TAP
4.1. Cho cau o nh hnh ve, biet C1 = 0,1F va t so R3 /R4 co the chnh c thay oi trong khoang: 100/1 va 1/100. Hay tnh Cx ma cau co the o c.
Giai: Ta co: Cx = C1 R3 /R4 . Vi: R3 /R4 = 100/1
Cx = 0,1F (100/1) = 10F

Vi: R3 /R4 = 1/100 0,1F (1/100) = 0, 001F Vay cau o co tam o: t 0,001F 10F.
Hnh B.4.1
Hnh B.4.2
4.2. Cho cau o ien dung nh hnh B.4.2, thanh phan mau C1 = 0,1F; R3 =
142
CHNG 4
10k. Biet rang cau can bang khi nguon cung cap co f = 100Hz; R1 = 125 va R4 = 14,7k. Hay tnh tr gia Rs, Cs va he so ton hao D cua tu ?
Giai: Ta co: Cs = C1 R3 /R4 ;
CS =
RR 0,1F 10k 125 14,7 k = 0, 068F ; RS = 1 4 = = 183, 8 10k R3 14,7 k
D = CSRS = 2100Hz0,068F183,8 = 0,008 4.3. Cho cau o ien dung nh hnh B.4.3. Biet thanh phan mau co C1 = 0,1F; R3 = 10k. Cau can bang khi nguon cung cap co f = 100Hz; R1 = 375; R3 = 10k; va R4 = 14,7k. Tnh tr gia Rp, Cp, va he so ton hao D cua tu.
Giai: Ta co:
CP = RP =
C1 R3 0,1 F 10k = = 0, 068F R4 14,7 k R1 R4 375 14,7 k = 551, 3 = 10k R3
D=
1 1 = = 42,5 CP RP 2 100 H z 0, 068F 551, 3
Hnh B.4.3
Hnh B.4.4
4.4. Cau Maxwell o ien cam dung thanh phan mau C3 = 0,1F, nguon cung cap co tan so f = 100Hz. Cau can bang khi R1 = 1,26k; R3 = 470 va R4 = 500. Tnh tr gia ien cam Ls, ien tr Rs va he so pham chat Q cua cuon day.
143
Giai: Ta co:
Ls = C3R1R4 = 0,1F1,26k500 = 63mH

RS = R1 R4 1, 26k 500 = = 1, 34 k 470 R3
Q=
L S 2 100 H z 63mH = = 0, 03 1, 34 k RS
4.5. Cau Hay co nguon cung cap f = 100Hz can bang khi C3 = 0,1F, R1 = 1,26k, R3 = 75 va R4 = 500. Tnh ien cam Lp, ien tr Rp va he so pham chat Q cua cuon day.
Giai:
Lp = C3R1R4 = 0,1F1,26k500 = 63mH
RP =
R1 R4 1, 26k 500 = = 8, 4 k R3 75
Q=
RP 8, 4 k = = 212 L P 2 100 H z 63mH
4.6. Hay tnh thanh phan tng ng LS, Rs cua cuon day co: Lp = 63mH; Rp = 8,4k (f = 100Hz).
Giai: RS =
2 RP X P 2 XP
Hnh B.4.5
2 RP
2 ; the: Rp = 8,4k; RP = 7,05610 ; Xp = Lp
Xp = 2100Hz63mH = 39,6
2 2 2 XP = 1,57 103; X P + RP = 7, 056 107
RS =
LS =
8, 4 k 1, 57 103 7, 056 107
= 0,187 ; X S =
7, 056 107 39, 6 7, 056 107
= 39, 6
XS 39, 6 = = 63mH 2 100 H z
4.7. Hay tnh thanh phan tng ng Cp, Rp cua tu ien co Rs = 183,8 va Cs = 0,068F (f = 100Hz).
Giai:
2 2 2 RP = ( Rs + XS )/RS ; RS = (183,8 ) = 33,78210
X S = 1/ 2fCS = 1/( 2 100 H z 0, 068F ) = 23, 405 103

2 XS = 5,47810
RP = ( 33,78 103 + 5, 478 108 )/183 = 2, 99 M
144
CHNG 4
2 2 RS + XS 33,78 103 + 5, 478 108 = = 23, 41 103 XS 23, 405 103
XP =
CP = 1/( 2 100 H z 23, 41k ) = 0, 068F

4.8. Hay ve cau tong quat. Viet phng trnh khi cau can bang. 4.9. Hay liet ke va so sanh cac thiet b ch 0 khac nhau dung vi cau AC. 4.10. Hay ve mach cau n gian o ien dung. Viet phng trnh can bang cua cau. 4.11. Cho cau n gian o ien dung co ien dung mau C = 0,1F va hai ien tr mau co tr gia thay oi t 1k en 200k. Hay tnh tr gia ien dung nho nhat va ln nhat ma cau co the o c. 4.12. Hay ve cac thanh phan noi tiep Cs, Rs. Thanh phan song song Cp, Rp cua tu ien. Tm bieu thc lien he cua chung vi nhau. Hay cho biet thanh phan tng ng nao thch hp trong hai trng hp: a) Tu ien co ien tr ien moi ln. b) Tu ien co ien tr ien moi nho. 4.13. Hay cho biet tr gia he so ton hao D cua tu ien trong hai trng hp: a) Tu ien co mach tng ng dang noi tiep. b) Tu ien co mach tng ng dang song song. 4.14. Hay ve cac thanh phan noi tiep LS, RS, thanh phan song song LP, RP cua cuon day. Tm bieu thc lien he cua chung vi nhau. Hay cho biet thanh phan tng ng nao thch hp trong hai trng hp: a) Cuon day co ien tr ln b) Cuon day co ien tr be. 4.15. Hay cho biet tr gia he so pham chat Q cua cuon day trong hai trng hp: a) Cuon day co mach tng ng dang noi tiep b) Cuon day co mach tng ng dang song song. 4.16. Cau o ien dang ien tr noi tiep, co ien dung mau C1 = 0,1F. Nguon cung cap co f = 1kHz, cau can bang khi R1 = 109,5, R3 = 1k va R4 = 2,1k. Hay tnh cac thanh phan Cs, Rs, D cua tu ien. 4.17. Cau o ien dung dang ien tr song song, co ien dung mau C1 = 0,1F, nguon cung cap co f = 1kHz, cau can bang khi R1 = 547; R3 = 1k
145
va R4 = 666. Hay tnh cac thanh phan Cp, Rp, D cua tu ien. 4.18. Cho cau o ien cam nh hnh B.4.18. Biet rang cau can bang khi: L1 = 100H; R4 = 10k; R1 = 37,1; R3 = 27,93k; f = 1MHz. Hay tnh LS, RS, Q cua cuon day.
Hnh B.4.18
4.19. Cho mach o hnh B.4.19. Xac nh eo theo es , L x , R.
Hnh B.4.19
Hnh B.4.20
4.20. Cho mach o hnh B.4.20. Xac nh eo theo es , L x , R. 4.21. Hay ve cau Maxwell o ien cam cua cuon day, va viet phng trnh tnh toan LS, Rs, Q cua cuon day khi cau can bang. 4.22. Mot cuon day co LS = 100mH; Q = 21, khi f = 1kHz c o bi cau Maxwell. Cau dung ien dung mau 0,1F va ien tr mau R1 = 1k. Hay tnh tr gia R3 va R4 e cau can bang. 4.23. Cau Maxwell o ien cam, co tu mau C1 = 0,1 F, nguon cung cap f = 10kHz; R1 = 100; R3 va R4 co the thay oi t 100 1k. Hay tnh tr gia LS va Q cua cuon day ma cau co the o c.
146
CHNG 5
Chng
O CONG SUAT VA IEN NANG

5.1 O CONG SUAT MOT CHIEU
Trong phng phap o cong suat mot chieu, chung ta co hai phng phap: trc tiep va gian tiep. Phng phap gian tiep dung von-ke va ampe-ke, phng phap trc tiep dung watt-ke c cau ien ong hoac sat ien ong. 5.1.1 Phng phap dung von-ke va ampe-ke
Hnh 5.1: Mac von-ke va
Hnh 5.2: o cong suat bang
ampe-ke o cong suat
von-ke va ampe-ke
Phng phap nay cho phep mac von-ke va ampe-ke nh hnh 5.1. Von-ke cho biet: V = Va + VL. Va: ien ap ri tren von-ke. Dong ien IL cho bi von-ke. Vay cong suat cua tai: PL = IL VL = IL(V Va) = VIL RaI2L
Ta thay tr so cong suat PL c o bi von-ke va ampe-ke co sai so do
ien tr noi cua ampe-ke. Theo cach mac hnh 5.2, tr so cong suat cua tai c xac nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke. V cho bi von-ke, con ampe-ke cho tr so I va: I = IV + IL. do o: IL = I IV; PL = V(I IL) = VI VIL Nh vay sai so cach mac nay phu thuoc dong ien IV qua von-ke. Neu IV cang nho th o cang chnh xac.
147
5.1.2 Phng phap o dung watt-ke Watt-ke c mac theo hnh 5.3, hai au 1, 2 cua watt-ke la cuon dong ien (cuon day co nh), hai au 3, 4 la cuon ien ap (cuon day di ong). Nh vay dong qua tai IL i qua cuon dong, con ien ap VL t le vi dong ien I2 i qua cuon day di ong.
Hnh 5.3: o cong suat bang watt-ke a) Cuon ien ap mac sau; b) Cuon ien ap mac trc Ch th cua c cau ien ong c xac nh nh sau:
= kILIa ma Ia = E/(RS + R2)

vi R2 la ien tr cua cuon day ien ap Suy ra:
= kILE/(RS + R2).
Vay phu thuoc vao cong suat cua tai PL = ILVL. Theo cach mac mach nay neu ien tr noi cua cuon day dong ien cang nho, ket qua o cang chnh xac. ien tr RS la ien tr han che dong ien qua cuon day di ong cua watt-ke. Neu ien ap vao tai cang ln th RS cang ln. Do chieu quay cua kim ch th c xac nh theo mot chieu a nh san, nen trong trng hp watt-ke quay ngc th hoan oi hai au 1, 2 cua cuon co nh. Co mot so watt-ke nh san au cung cc tnh cua hai cuon day, ta ch viec mac hai au a nh san. Trong cach mac watt-ke chung ta lu y nhng iem sau ay: iem chung cua cuon dong va cuon ien ap la co the mac trc wattke (H.5.3a) hoac mac sau watt-ke (H.5.3b). Trong cach mac nay co sai so gay ra do dong ien i qua cuon ien ap, sai so nay cang giam khi ien tr cuon ap va RS cang ln so vi RL (ien tr tai).
148
CHNG 5
ien tr RS khong c mac nh hnh 5.4. Khi o ien hai au cuoi (au 2 va au 4) gan bang ien ap cua nguon. Do vay no co kha nang gay nguy hiem cho s cach ien cua cuon day gan nhau, hn na sai so phu tang len do anh hng tnh ien lan nhau cua hai cuon day cua watt-ke.
Hnh 5.4: ien tr RS
5.2 O CONG SUAT XOAY CHIEU MOT PHA

5.2.1 Dung von-ke va ampe-ke
mac sai watt-ke
Mach o c mac nh hnh 5.5a. Trong trng hp ch co mot von-ke xoay chieu th phai dung hai khoa oi v tr, S va S. Con neu co ba von-ke th c mac hai au R, ZL va R + ZL. Khoa S va S/ v tr 1 va 1 von-ke cho tr so V1, ien ap nay cung pha vi dong ien. Khi khoa S, S v tr 2, 2 von-ke ch th V2, ien ap nay lech pha vi dong ien qua tai mot goc la . Khi khoa S, S v tr 1 va 2 von-ke ch th V3, goc lech pha so vi dong ien la 1. Theo gian o vect hnh 5.5b.
Hnh 5.5: a) Mach o cong suat tai xoay chieu
b) Gian o vect ien ap va dong ien
V22 = V32 + V12 2V1V3 cos 1 ; cos 1 =

trong khi o: V2cos = V3 cos1 V1; cos = hoac:
V32 + V12 V22 2V1V3
V3 cos V1 V2
V32 = V12 + V22 2V1V2 cos 2
149
cos 2 = cos( ) = cos =

nh vay cong suat cua tai: PL = V2 Icos hoac:
V32 V12 V22 2V1V2
PL = V2 I [ V3
( V32 + V12 V22 ) 2V12 V 2 V22 V12 ] ]= I[ 3 2V1V3 2V1
5.2.2 Dung watt-ke ien ong Tn hieu vao tai V co ien ap xoay chieu: V = Vmsint va dong ien co dang: i = Imsin(t + ) Nh vay dong ien i qua cuon ien ap cua watt-ke ien ong. iV =
Vm sin( t + V ) = I V sin( t + V ) ZV
ZV la tong tr cua cuon ien ap va ien tr mac noi tiep vi cuon ien ap; V la goc lech pha ien ap va dong ien qua cuon ien ap. Do o goc lech cua kim ch th c cau ien ong do momen quay trung bnh, t le vi tch so iV va i: TaV = Ngha la:
1 T
T
K 1i iV dt
0
K2ImIVcos(
V )
K 2I m
Vm cos( V ) = ZV
K 2 I m I cos( v )
Neu V = 0 khi = K3P, coi nh cong suat cua tai c xac nh bi goc quay cua kim ch th cua watt-ke. Neu V 0, nh vay se co sai so tao ra do s lech pha gia ien ap V va dong ien qua cuon ien ap cua watt-ke. Goi P = VIcos( V), ta se co sai so tng oi P.
P =
p ' p VI cos( V ) VI cos = p VI cos

cos( V ) cos p ' p 100% = 100% cos p
P (%) =
Neu V nho th: P (%) = (1 + Vtg 1)100%, p(%) = Vtg100% e thuan li cho viec s dung o cong suat cua tai co dong va ap thay oi, thong thng cuon dong ien c chia ra lam hai cap tng ng vi tam
150
CHNG 5
dong ien s dung, bang cach thay oi so vong day (giong nh c cau ien t). Con e thay oi tam o ien ap, bang cach dung nhng ien tr noi tiep vi cuon ien ap (giong nh thay oi tam o ien ap cua c cau ien t). ac iem cua watt-ke la ket qua oc c phu thuoc vao tan so cua nguon ien, do anh hng cua khang tr cua cuon day ien ap co s di pha gia ien ap va dong ien. u iem cua watt-ke ien ong: co o chnh xac cao (cap chnh xac = 0,5; 0,2; 0,1%) dung tien li cho nguon DC va AC tan so 4560Hz 500Hz. Khuyet iem: T trng yeu, momen quay nho de b anh hng bi t trng nhieu va khong chu ng c s qua tai, gia thanh cao. e lam tang momen quay, giam bt t trng nhieu ngi ta dung c cau sat ien ong, khi o chung ta co c cau watt-ke sat ien ong. Tuy nhien, c cau sat ien ong nay tao nen nhng sai so phu thuoc do tnh phi tuyen cua ng cong t hoa, dong ien xoay va tnh tre. S hao giam trong loi sat tao ra t thong do dong ien qua cuon dong I, tre pha vi dong ien mot goc (xem gian o hnh 5.6). Do o kim ch th cua watt-ke Hnh 5.6: Gian o vect cho lech mot goc c xac nh: c cau watt-ke sat ien
= K 2 I m ( Vm /Z V )cos( + V ) = K3IVcos( + V)
Neu = V th = K3IVcos Nh vay, sai so do goc lech pha gia ien ap va dong ien qua cuon ien ap bang khong. Trong trng hp tng oi ln, e lam tang s lech pha V ta dung ien tr noi tiep tng phan, hoac hoan toan vi cac cuon day (quan nh xoan ch), theo nh cach mac cua watt-ke sat ien ong cua Nga D539 (H.5.7). Sai so do dong ien xoay va t tre, lam giam o chnh xac cua wattke. e tang o chnh xac nen dung mach t Permaloy.
151
Hnh 5.7: Cach mac mach cua watt-ke ien ong D539 (Nga)
5.2.3 Dung bien dong vi watt-ke
Hnh 5.8: a) Cach mac bien dong cua watt-ke
b) Gian o vect ien ap va dong ien
152
CHNG 5
Trng hp cong suat cua tai co ien ap thap, khi o dong tai co tr so ln, can phai dung bien dong e cho dong ien i qua cuon dong khong c qua gii han cua watt-ke, cuon s cap cua bien dong xem nh c noi vi tai, con dong th cap cua bien dong c noi vi cuon dong cua watt-ke theo cach mac hnh 5.8a. V1: ien ap cua tai; i1: dong ien tai; i2: dong ien cua th cap bien dong. Khi o cong suat cho bi watt-ke: P2 = I2V1cos2 P1 = I2knomV1cos(1 ) knom: t so danh nh cua bien dong. Trong thc te goc nho: 1 1; I2knom I1 Do o co the viet: P1 = I1V1cos1 = Pkno Nh vay, cong suat cua tai c xac nh bang cach nhan tr so oc c cua watt-ke vi t so bien dong. Tuy nhien sai so cua ket qua o, phu thuoc sai so cua bien dong, goc lech pha cua dong s cap va th cap cua bien dong. Do o cong suat cua tai c xac nh: P1 = I1V1cos( ). Va sai so c xac nh:
P =
P1' P1 I 1V1 cos( 1 ) I 1V1 cos 1 cos( 1 ) cos 1 = = cos 1 P1 I 1V1 cos 1
Hoac: P % = [
cos( 1 ) 1] 100% cos
5.2.4 Dung bien dong va bien ap phoi hp vi watt-ke
Hnh 5.9: a) Cach mac watt-ke vi bien dong va bien ap
b) Gian o vect cua dong va ien ap
153
Trong trng hp tai co ien ap cao va dong ien ln, chung ta phai phoi hp bien ap, bien dong va watt-ke e o cong suat cho tai (H.5.9) Cuon ien ap cua watt-ke c mac hai au cuon th cap cua bien ap, mot au cua cuon th cap va vo cua bien ap c noi vi at. Nh vay cong suat o bang watt-ke c dien ta: PW = I2V2cos2 Nhan vi t so cua bien ap va bien dong chung ta c cong suat cua tai: PL = i2k1v2kvcos(1 + v i) Neu nh goc lech I va V rat nho khi o co the am bao:
1 + V I = 1
v: I1 I2K1; V1 = V2KV. Khi o: PL = PWK1KV = P1 = V1I1cos1 Nh vay cong suat cua tai, phan s cap cua bien ap va bien dong c nh bang tr so oc bi watt-ke nhan vi t so bien ap va bien dong. Ket qua o co sai so do t so bien ap, bien dong va goc lech pha do cuon dong va cuon ap cua watt-ke. 5.2.5 o cong suat hieu dung cua tai bang bo bien oi nhiet - ien (cap nhiet ien) Do bo bien oi nhiet ien (cap nhiet ien) co u iem hoat ong vi tn hieu co tan so cao va dang bat ky, cho nen no c ng dung trong watt-ke o cong suat hieu dung cua tai hoat ong vi tn hieu dang khong sin, tan so bat ky. Mach o nguyen ly watt-ke bang bo bien oi nhiet ien c dien ta hnh 5.9c. V bo bien oi nhiet ien khong the hoat ong vi ien ap va dong ien co tr so ln nen chung ta phai s dung bien dong va bien ap.
Hnh 5.9c: Mach o watt-ke dung cap nhiet ien
(BA: bien ap; BD: bien dong)
154
CHNG 5
Theo mach ien dong ii cua phan th cap bien dong: ii = KIIL Va dong iV cua dong th cap bien ap: i V = KV E vi KI: t so bien dong; KV: phu thuoc vao t so bien ap va ien tr R1, R2 cua bo bien oi nhiet ien. Gia s tai thi iem t dong ien iV va ii co chieu dan nh trong mach o. Nh vay, dong ien iV + ii ot nong day ien tr R1 cua bo bien oi TC1 se tao ra sc ien ong nhiet ien e1(DC). Tng t dong ien iV ii ot nong day ien tr R2 cua bo bien oi TC2, cung tao ra sc ien ong nhiet ien e2(DC). Do e1 va e2 phu thuoc tr hieu dung cua dong ien iV + ii va iV iI. Cho nen:
2 + E 2 + 2I L E e1 t le (IL + E) = I L
va:
2 e2 t le (IL E) = I L + E 2 2I L E
Vay bien ap ra cua hai bo bien oi nhiet ien: eo = e1 e2

2 2 eo t le I L + E 2 + 2I L E ( I L + E 2 2 I L E ) = 4EIL
Ngha la ien ap cua hai bo bien oi nhiet ien (thng co ac tnh nhiet ien giong nhau va R1 = R2 = R), phu thuoc vao cong suat cua tai. Trng hp E va I cua tai co s lech pha mot goc , th ien ap ra cua bo bien oi nhiet ien 2 2 phu thuoc (IL + Ecos) va (IL Ecos) . Nh vay ien ap ra e1 e2 phu thuoc vao EIcos. Trong thc te loai watt-ke dung cap nhiet ien dang cau (H.5.9d), thay the cho bo bien oi nhiet ien kieu trc. Ngha la trong kieu cau dung cap nhiet ien, dong ien i qua cap nhiet ien ot nong trc tiep au noi (junction) cua cap nhiet ien. V du: Cau cap nhiet ien tren hnh 5.9d, moi nhanh cau co hai bo cap nhiet ien. Khi co dong ien o i qua cac cap nhiet ien se tao ra tai moi cap nhiet ien Vj = 6mV. ien ap ra gia C va D: VBD = 4 Vj 4 6 mV = 24 mV va dong ien I ot nong cap nhiet
Hnh 5.9d: Cau nhiet ien
co dong ien ot trc tiep
155
ien ma khong i qua mili von-ke at C va D cua cau cap nhiet ien. u iem cua cau cap nhiet ien la sc ien ong cap nhiet ien ngo ra c tang len, dong ien o i qua trc tiep, cap nhiet ien co dong i qua khong s qua tai nh loai bo bien oi nhiet ien co ien tr ot nong rieng. Loai nay rat de hong day ien tr khi qua tai 50% dong ien cho phep.
5.3 O CONG SUAT TAI BA PHA

5.3.1 o cong suat mach ien bon day Trong trng hp he thong ien bon day (ba day pha mot day trung tnh). Neu dung ba watt-ke mot pha mac nh hnh 5.10, cong suat cua tai: PC = P1 + P2 + P3 = VAIAcosA + VBIBcosB + VCICcosC Ket qua o la tong so cua tr so cho bi ba watt-ke mot pha. watt-ke ba pha ba phan t cau tao nh sau: Hnh 5.11 co ba cuon dong va ba cuon ap (ba cuon di ong) co cung truc quay. Nh vay kim ch th so cho ket qua cong suat cua tai.
Hnh 5.10: o cong suat
cua tai ba pha bon day
Hnh 5.11: Watt-ke ba pha ba phan t
156
CHNG 5
5.3.2 o cong suat mach ien ba day Trong mach ien ba day, cung cap cho tai ch co ba day pha khong co day trung tnh. Neu dung watt-ke mot pha e o cong suat cua tai th mac nh hnh 5.12 P1 cong suat o c cua watt-ke 1. P1 = VACIAcos( + 30o) Hnh 5.12: Mach o cong P2 cong suat o c cua watt-ke 2. o suat tai ba pha ba day P2 = VBCIBcos(30 ) Cho nen: P1 + P2 = VACIAcos( + 30o) + VBCIBcos(30o ) Tai ba pha ba day Trong trng hp tai ba pha can bang EAC = EBC = E 3 (E ien ap pha), va IA = IB = I Do o: P1 + P2 = =
3 EI[cos( + 30o) + cos(30o )] 3 EI ( 2 3/ 2)cos = 3EIcos
3 EI(2cos 30ocos) =
Vay P1 + P2 la cong suat cua tai ba pha can bang cho nen ch can biet ien ap va tai mot pha. Trong trng hp tai ba pha khong can bang. P1 = eACiA cong suat tc thi cua watt-ke 1 P2 = eBCiB cong suat tc thi cua watt-ke 2 Ma iA + iB + iC = 0, va eAC = eAO eCO ; eBC = eBO eCO Nh vay: P1 + P2 = eAOiA + eBOiB + eCOiC Do o: P1 + P2 =
1 [ eAO i A dt + eBO i B dt + eCO i C dt ] T
T T T
Vay ch th cua hai watt-ke la tong cong suat cua tai ba pha. Trong thc te neu mot trong hai watt-ke nao co kim ch th quay ngc th khi o oi hai au cua cuon dong hoac cuon ap. Nhng ket qua cong suat o c (v du: watt-ke W2 quay ngc do khong mac ung th t pha): P = P1 P2
157
5.3.3 Watt-ke mot pha c bien thanh watt-ke ba pha o tai can bang khong co day trung tnh
Hnh 5.13: a) Watt-ke ba pha t watt-ke mot pha o tai can bang
b) Cach mac day Watt-ke mot pha c mac them ba ien tr RV, R1 , R2 co iem trung tnh gia (H.5.13). Khi tai can bang va R1 = RV/2 = R th i1 = i2 = iV/2 Nh vay: eAC = iVRV + (iV/2)R, eBC = (iV/2)R + (iV/2)R; RV = R/ 2
eAC + eBC = i V ( RV + R/ 2) + i V R = 4 RV i V , i V = ( eAC + eBC )/ 4 RV

Watt-ke ch th ket qua o tr trung bnh:
P=
T T T
1 T
RV i V i L dt = RV
1 11 i V i L dt = ( eAC + eBC )i L dt T 4T
1 1 [ 3 EI (cos( 30 + ) + cos( 30)] = 3 EI cos 4 4
Vi EI la tr hieu dung cua ap va dong cua pha. Vay cong suat cua tai ba pha c xac nh bang s ch th cua watt-ke mot pha nhan vi hang so t le phu thuoc vao tr so RV va R1, R2 5.3.4 Watt-ke ba pha o tai ba pha khong can bang
Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t
c cau tao gom co: hai cuon ien ap (hai cuon di ong) co cung truc quay va hai cuon dong ien (cuon co nh) (H.5.14a). Phng phap o dung watt-ke nay giong nh phng phap o dung hai watt-ke mot pha o tai ba pha ba day. Do o cach mac mach ien cung giong nh trc.
158
CHNG 5
Hnh 5.14: a) Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t
b) Watt-ke hai phan t ri, cau tao va mach o

Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t ri
Loai watt-ke nay thng dung trong cong nghiep. Co cau tao nh sau: Hai cuon ap co cung mot truc quay va ba cuon dong ien (cuon day th 3, mot na cuon ap 1, mot na cuon ap 2). Phng phap o va cach mac mach o giong nh watt-ke ba pha, hai phan t cuon ap va loai ba phan t phan cuon dong (H.5.14b). 5.3.5 o cong suat ba pha cua tai co bien dong va bien ap
Hnh 5.15: Watt-ke ket hp vi bien dong
Dung bien dong: Trong trng hp tai co dong ien qua ln vt qua tr so dong ien cho phep cua watt-ke. Can ket hp o watt-ke vi bien dong e o cong suat. Mach c mac nh hnh 5.15. Cong suat oc c cua watt-ke c nhan vi k1 - t so bien dong, ta se co c cong suat cua tai: Pl = PWkI PW: cong suat oc c tren watt-ke, kI: t so bien dong.
159
Hnh 5.16: Watt-ke ket hp vi bien dong va bien ap
Dung bien ap va bien dong: Trong trng hp tai co ien ap cao va dong ien ln, phai dung en bien ap va bien dong e o cong suat cua tai. Khi o cong suat cua tai c xac nh: P2 = PWkIkV; kV: t so bien ap.
5.4 O CONG SUAT PHAN KHANG CUA TAI

5.4.1 Cong suat phan khang cua tai mot pha Theo nh ngha cong suat phan khang cua tai: Q = VIsin = Vicos(90o )
Hnh 5.17: VAR-ke ien ong
Neu dung watt-ke e o cong suat phan khang cua tai th dong ien qua cuon ien ap va cuon dong ien lech pha them mot goc 90o. Do o watt-ke muon bien thanh VAR-ke (o cong suat phan khang), cuon ien ap c mac noi tiep vi ien cam L (H.5.17). Hoac co the dung watt-ke, von-ke va ampeke e o cong suat phan khang vi ieu kien:
160
CHNG 5
sin = 1 cos2 ;
sin = 1 P 2 /( I 2 V 2 )
P cho bi watt-ke; V, I cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke. 5.4.2 o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha
o cong suat phan khang trong he thong bon day
ien ap day BC, day AC, day AB tre pha 90o so vi ien ap pha A, pha B, pha C tng ng. Theo cach mac hnh 5.18, watt-ke W1 co tr so cong suat phan khang QA. PA = IAVBC cos(90o ) = IA 3VA sin = 3 QA Ngha la: QA = PA
3 , PA c oc tren watt-ke W1.
Tng t nh vay oi vi pha A, pha C. Cong suat cua tai ba pha bang tong so ket qua cua ba watt-ke chia cho 3 .
ba
Hnh 5.18: Mach o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha
dung watt-ke mot pha

o cong suat phan khang trong he thong ba day
Hnh 5.19: Mach o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha ba day
161
a) Trng hp tai can bang va ien ap oi xng: Mach ien c mac nh hnh 5.19. Chung ta co the dung hai watt-ke mot pha hoac mot watt-ke ba pha hai phan t. Cong suat o bang hai watt-ke mot pha cho: PW = IAVBCcos(90o ) + IBVCAcos(90o ) Tai can bang va ien ap oi xng cho nen: VBC = VCA va IB = IA V vay: PW = 2ILVLsin, VL = 3V A = 3Vph , PW = 3.2.VI L sin Tng t nh trong o cong suat tac ong cua tai ba pha.
PW = 2 3Q 2Q = PW / 3
Nh vay muon bien watt-ke thanh VAR-ke th tren thang o ket qua oc phai nhan vi he so t le va n v la VAR (hoac KVAR). b) Trong trng hp ien ap oi xng, tai khong can bang: Cong suat phan khang c o bang ba watt-ke, ba phan t c mac nh hnh 5.20 khi o ket qua c chia cho 3 . Con neu cach mac nay ma tai can bang, th ket qua oc c tren watt-ke mot pha c nhan vi 3 cho ket qua o phan khang. That vay:
Hnh 5.20: Cach mac watt-ke o
cong suat phan khang tai ba
3 I A VB 3 sin = 3 I A VBC cos( 900 ) = 3 I VB 3 sin = 3 I A VB sin

PW 3 = 3QA , PW: tr so oc c tren watt-ke.
Trong trng hp dung watt-ke hai phan t hoac hai watt-ke mot pha, mach ien c mac nh * A W hnh 5.21 Mach ien ap cua hai watt-ke va cac ien tr noi tiep tao ra c mach sao can bang. Do o ien ap pha VC c ap vao mach th nhat va pha A c ap vao mach 2, oi vi pha B.
* B Nguon * C * Tai
Hnh 5.21: Cach mac hai watt-ke mot
PW = PW1 + PW2 = IAVCcos(60o ) + VAICcos(120o ).
162
CHNG 5
= I ph Vph 0, 5 cos + ( 3 2 ) sin 0, 5 cos + ( 3 2 ) sin

PW = 3 I ph Vph sin = 3Qph ; PW 3 = 3Qph
Cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha bang tr so oc c cua hai wattke nhan 3 phan khang cua tai ba pha khong can bang.
5.5 O IEN NANG

5.5.1 ien nang ke mot pha ien nang ke co c cau hoat ong tren nguyen tac c cau cam ng ien t, c cau tao nh hnh 5.22 gom co mot bo phan ien t A noi tiep vi tai (cuon dong ien quan tren mach t). Mac song song vi tai, cuon day quan tren mach t (cuon ap B). Da nhom D co mep da nam trong khe h cua mach t cuon ap va cuon dong. e cho da nhom quay eu co nam cham em M, va bo c hoc E co banh rang an khp truc quay cua da nhom D.
Vt
B B
Va
Cuon ap B
Va
C i
M A
A
/ i2
/ iV
P N Tai
// i2
a)
b)
Hnh 5.22: a) ien nang ke mot pha
b) S sap xep cac phan t ben trong va cach mac mach ien
163
Suot trong thi gian hoat ong cua ien nang ke, dong ien I i qua tai tao nen t thong i trong loi sat t. ien ap V cung cap cho tai tao nen dong iV trong cuon day ien ap va t thong va va Vt trong loi sat t B, Vt va i ' , i2 '' va i V ' . Do xuyen qua da nhom va tao ra dong ien xoay tren a nhom i 2 o co tac dung tng tac gia dong ien xoay va t thong tao nen momen ngau lc quay a nhom: T = KfimaxVmaxsin Neu nh loi cua cuon dong khong b bao hoa, khi o:
imaxI va tan so f khong oi. VmaxV (: t le)

Ket luan: Trng hp = 90o , th sin = cos Nh vay khi cac ieu kien tren thoa th momen quay a. T = K1 VIcos = K1P V vay momen quay t le vi cong suat cung cap cho tai. Do co s hao giam t trong loi gay ra s tre pha t thong I oi vi dong ien I mot goc 1 (H.5.22c), va co dong IV chay trong cuon ien ap tre pha vi ien ap V gan bang 90o. T gian o vect co the xem goc lech pha gia ien ap V va t thong tac dung Vt tren a nhom la: = + i + . Neu thay = 90o , chung ta co: = + + 90o = 90o + i T thong tac dung Vt xuyen qua a Hnh 5.22c: Gian o vect nhom va cc oi nghch C c at di cua ien nang ke mot pha a nhom. Khien cho co s hao giam ln tren ng i nay va ac biet tren a nhom, t thong tac dung vt lech pha oi vi dong ien Iv ln hn t thong V va Va. T thong Va tao nen mach kn i xuyen tam va hai ben cc cua mach t, khong ngan chan hoat ong cua a nhom. Goc lech pha co the bang hoac ln hn 90o + i. Nh vay co the ieu chnh goc pha 90o + i bang cach thay oi hoac i. Tren mach t cua cuon dong ien co mot so vong c quan noi vi vong ien tr se lam cho dong ien cam ng phat sinh ra, lam tang s hao mat
164
CHNG 5
t doc theo ng i cua t thong i. Ket qua la, anh hng en tr so goc pha i. Do o, goc i c ieu chnh bang tr so cua vong ien tr e c momen quay a nhom t le vi cong suat cua tai. Ngoai ra tren a nhom con anh hng cua t thong tao ra nh nam cham em M, Br momen em cho a nhom: Tbr = K1IedBr Ied la dong ien xoay chay tren a nhom. Ma: Tbr = K 1 I ed Br = K 1 ( Eed Rd ) Br = K1(Kbr n/Rd)Br = K2n vi K2 la he so t le, n so vong quay cua a nhom Rd la tong tr ng i cua dong ien xoay N la so vong quay cua a trong mot giay. t thong Br co nh th momen em cho a quay: Tbr = K2n van e them momen quay Tbr nham muc ch cho a nhom quay eu. Khi cong suat cua tai khong oi, a nhom quay eu: Tbr = T Hoac: K2n = K1P. Suy ra: P = ( K 2 /K 1 )n Vay ien nang c xac nh: W = P t = K3nt, ien nang tieu thu phu thuoc vao vong quay cua a. 5.5.2 o ien nang cua tai ba pha
ien nang ke ba pha ba phan t
1, 2, 3 - cuon ap; 4, 5, 6 - cuon dong
Hnh 5.23: ien nang ke ba pha, ba phan t dung
cho he thong bon day Cach mac ien nang ke ba pha loai nay giong nh cach mac watt-ke ba pha ba phan t. Ca ba phan t nay lam quay ba a nhom co cung mot truc quay, hoac mot a nhom (thng dung trong thc te). Truc quay nay c
165
truyen ong sang bo em so trnh bay ket qua o. Cach bo tr cac phan t cua ien nang ke nh hnh 5.23.
ien nang ke ba pha hai phan t
c cau tao nh loai ba phan t nhng co hai phan t lam quay hai a nhom. Cach mac mach giong nh watt-ke ba pha hai phan t. Sai so cua watt-ke hai phan t khong phu thuoc vao s can bang pha, ien ap khong oi xng va theo tuan t ve pha cua mach o. Thong thng ien nang ke oi (gom hai ien nang ke n) c dung thay the cho ien nang ke hai phan t.
Hnh 5.24: Cach mac ien
Khi ien nang ke oi c s dung goc lech pha vt qua 60o, mot trong hai ien nang ke se quay theo chieu ngc lai vi momen quay co gia tr am, ieu nay dan en sai so phu, con dau cua momen bo chnh s ma sat van gi nh cu bat ky s thay oi chieu quay cua a. Do o ket qua lam tang s ham toc o quay cua a. 5.5.3 o ien nang phan khang cua tai ba pha Nang lng phan khang c o bi ien nang ke ba phan t (VAR-ke gi) (H.5.25).
nang ke hai phan t
Hnh 5.25: ien nang ke phan khang ba phan t
Mach c mac nh trong VAR ke ba pha ba phan t. Hoac dung loai co cuon phu noi tiep nh hnh 5.26. ay la loai hai phan t ri ma moi phan t phan cuon day co nh co cuon chnh va cuon phu co so vong day bang nhau ien ap can xng mach c mac nh hnh 5.26 va co gian o vect
166
CHNG 5
nh a trnh bay trong hnh.
Hnh 5.26: a) ien nang ke phan khang hai phan t ri (gian o vect)
b) ien nang ke phan khang hai phan t ri. Momen quay tac dung trong a nhom c dien ta nh sau. T1 = kVBC[IA(90o A) IBcos(30o B)]
= kVBC I A sin A ( 3/ 2) I B cos B + (1/ 2) I B sin B

Momen quay cua phan t th hai.
T2 = kVAB [ I C cos( 90o C ) I B cos(150o + B )] = kVAB [ I C sin C + ( 3/ 2) I B cos B + (1/ 2) I B sin B ]

Momen quay tong cong.
T1 + T2 = K 3V ph ( I A sin A + I B sin B + I C sin C ) = 3KQ
Do o momen quay t le vi nang lng phan khang. Nh vay thiet b nay thch hp o nang lng phan khang. ien ap oi xng ket qua o khong anh hng bi dong tai khong can bang. Khi mac thiet b o nay vao mach ien can phai ung theo th t cua ba pha c ghi tren thiet b o.
167
5.6 O HE SO CONG SUAT

Nh chung ta a biet dong ien va ien ap la hai tn hieu khi qua tai bat ky (thuan tr hoac khang tr), co s lech pha hoac khong lech pha phu thuoc vao ac tnh cua tai. Trong lnh vc o ien, chung ta can biet cos, la goc lech pha, ma chung ta goi la he so cong suat. Con trong lnh vc o ien t chung ta can quan tam en s lech pha gia hai tn hieu bat ky, chang han nh s lech pha gia hai tn hieu vao va ra cua mach khuech ai hoac mot he thong ieu khien. Trong chng nay chung ta e cap en nhng phng phap va thiet b o s lech pha gia dong va ap qua tai, con mot so phng phap va mach o lech pha gia hai tn hieu co tan so ln hn se e cap phan thiet b o ien t. Cung nh van e o he so cong suat, chung ta ch e cap en phng phap va thiet b o tan so tn hieu trong ien cong nghiep con van e o tn hieu cao hn se c trnh bay trong thiet b o ien t. 5.6.1 o cos dung von-ke va watt-ke
o cos dung von-ke
e kiem tra hoac lay chuan cho cos ke hoac o s lech pha gia hai tn hieu: e1 = E1cost va e2 = E2cos(t + ) Chung ta co the dung phng phap sau: Dung von-ke o S, tong so cua hai tn hieu e1, e2 va D hieu so cua chung theo gian o vect (H.5.27).
2 2 S2 = E1 + E2 + 2 E1 E2 cos 2 2 D 2 = E1 + E2 2 E1 E2 cos
Nh vay: cos =
S2 D 2
4 E1 E2
Hnh 5.27: Gian o
vect gia hai tn
Cung tng t nh phng phap nay trong phan o cong suat cua tai khang bang phng phap ba von-ke chung xac nh cos cho tai.
cos =
Hnh 5.28: Cach mac von ke o V 3 : ien ap cua R va V1: ien ap cua tai; V2: ien ap cua ien tr thuan;cos tai; : goc lech gia tai va thuan tr R, chnh la goc lech pha gia dong va ien ap cho tai. Vi phng phap nay neu goc lech pha khoang 90o th sai so
V32 V12 V22 2V1V2
168
CHNG 5
khoang t 5o en 10o phu thuoc vao o chnh xac cua von-ke.

o cos bang von-ke, ampe-ke va watt-ke
ay cung la phng phap co ien n gian, mach ien c mac nh sau (H.5.29): Watt-ke cho biet cong suat hieu dung Pe cua tai, von-ke va ampeke cho biet cong suat bieu kien: Pa = VI. Nh vay cos c xac nh: P cos = e Pa
Tai
Trong phng phap o nay, sai so Hnh 5.29: Cach mac von ke, ampe-ke va watt-ke e o tao ra do ampe-ke, von-ke va watt-ke hai cach mac re ngan hoac re dai. Ngoai ra con co sai so do cuon day ien ap cua watt-ke, do cau tao cua c cau ien ong (a c e cap en trong phan tren). 5.6.2 Cos ke dung c cau t so ke ien ong
Trng hp tai mot pha
ac biet cuon day 1 c noi vi ien tr R, va cuon day 2 c noi vi ien cam L e sao cho dong IL va IR lech pha /2, va hai cuon day c xep at thang goc vi nhau. Cho nen chung ta co: M1 = Mcos; M2 = Msin M1: he so ho cam gia cuon day di ong 1 vi cuon day co nh. M2: he so ho cam gia cuon day di ong 2 vi cuon day co nh. M: he so ho cam ln nhat khi cac cuon day di ong co t thong (do cuon day co nh tao ra) xuyen qua ln nhat.
Hnh 5.30: Cos ien ong mot pha
Gia s tong tr cua hai cuon day di ong khong ang ke so vi ien tr R va L. Cho:
vL = V 2 cos t : ien ap cua tai.
169
i L = I 2 cos( t ) : dong ien qua tai.

V, I la tr hieu dung. Khi o dong ien qua cuon day 1 va 2 la:
i R = ( V 2/R )cos t vai L = ( V 2/L )cos( t )

Do o momen quay trung bnh T1, T2 cua cuon day 1 va cuon day 2.
T1 = dM 1 VI dM 2 VI cos ; T2 = sin d R d L
Tai tr so i cua cuon day di ong T1 = T2, hai cuon day di ong ng yen va goc lech pha gia hai tn hieu ien ap va dong ien cua tai c xac nh: tg = ( L R ) tgi . Neu nh cuon day di ong va mach ien che tao sao cho R = L th tai v tr ch th cua hai cuon day co c: i = Cos ke thng co vach o c khac o theo tr so cos cua goc lech pha co tr so 0 gia, ve pha phai cua iem 0 la sm pha (lead) va ve pha trai la tre pha (lag). Viec lay chuan cho cos ke chu anh hng cua tan so cua tn hieu, e cho no t b anh hng bi tan so tn hieu, ngi ta thay cuon day 2 bang hai phan t co so vong day bang nhau, mot phan t noi vi L, con phan t con lai noi vi C nh hnh 5.31, tr so LC e sao cho tan so hoat ong cua thiet b: LC2 = Hnh 5.31: Cos ke co 1 bo chnh tan so Dong ien qua L va C co khuynh hng oi nhau, nhng co chieu quan cua hai phan t cuon day sao cho momen quay hai phan t cong vao nhau. Ngha la tan so tang len th dong ien i qua L giam, trong khi o dong ien qua C tang len e sao cho tong so (o ln) cua hai dong ien nay gan nh khong thay oi. Nh vay momen quay T2 se khong thay oi khi tan so tn hieu thay oi. Trong s bo chnh nay co the ap ng tot khi tan so tn hieu thay oi khoang 10 phan tram tan so hoat ong nh danh cua thiet b o.
Trng hp tai ba pha
Trong trng hp nay goc lech pha c o gia dong ien mot day
170
CHNG 5
pha so vi ien ap gia cac day pha cua tai ba pha, nh cach mac mach hnh 5.32. Cuon day co nh cua pha ke c mac noi tiep vi tai mot tren ba pha ien cua tai, con hai khung quay 1 va 2 c mac gia cac pha cua tai qua trung gian cua cac ien tr R co tr so ln va ien cam cua cac cuon day co tr so khong ang ke. Momen quay trung bnh cua khung quay 1 va 2 la:
T1 = M I
V 3 V 3 sin cos( I 1 , V1 V2 ) va T2 = M I cos sin( I 1 , V1 V3 ) R R
Theo gian o vect:
cos( I 1 , V1 V2 ) = cos( + ) ; cos( I 1 , V1 V3 ) = cos( ) = cos( ) 6 6 6

M: he so ho cam, M cc ai khi mot trong hai khung quay song song vi truc cua cuon day co nh. ur : goc cua khung quay 1 va phap tuyen cua vect cam ng B .
Hnh 5.32: Cach mac pha ke
Hnh 5.33: Gian o Fresnel cua ien ap va
ien ong ba pha
dong ien cua pha ke ba pha
Hai momen quay cua khung quay 1 va 2 luon luon oi khang nhau. Cho nen tai 1 cua hai momen quay can bang, khung quay ng yen T1 = T2, dan en: sin i cos ( + 6 ) = cos i cos ( 6 ) . Do o:
tgi =
cos ( + 6 )
tgi tg 4 = 3tg i = 3tg i 1 + tgi tg 4 4 4
cos ( 6 )
Suy ra: Si n [1 + tgi ] = 3 cos [ tgi 1]

tg = 3
Ghi chu:
171
a) Trai ngc lai pha ke mot pha, pha ke ba pha nay khong anh hng bi tan so neu nh tan so tn hieu khong qua cao. b) Phng phap o co the dung pha ke mot pha nh thc hien iem trung tnh gia vi ba ien tr, iem di cua L va R c mac vao iem trung tnh nay. c) Thiet b cos ke sat ien ong co cung nguyen tac lam viec nh c cau ien ong. Nhng cuon day co nh c quan tren loi sat t, ieu nay lam giam t tre cua mach t va tang s ton hao cong suat tieu thu. Loi sat t gom nhng manh sat t co o t tham cao, mong e lam giam anh hng cua dong ien xoay trong trng hp tan so cao. V du: Thiet b cu the trong cong nghiep pha ke hieu Chauvin Arnoux 50/60Hz. Cap chnh xac 2,5 dung cho ien li mot pha va ba pha bang vi ien ap danh nh. Mot pha: 57,7 V + 10% en 100 V + 20 % 127 V + 10% en 220 V + 10% Ba pha: 220 V + 10% en 380 V + 10%, dong ien danh nh 5 A.
5.7 THIET B CH TH ONG BO HOA (SYNCHRONOSCOPE)

Nh co thiet b ch th ong bo nay cho phep chung ta co the ghep hai may phat ien khac nhau mot cach ong bo, hoac may phat ien vi li ien cua ien lc. ay la loai pha ke mot pha ma cuon day co nh c cung cap bi ien li, con hai khung quay cua t so ke c cung cap ien ap bi may phat ien. Vi cach ghep nay khong ch bang nhau ve tan so, ma phai con cung pha gia ien li va ien t may phat. Cho li ien co ien ap: V = V 2 cos t Va ien cua may phat ien: v, = V ' 2 cos( ,t + ) Co the viet lai nh
v' = V ' 2 cos( t ) ,
sau: vi:
( ' )t =
Khung quay cua thiet b quay t do va c noi vi cong tac trt, cho nen khi tan so goc , hi khac biet th khung quay se quay vi toc o tng ng vi s khac biet
Hnh 5.34: Cach mac ch
th ong bo hoa
172
CHNG 5
cua tan so. V du 1: vong trong 6 giay tng ng vi s lech 0,25 Hz. Chieu quay cua khung quay giup cho s ieu chnh tan so cua may phat tang len, hay giam xuong. en khi tan so cua hai tn hieu bang nhau th khung quay se khong quay tron na ma se lech mot goc tng ng vi s lech pha cua hai ien ap, s ong bo hoa gia hai tn hieu c xac nh ung khi kim ch th ngay gia thang o. V du thiet b cu the: Synchronoscope NE 96 Compteur Schlumberger. Co bo tr hai en ch th pha.
Hnh 5.35: a) Cach mac khi ong bo hoa th en chay
b) Cach mac khi ong bo hoa th en tat Cong suat tieu thu: Phan cho mach ien may phat la: 1,5VA Phan cho mach ien li: 5VA Calip cho ca hai mach 2100V, tan so 50Hz.
173
Ghi chu: Do oi luc co s h hong cua thiet b ong bo hoa chung ta co the dung mach ien mac nh sau. a vao mach ien hai en neon c mac nh hnh 5.35.
5.8 TAN SO KE
5.8.1 Tan so ke ban rung (tan so ke cong hng c hoc) Cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong: gom mot nam cham ien tao ra qua cuon day ien quan tren loi sat t hnh ch U, mot mieng thep nam trong t trng cua nam cham ien gan chat vao mot thanh, mang nhng thanh rung co tan so dao ong rieng khac nhau. Tn hieu can o tan so c a vao cuon day cua nam cham ien, se tao ra lc hut mieng thep vi tan so dao ong f, khien cho cac thanh rung nao co tan so dao ong rieng bang tan so f th se dao ong cc ai do cong hng rieng, con cac thanh khac khong cong hng se khong dao ong cc ai. Nh vay chung ta se oc ket qua tai tr so tng ng vi thanh rung cc ai.
Hnh 5.36: C cau tan so cong hng c hoc
47
48 49 50 51 52
Loi sat t Cuon day
Thanh rung
5.8.2 Tan so ke ien ong hoac sat ien ong

Cau tao: ay la thiet b o dung c cau ch th t so ke ien ong hoac sat ien ong (nh loai D506 cua Lien Xo cu). Mach o c mac vao c cau nh
hnh 5.37a. Cuon day di ong B1 c mac vao tu ien C1 va cuon day B2 noi vi cuon co nh A, au con lai cua cuon co nh A noi vi ien cam L, ien dung C2 va ien tr RS. Con ien tr RSh mac song song vi hai au cuon B2 dung e hieu chnh may sao cho dong ien qua cuon B2 thch hp.
174
CHNG 5
Hnh 5.37: Mach o tan so ke c cau ien ong
Nguyen ly hoat ong: ien cam L va ien dung C2 c ieu chnh cong
hng tan so gia cua thang o, ngha la:
av L =
1 C2 av
Ket qua la dong ien cong hng I2ES cung pha vi ien ap cung cap V va tre pha 90o so vi dong ien I1 (H.5.37). Do o momen quay T1 lam quay cuon day B1 bang khong, ngha la. T1 = kI1I2REScos 90o = 0 Trong khi o momen T2 c tao ra bi dong ien I2 trong cuon day A va B2 lam di chuyen cuon day sao cho truc quay cua t thong tao nen bi cuon day A va B2 trung nhau. Nh vay dong ien I2 se thay oi bat ky s lech tan so cua tn hieu o do tan so goc cong hng av. S lech pha gia dong ien I2 va ien ap V theo chieu dng khi tan so tang va theo chieu am khi tan so giam. tan so khac, vi tan so cong hng, momen quay T1 khac khong se lam cho cuon day B1 quay, ong thi ket hp vi momen quay T2 lam quay cuon day B2 va ngau lc nay phu thuoc vao s lech pha gia dong ien I1 trong cuon day B1 va dong ien I2 trong cuon day A (s lech pha nay nho hn hay ln hn 90o). V hai momen nay quay ngc nhau nen kim ch th se dng lai khi hai momen nay bang nhau va momen nay lai phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu. Tn hieu o tan so c a vao mach o thong qua bien ap t ngau co cac au s cap tng ng vi cac tr so 36 100 127 220 V. Khoang tan so can o cua thiet b o loai nay trong khoang 50 1500 Hz c chia ra lam nhieu tam khac nhau. Tan so ke loai nay co the at o chnh xac ti 0,2%
175
(loai D506 cua Lien Xo cu). 5.8.3 Tan so ke dung c cau t so ke t ien co chnh lu
Cau tao: Bo phan ch th cua thiet b la t so t ien. Mach o dung hai nhanh song song, nhanh song song th nhat bao gom cuon
day L1, ien dung C1 va cau chnh lu toan song Re1. Nhanh song song th hai gom co ien tr R2 va cau chnh lu toan song Re2. V o lech cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao t so cua dong ien qua hai cuon day, ma dong ien lai phu thuoc vao tong tr cua hai nhanh song song.
Hnh 5.38: Tan so ke dung c cau
t so ke t ien co chnh lu
Ngha la: = F(I1/I2) = F(R2/Z1) Ma: Z1 = [ r12 + ( 2fL1 1 2 fC1 )2 ]1/ 2 ; r1: ien tr cua cuon day. Con R2 khong thay oi (thng ln hn so vi noi tr cuon day), cho nen goc lech cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu cung cap cho mach o. 5.8.4 Phng phap o tan so dung cau WIEN
Hnh 5.39: Mach cau o tan so
176
CHNG 5
Hnh 5.39 bieu dien mach cau Wien c dung e o tan so. Khi: Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 (ieu kien can bang cua cau) Vi:
1 1 = + j C1 Z1 R1
Z 2 = R2 ; Z 3 = R3 = j C3
; Z4 = R4
Nh vay khi cau can bang:

R4 R1 j = R2 ( R3 ) 1 + j C1 R1 C3 R1
Hoac la:
R4 R3 C1 1 = + + j ( C1 R3 ) R2 R1 C3 C3 R1 R4 R3 C1 = + R2 R1 C3
Can bang phan thc va phan ao:
Va: Do o:
R3C1 =
1 C3 R1
=
1
C1C3 R1 R3
Trong ieu kien: R1 = R3 = R; C1 = C3 = C. Th:

R4 = 2 hoac R4 = 2R2 R2
Khi o tan so tn hieu cho bi:
f=
1 . 2RC
ien dung C khong oi tan so c cho bi: F = k(1/R) Nh vay trong c cau thiet ke sao cho R1 va R3 cung thay oi, e ieu kien R1 = R3 bao am luon luon c thoa. e cho cau c de can bang th dang tn hieu phai khong co hoa tan, ieu nay co the at c bang cach noi tiep vi bo phan ch th s can bang cua cau bang mach loc. Neu bo phan ch th can bang cua cau dung tai nghe cua ien thoai, th s can bang cua cau c xac nh bi tn hieu am thanh c ban (vao khoang 1 kHz). Phng phap nay co the co o chnh xac t 0,1 0,5% va thuan li cho khoang tan so t 100Hz 100kHz.
Cau T oi (mach loc T oi)
177
Cau T oi c mac theo hnh 5.40. Tn hieu o tan so fX c a vao ngo vao mach loc. Khi cau can bang co ieu kien:
2 2 x R2 C1 C2 = 2
Va:
2 22 X C1 R1 R2 = 1
Khi R2 = 2R1 va C2 = 2C1

2 x = 1
2 2C1 R1 R2
1 1 1 = 2 2 2 2 2 C1 2 R1 4C1 R1
Th: Hay:
x = fx =
1 1 = 2f x = 2 R1C1 2 R1C1 1 4 R1C1
Hnh 5.40: Cau T oi e o tan so
Bo phan ch th can bang gom mach khuech ai (K) va ien ke. Phng phap o dung cau T oi co the o t vai chuc Hz en vai tram kHz sai so trong khoang t 0,5% en 1%. Sai so nay phu thuoc vao o chnh xac cua phan t cau, o nhay cua bo phan ch th s can bang cua cau. Ngoai ra chung ta con nhng phng phap so sanh dung hnh Lissajous, mach cong hng hap thu va may em tan so se c e cap en trong phan thiet b o ien t.
178
CHNG 6
Chng
O AI LNG C HOC VAT THE RAN

6.1 CAM BIEN V TR VA S DCH CHUYEN
Nhng cam bien nay c dung rat pho bien. Mot mat, do viec kiem soat v tr va s dch chuyen la mot phan quan trong trong viec hieu chnh hoat ong cac may moc, cac may cong cu chang han. Mat khac, do mot so ai lng vat ly co the o c v s dch chuyen nh chi tiet th nghiem. o la trng hp cua nhng lc, nhng ap suat, gia toc, nhiet o, v.v... Co hai phng phap c ban c dung e xac nh v tr va o s dch chuyen. Phng phap 1 thng c dung. Cam bien tao ra tn hieu gan lien vi v tr cua mot trong nhng thanh phan cua cam bien lien ket vi oi tng di ong, ac tnh quan trong cua nhom nay la tong tr cam bien phu thuoc vao ac tnh hnh hoc hoac kch thc cam bien thay oi theo v tr cua phan t di ong. o la trng hp cac cam bien: bien tr o lng, ien cam co loi di ong, ien dung co loi di ong, bien ap co o ghep thay oi. Phng phap 2 t thong dung. Cam bien tao ra mot xung ng vi moi lan phan t di chuyen: v tr va s dch chuyen c xac nh bi s em xung phat ra, hoac tr ra tuy theo chieu chuyen ong. Nhng cam bien c goi la gii han hai au c ac trng bi khong co lien ket c kh vi vat ma no o khoang cach hoac chuyen ong. Chung co o tinh ln, s lien ket gia vat chuyen ong va cam bien c thc hien nh mot s lien ket t trng, ien t trng hoac tnh ien ma cng o ghep phu thuoc vao v tr tng oi gia vat va cam bien, xac nh ap ng cua cam bien.
179
6.1.1 Cam bien ien tr

1- Bien tr o lng
o la loai cam bien co nguyen ly cau tao n gian, cho phep thc hien vi gia thanh re, tn hieu tao ra co the thu c mc o tng oi ln va khong can mot mach bien oi ac biet. Tuy nhien, s hien dien cua con chay do s trt la nguyen nhan tao ra tieng on va s hao mon, ieu nay dan en s suy giam chat lng cam bien (tuyen tnh, chnh xac) va co so lan van hanh gii han ma no khong b h hong. Mat khac, cam bien co the hoat ong moi trng khong kh am, bui. a) Dang hnh hoc
L 1
2 Rn R(l ) 2
M
R() Rn
a)
1
Rn
c)
R()
b)
Hnh 6.1: Nhng dang bien tr
a) Bien tr thang; b) Bien tr goc; c) Bien tr helice
180
CHNG 6
Mot bien tr gom mot ien tr co nh Rn, va tren ien tr co mot tiep iem goi la con chay. ien tr R gia con chay va mot trong hai au co nh co ac tnh: mot mat, phu thuoc vao v tr con chay (tc phan di ong ma ta muon bien oi v tr ra tn hieu ien), mat khac no phu thuoc vao ien tr co nh. Khi ien tr c cau tao ong nhat, bien tr tuyen tnh v co mot t le gia R va v tr con chay. Tuy theo dang hnh hoc cua ien tr co nh va s di ong con chay, ta phan biet: Bien tr dch chuyen thang: R (l) = ( l /L ) Rn Bien tr dch chuyen goc: vi M la goc dch chuyen toi a. Trong o: bien tr dch chuyen vong: M < 360o. bien tr dch chuyen helice: M > 360o. b) ien tr: c cau tao bi day quan hoac dang mang (piste). Day ien tr phai neu nhng ac tnh sau: he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat, sc ien ong nhiet, o on nh tinh the. Nhng hp kim thng c dung: NiCr, Ni Cu, NiCrFe, AgPd. Day quan c thc hien tren vat lieu cach ien (thuy tinh, gom hoac nha), day quan co lp vo cach ien. ien tr mang c cau tao bi mot mieng plastique phu mot lp than dan ien, hoac lp oxyd kim -2 loai, kch thc cua nhng hat kim loai vao khoang 10 m. Gia tr ien tr Rn thong thng co gia tr t 1k 100k va co the at en vai M. Sai so cua ien tr: nhng bien tr c che tao vi sai so cua Rn tuy theo trng hp 20% hay 10%, no co the at 5%. o chnh xac cao oi vi tr so ien tr, trong trng hp tong quat th khong can thiet bi v tn hieu ra la ket qua cua ty so R (x)/Rn. He so nhiet o cua ien tr: thong thng rat cao oi vi ien tr mang -4 (khoang 3.10 / oC). Tuyen tnh: s khong ong nhat trong che tao hoac do thanh phan vat lieu, mot s khong oi xng nho trong kch thc co the keo theo mot s khong tuyen tnh. R ( ) = ( / M ) Rn
181
2- Bien tr khong co con chay dang c
S bat li cua con chay dang c la s trt tren piste (gay ra s hao mon, tieng on) co the loai bo bang cach thay ket noi c kh gia truc di ong va mang ien tr bi lien ket quang, hoac t.
Hnh 6.2: Nguyen tac cua bien tr con chay dang quang
Trong loai bien tr goc co con chay dang quang, mang ien tr o c tach biet vi mang ien dan tiep xuc bi mot bang mong dang quang ien dan (CdSe), tren mang mong nay nhan mot lng anh sang di chuyen cung luc khi ta xoay truc cua bien tr. ien tr cua lp quang ien dan c chieu sang se giam i, tao thanh mot s ket noi gia mang ien tr o va mang tiep xuc.
Hnh 6.3: S thay oi ien tr cua lp quang ien dan di
tac ong cua s chieu sang trong thi gian ngan Loai bien tr t c cau tao bi hai phan t tr R1 va R2 mac noi tiep. Mot nam cham co cung truc quay vi bien tr tao ra mot t trng xuyen qua mot phan ien tr R1 va R2 thay oi vi v tr goc cua truc quay. T trng
182
CHNG 6
cam ng gay nen mot s thay oi quan trong ien tr cua nhng phan R1 va R2 no xuyen qua. ien ap cung cap ES c ap vao hai au 1 va 3, ien ap o c lay iem chung 2 va mot trong hai au con lai.
Hnh 6.4: Bien tr goc loai t
a) Nguyen tac theo goc quay; b) ap ng ien; c) Mach bu tr nhiet 6.1.2 Cam bien ien cam
1- Nguyen ly va ac tnh tong quat
S dch chuyen ma ta muon bien oi thanh tn hieu ien c thc hien nh mot trong nhng phan t mach t, keo theo mot s thay oi t thong trong cuon day. Khi phan t di chuyen la mot loi sat t, mot s chuyen oi s dch chuyen thang hay quay tron c the hien bi: S thay oi he so t cam (ien cam thay oi). S thay oi o ghep gia cac cuon day s va th cap cua bien ap (bien ap vi sai, microsyn) gay ra mot s thay oi ien ap th cap. Khi cuon day quay tron so vi mot cuon co nh, th mot cuon gi vai tro phan cam, con cuon kia phan ng, no tac ong nh mot bien ap co o ghep thay oi. Cuon s la phan cam, cuon th la phan ng va tao ra mot ien ap hoat ong theo goc quay (bien tr ien cam, resolver). Nhng thay oi he so t cam va ho cam M theo s dch chuyen cua loi sat thong thng co s tuyen tnh kem, ieu nay co the cai thien ang ke v viec bo tr hai cuon day oi khang ma he so t cam L va ho cam M thay oi ngc nhau oi vi cung mot chuyen ong, nh vay ta a thc hien mot s bu tr mot phan khong tuyen tnh (hoat ong push - pull). Cam bien ien cam c dung trong mach co nguon cung cap bi mot nguon ien ap sin, co tan so thng gii han c hang chuc kHz e giam bt nhng mat mat ve t va dong ien Foucault, cung nh anh hng ien dung ky sinh. ien ap o vm, la ket qua cua s bien oi bien
183
o cua ien ap cung cap EScosSt bi s dch chuyen x(t): vm = K . x (t).EScos (St + ). Rat hiem, nhng s thay oi phan t ien cam co the c dung bien oi tan so cua mach dao ong, t le vi s dch chuyen. Trong moi trng hp, bat ky loai bien oi nao, tan so f cua s chuyen ong phai rat nho so vi tan so song mang fS e de dang cho viec tach song: f<fS/10. Nhng cam bien ien cam nhay oi vi nhng t trng nhieu, la ly do tai sao can at nhng mang bao ve t trong cuon day.
2- ien cam thay oi
He so t cam L cua cuon day co N vong day c dien ta theo t tr R cua mach t.
L= N2 v i R= R
ma ch t
dl S
Hnh 6.5: Cam bien loai khe
- o t tham; S - tiet dien mach t.

Khi tiet dien cua mach t khong oi trong tng oan:
h khong kh thay oi
R=
lf o f Sf
lo oSo
trong o: lf, lo - chieu dai trung bnh cua ng sc trong loi sat va trong khong kh Sf, So - tiet dien mach t va khe h khong kh
f - o t tham tng oi cua vat lieu t (vao khoang 10 4 7 en 10 ) va o = 4 . 10 MKSA.

a) Mach t co khe h khong kh thay oi (H.6.5)
Ta thiet lap de dang, t cong thc tong quat, he so t cam L:

L = o N 2 S[1/( l o + l f / f )]
e cho t cam L nhay oi vi s thay oi cua khe h khong kh, ta phai chon lo lf /f. Luc o ta co: L = o N 2 S/l o Mot s di chuyen x cua phan ng dan en mot s thay oi lo = 2x cua khe h khong kh, he so t cam se at tr gia mi.
184
CHNG 6
L + L =
o N 2 S 2 o N 2 S x 1 L = 2 1 + 2 x / l o l o 1 + 2x/l o lo
L x 1 = 2 L l o 1 + 2x/l o
Neu x lo, ta co: L =
S=
2 o N 2 S
2 lo
x[1
2x 2x 2 +( ) + L] lo lo
2 N 2 S 2x 2x 2 L = o2 [1 +( ) + L] x lo lo lo
o nhay phu thuoc vao v tr ban au lo cua phan ng, no cang ln neu lo cang be. Mat khac no co the coi nh khong oi neu s dch chuyen rat be so vi lo, ieu nay khien cho viec s dung cam bien b gii han oi vi nhng dch chuyen be, c mm.
Hnh 6.6: To hp hai loi mach t
co khe h khong kh thay oi o nhay va s tuyen tnh c cai thien, neu ta dung t cam cua hai loi mach t giong nhau at oi xng oi vi phan ng di ong va nh vay khe h khong kh co s thay oi ngc chieu oi vi hai loi mach t. S thay oi he so t cam L cua cuon day th hai:
L' = 2 o N 2 S
2 lo
x 1 ( 2x/l o ) x[1 2x 2x 2 +( ) + L] lo lo
oi vi x
lo :
L =
2 o N 2 S
2 lo
Hai cuon day co L va L c at trong hai nhanh cua cau o. ien ap lech khi o t le vi L L:
L L = 4 o N 2 S lo x[1 + ( 2x 2 ) + L] lo
Nh vay o nhay cua to hp ien cam tang gap oi, s khong tuyen tnh c cai thien.
b) Cuon day co nong di ong (H.6.7)
185
He so t cam cua cuon day tuy thuoc vao v tr nong sat. Cach tnh he so t cam L nh sau: ta xem ien cam la to hp noi tiep cua ien cam moi trng khong kh; chieu dai lo; he so t cam Lo; ien cam cua loi sat t co chieu dai lf; he so t cam Lf; he so ho cam M. Ta co: L = Lo + Lf + 2M. Vi M = K L o. L f K: he so ghep, gia s khong oi (0 K 1). Ta co the viet theo ac tnh cua mach:
L o = o L f = o L = o N2 l2 N2 l2 N2 l2 Sol o = o N2 l2 So ( l l f )
( So + ( f 1)Sf ) l f
[ Sol + ( f 1)Sf l f + 2 K So ( So + ( f 1)Sf ). ( l l f ).l f ]
S dch chuyen lf cua loi sat t keo theo mot s thay oi L cua ien cam, no tuy thuoc vao lf va hoat ong khong tuyen tnh theo lf. Tng t nh trng hp ien cam co khe h khong kh thay oi, s khong tuyen tnh co the giam bt bang cach mac push-pull, hai cuon day co cung chung mot nong sat t.
Hnh 6.7: S o nguyen ly cua cuon
Hnh 6.8: Hai cuon day co cung chung
day co nong sat di ong
mot nong sat hoat ong pushpull
3- Bien ap vi sai (H.6.9)
Bien ap vi sai la mot loai cam bien c chu y en pham chat tuyen tnh, o tinh. So sanh vi cam bien ien cam co nong di ong, hoat ong pushpull co cung mot so tnh chat, loai cam bien vi sai co mot so iem li hn. Cach mac day n gian, khong can thc hien can bang cau o. Mot s oc lap gia mach kch thch va mach o.
186
CHNG 6
a) Nguyen ly: Bien ap vi sai c cau tao gom mot cuon day s cap va hai
cuon day th cap c bo tr oi xng so vi cuon s cap. Cuon s cap c cung cap bi sc ien ong sin: e1 = E1cost. S dch chuyen cua nong sat t lam bien oi o ghep gia cuon s va hai cuon th. Nhng cuon th c mac xung oi sao cho sc ien ong cam ng cua chung tr nhau.
Hnh 6.9: Bien ap vi sai: a) Loai dch chuyen thang,
b) Dch chuyen goc, c) S o mach ien tng ng.
187
Vi mach ien n gian, o ta bo qua ien dung ky sinh. Nhng phng trnh oi vi mach s va mach th cap: e1 = ( R1 + j L1)i1 + j [ M ' ( x ) M '' ( x )]i 2
' '' [ R2 + R2 + Ri + j ( L'2 + L'' 2 )] i 2 + j [ M '( x ) M "( x )] i1 = 0
Ta co the tnh theo e1, ien ap Vm = Rii2 hai au thiet b o mac vao th cap.
vm =
j Ri [ M "( x ) M '( x )]e1 R1 ( Ri + R2 ) + j [ L 2 R1 + L1 ( R2 + Ri )] 2 [ L1 L 2 + ( M '( x ) M "( x ))2 ]
' '' vi: L2 = L'2 + L'' 2 va R2 = R2 + R2 .
Ve nguyen tac vm = 0 khi nong sat v tr chnh gia cach eu oi vi hai cuon th cap, o la v tr ban au x = 0 va ta co M(0) = M(0). Trong thc te v tr o ta co vm nho nhat ch khong hoan toan bang 0, co hai nguyen do: Nhng hoa tan tao ra bi ac tnh khong tuyen tnh cua ng cong t hoa loi sat. ien dung ghep gia cuon s va cuon th.
b) ac tnh o lng
o nhay: S =
Vm = x
2 aE1
2 R1
; Vm: bien o tn hieu

2
L2 1
oi vi nhng tan so kch thch thap (f < R1/2L1): S = 2aE1 /R1 o nhay trong trng hp nay t le vi tan so cua nguon s cap, no co the b dao ong vi nhng thay oi nhiet cua R1, tuy nhien ieu nay co the bu tr bang cach at noi tiep vi R1 mot ien tr r1 ma nhng thay oi do nhiet ngc vi R1 hoac cung cap cho s cap mot nguon dong. oi vi nhng tan so kch thch cao (f > R1/2L1): S = 2aE1 /L1 o nhay f oc lap vi tan so cung cap va anh hng nhiet c xem nh thu nho, o nhay t le vi bien o cua ien ap s cap nhng s ot nong cua cuon s va s bao hoa cua mach t khong cho phep gia tang E1 qua mot gia tr gii han c nha che tao ch ro. Khi cuon day s cap c bo tr xen gia hai cuon day th cap dan en mot so bat li: pha ngoai cuon day s cap, mot t trng hoan toan khong
P S1 Th cap S2 Th cap
S cap
Hnh 6.10: Cach bo tr ba cuon day e cai thien tuyen tnh va gia tang khoang o
188
CHNG 6
giong nhau doc theo truc, ieu nay dan en mot s khong tuyen tnh. Mot s gii han khoang o cua s dch chuyen nong sat, t tam i en mot trong hai cuon day th cap. Nhng ieu bat li nay co the c khac phuc bang s bo tr ba cuon day chong len nhau (H.6.10). Mot vai ac tnh cua bien ap vi sai: Khoang o: Dch chuyen thang: 1mm en 500mm Dch chuyen goc: 45 o nhay: Dch chuyen thang: 1 en 500mV/1V/mm Dch chuyen goc: 1 en 10mV/1V/1o o tinh: Loi di ong t 0.5gam en vai chuc gam. ien ap cung cap t 1 en 50V hieu dung. Tan so cung cap: 50Hz en 25.000Hz.
c) Mach o: s kch cuon s c cung cap t mot mach dao ong ma tan so va bien o rat vng.
Nguon cung cap Cam bien
Khuech ai
Mach dao ong
Kiem soat bien o Kiem soat pha
Hoan ieu ong bo
Khuech ai
Chnh 0
Tn hieu t cam bien c khuech ai va chnh lu, tn hieu co pha phu thuoc vao chieu chuyen ong. S o khoi mach o nh hnh tren.
4- Microsyn
o la loai may ien nho, gom co stator bon cc va rotor bang vat lieu sat t. Tren bon cc cua stator co hai cuon day s va th, tren rotor khong co quan day va gi nhiem vu bien oi. Nhng cuon day s cap mac noi tiep c cung cap bi ien ap sin vao khoang vai chuc von toi a va tan so di 10kHz. T thong cam ng trong moi cuon day th cap mot sc ien ong co dang:
Hnh 6.11: Nguyen tac cau
ei = d i /dt = i sin t ; ( i = i sin t )
tao Microsyn
189
Nhng cuon day th cap mac noi tiep sao cho sc ien ong e1 va e3 xung oi vi e2 va e4, luc o ien ap th cap: v m = e 1 + e 3 e2 e4
vm = (1 + 3 2 4) sint
V tr goc quay cua rotor an nh t tr cua mach t va nh the an nh t thong cc ai trong nhng cuon day, khi rotor v tr la truc oi xng oi vi hai cap cc, nhng t thong i qua bon cuon day th cap bang nhau, co gia tr o, ien ap th cap vm = 0, o la iem 0 cua cam bien. Khi rotor quay quanh v tr nay, se co mot s bien thien t tr va t thong trong nhng cuon day th cap: i = o + i. Nhng s bien thien nay bang nhau trong nhng cuon th cap S1 va S3; S2 va S4: 2 = 4 = , 1 = 3 = . Sc ien ong cam ng tong cong: vm = 2 [ ] sin t Mat khac nhng thay oi va trai dau nhau, oi vi goc quay 2 2 be, ta co the viet: = a + b() ; = a + b () Cach mac day nh the chnh la cach mac push-pull. ieu nay cho phep mot s bu tr khong tuyen tnh oi vi s thay oi cua t thong: vm = 4a sin t. Nh vay o ln cua ien ap th cap trong gii han goc quay chung quanh tr gia 0 t le vi goc dch chuyen . ac tnh o lng: Khoang o 10o. o nhay: 0,1V oi vi ien ap 1 von va goc lech 1 o. Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,5 en 1% khoang o.
5- Bien tr ien cam
Gom co stator va rotor c cau tao bi vat lieu sat t. Tren stator va rotor co bo tr mot cuon day quan nh hnh 6.12. Rotor c noi vi truc quay ma ta muon bien oi chuyen ong ong vai tro cuon s cap va c cung cap bang mot nguon dang sin: E1cost.
190
CHNG 6
Hnh 6.12: Nguyen tac cau tao cua cam bien bien tr ien cam
Dong s cap co dang: I1cos(t+), tao ra mot t thong thang goc vi mat phang cuon day s cap. Cuon day stator ong vai tro cuon day th cap co mot t thong xuyen qua se phat sinh sc ien ong ng co o ln: E2 = M()I1. M(): he so ho cam hai cuon day. Ta at: M() = Mocos; : Goc lech gia hai cuon day. trong nhng ieu kien nay: E2 = MoI1cos o ln E2 bang 0 khi = / 2 , v tr nay ta xem nh v tr ban au cua goc quay, ta co the viet: E2 = Mo I1 sin, ta at = + / 2 .
E2 = MoI1, oi vi nho Mot s bo tr thch hp nhng cuon day cho phep ni rong khoang tuyen tnh, vi goc quay cc ai M gan bang / 2 .
Khoang o: 120o en 180o. o nhay: 0,5 en 20mV oi vi 1 von ien ap va goc lech 1o. Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,1 en 0,5 % khoang o.
6- Synchrodetecteur (Sel Syn)
o la mot tap hp hai may ien giong nhau: mot may truyen, mot may nhan. Moi may gom mot rotor va mot stator ba pha, ba cuon day c bo tr lech nhau 120o va mac theo Y. Nhng cuon day stator cua may truyen va nhan c noi vi nhau nh hnh 6.13. Phan quay cua may truyen (transmetteur) r c cung cap bi mot ien ap: Ecost, se tao ra mot t trng b ma t thong i qua cac cuon day stator St1, St2, St3 phat sinh sc ien ong ng et1, et2, et3. Goi t la goc lech gia rotor va cuon day stator St1, nhng sc ien ong cam ng trong St1, St2, St3.
191
Hnh 6.13: Nguyen tac cau tao cua synchrodetecteur
et 1 = KE cos t .cos( t ) et 2 = KE cos( t + et 3 = KE cos( t
2 )cos( t ) 3 2 )cos( t ) 3
vi K va tuy thuoc ac tnh hnh hoc va ac tnh ien cua cac cuon day. r Nhng dong ien i1, i2, i3 trong cac cuon St1, St2, St3 tao nen t trng bt r ngc chieu vi b . Nhng dong ien nay se chay trong cac cuon day stator cua may nhan (recepteur) Sr1, Sr2, Sr3, co chieu ngc vi dong ien chay trong may truyen r r r va tao ra t trng br ngc chieu vi bt nh vay cung chieu vi b . Goi goc lech gia rotor cua may nhan va cuon day satator Sr1 la r. T thong cam ng trong rotor t le vi cos(t r), nh vay sc ien ong ng vi hai au rotor, co mach so , va o ln: Er = K.Ecos(t r) K oi vi mot may cho trc tuy thuoc vao cach thc hien va . Trng hp khi:
r = / 2 ; Er = K.E sin t
192
CHNG 6
Vi t gan bang 0:
E r = K E t
Nhng ac tnh o lng Khoang o 360o, o nhay ( gan iem 0) t 10mV en 100mV oi vi 1V ien ap va goc lech 1o. Synchrodetecteur c dung trong nhng thiet b o v tr goc lech, no tao nen mot ien ap co o ln Er phu thuoc khoang cach gia v tr truc muon o c noi vi may truyen va v tr co nh chon trc cua phan quay may nhan. 6.1.3 Cam bien ien dung
1- Nguyen ly va ac tnh tong quat
ay la nhng tu ien dang phang hoac dang tru ma mot trong nhng ban cc di ong dan en mot s thay oi ien dung. Khong ke en hieu ng phu, ta co: oi vi tu phang: C = r o A /D
r: hang so ien moi cua moi trng gia hai ban cc, A va D la tiet dien va khoang cach gia hai ban cc.
oi vi tu ien tru: C =
2 r ol L og r2 /r1
12
l - o nam sau cua hnh tru ban knh r1 trong hnh tru ban knh r2. Trong he thong n v MKSA: o = 8,85 . 10 Trng hp tu ien phang: S dch chuyen trong mot mat phang song song vi ban cc co nh: A thay oi, D co nh. S dch chuyen trong mat phang thang goc vi ban cc co nh: D thay oi, A co nh. . S dch chuyen cua ban cc di ong co the c thc hien:
193
Trng hp tu ien tru: l thay oi doc theo truc. Nhng cam bien ien dung can c lu y bi cau tao n gian cua no, cho phep thc hien cam bien chac chan va tinh. ien moi thng dung la khong kh. Tuy theo mach bien oi i kem vi cam bien, tn hieu co the hoat ong tuyen tnh oi vi: S thay oi ien dung C. Hay s thay oi tong tr Z. Hoac s thay oi tng oi Z/Z; (Z/Z = C/C). e viec s dung thiet b o thch hp nhat, can phai xac nh moi loai cam bien ien dung nhng o nhay khac nhau oi vi o dch chuyen x. o nhay ien dung: SC = C/x o nhay tong tr: SZ = Z /x o nhay tng oi: Sr =
1 C 1 Z . = . C x Z x
Nh vay neu o nhay SC cua ien dung la hang so, ta chon trc mach bien oi ma ien ap ra vm thay oi theo C: vm = K.C = KSC.x K: hang so ac trng cho mach bien oi c dung, ngc lai neu SZ la hang so ta chon cach mac sao cho: vm = K Z = KSZx, Trong moi trng hp, tn hieu thu c t le vi o dch chuyen x.
2- Tu ien co tiet dien thay oi
a) Tu ien n
o la tu ien phang vi ban cc di ong xoay tron hay tu ien dang tru co ban cc di chuyen doc truc nh hnh 6.14. Trong ca hai trng hp, ien dung thay oi tuyen tnh theo dch chuyen x: C(x) = K.x oi vi tu ien xoay: K = oi vi tu ien tru:
K =
o r 2 , 360.D
x = : o
2 o , x = l: m L og ( r2 / r1 )
o nhay SC la hang so: SC = K; Ngc lai tong tr hoat ong khong 1 1 . . tuyen tnh theo x va: SZ = K x2 o nhay tng oi Sr = 1/x . o nhay SZ va Sr rat ln trong khi x nho.
194
CHNG 6
Ngay ca oi vi s dch chuyen dx, s khong tuyen tnh rat ln. Viec s dung mot tu ien th hai hoat ong push-pull vi cach mac vi sai cho phep mot s bu tr.
Hnh 6.14: Nguyen ly cam bien ien dung co tiet dien thay oi
Tu ien n: a) Xoay tron; b) Dch chuyen thang Tu ien kep: c) Xoay tron; d) Dch chuyen thang
b) Tu ien oi vi sai
Ban cc di ong A1 di chuyen gia hai ban cc co nh A2 va A3 tao thanh hai tu ien ma ien dung cua chung la C21 va C31 thay oi ngc dau vi nhau theo s dch chuyen x (H.6.14c,d). V tr c xem la goc ban au cua s dch chuyen x la cua ban cc di ong, tai o hai ban cc co nh oi xng, va nh the hai ien dung C21 va C31 bang nhau. Vi gia tr K va x c xac nh trc, vi s dch chuyen cc ai X, ta co:
C21 = K ( X + x ) = KX (1 + C31 = K ( X x ) = KX (1
Ta at KX = Co vi X = L/2
x x ) = Co (1 + ) X X x x ) = Co (1 ) X X
L - chieu dai cua ban cc di ong trong trng hp tu ien tru.
X = M / 2, M : goc tao nen t tam cua ban cc di ong trong trng

hp tu xoay. ieu li cua cach mac vi sai hien ro trong to hp ien dung C21 va C31. Ly do: khi lu y rang oi vi mot phng phap o tot, nhng t so phan ap sau ay hoat ong tuyen tnh theo s di chuyen:
195
Z 31 C21 1 x = = (1 + ) Z 21 + Z 31 C21 + C31 2 X C31 Z 21 1 x = = (1 ) Z 21 + Z 31 C21 + C31 2 X

3- Tu ien co khoang cach thay oi (H.6.15)
ay la nhng tu ien dung e bien oi s dch chuyen thang.
Hnh 6.15: Nguyen ly cua cam bien ien dung co khoang cach thay oi
a) Tu ien n, b) Tu ien oi vi sai.

a) Tu ien n: ta goi d la khoang cach dch chuyen vi khoang cach goc
Do, ta co:
C( d ) =
o A o A 1 1 ; SC = ; SZ = ; Sr = 2 o A Do + d Do + d ( Do + d )
Trong trng hp nay s thay oi cua tong tr th tuyen tnh theo s dch chuyen. o nhay SC va Sr ln khi Do nho, chung co the xem nh khong oi khi o d Do. o nhay SC cua tu ien co khoang cach thay oi rat ln so vi o nhay SC tu ien co tiet dien thay oi. V du: Tu ien c cau tao vi nhng ban cc tiet dien vuong co canh la a, c at canh nhau vi khoang cach Do(Do a), ta co: oi vi s dch chuyen song song vi mot trong hai canh SC(//) = oa .
Do
oi vi s dch chuyen nho, thang goc vi ban cc:

2 SC( ) = oa2 /Do vaSC( ) /SC(//) = a/Do
Ngc lai tu ien co khoang cach thay oi ch co the dung e o s dch chuyen nho (< mm), trong khi tu ien co tiet dien thay oi co khoang o tng oi ln (> cm).
b) Tu ien oi vi sai: Ban cc di ong A1 dch chuyen theo hng thang goc vi mat phang cua ban cc co nh A2 va A3. Neu goi d la khoang cach
196
CHNG 6
dch chuyen so vi v tr goc ban au th Do la khoang cach oi xng cua hai mat phang, ta co:
C21 = C31 =
o A A 1 1 = o = Co 1 ( d /D o ) Do d D o 1 ( d /D o ) o A A 1 1 = o = Co 1 + d /D o Do + d D o 1 + ( d /D o )
Vi: o A /Do = Co . Tng t trong trng hp tu oi co tiet dien thay oi, to hp nay co ac tnh ang chu y la t so phan ap tuyen tnh theo s dch chuyen.
Z 31 C31 C21 Z 21 1 1 d d = = (1 + ); = = (1 ) Z 21 + Z 31 C21 + C31 2 Do Z 21 + Z 31 C21 + C31 2 Do
6.1.4 Cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au Loai cam bien nay c ac trng bi s khong co lien ket c kh gia thiet b o va vat chuyen ong, ma bang s lien ket cua mot trng co lien he vi v tr tng oi cua vat chuyen ong. Trng cam ng t oi vi nhng cam bien t tr thay oi, hieu ng Hall oi vi vat lieu khang t. Trng ien t oi vi nhng cam bien loai dong ien Foucault. Trng tnh ien oi vi nhng cam bien ien dung. Nhng ac tnh cua cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au la: Mot bang thong rong o tin cay va o tinh ln. Nhng ieu bat li: Khoang o thng nho (khoang mm) Hoat ong khong tuyen tnh Nhat la oi vi mot so cam bien co ap ng phu thuoc vao hnh dang, kch thc va vat lieu cua oi tng, ieu nay can thiet cho s lay mau, c thc hien trong nhng ieu kien rieng biet khi s dung.
197
Hnh 6.16: Nhng ng dung cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au:
a) V tr; b) Dch chuyen thang; c) Dch chuyen theo hai truc; d) ng knh; e) Dch chuyen doc va ngang; g) Be day cach ien tren kim loai; h) ng knh kim loai; i) Kiem tra kch thc v.v... 1- Cam bien t tr thay oi (H.6.17)
o la mot bien ap ma mach t bao gom vat chuyen ong can o. Vat chuyen ong phai la vat lieu sat t, hoac t nhat mang mot be mat bang vat lieu sat t. Khoang cach gia oi tng ma ta muon o vi au cam bien, ong vai tro khe h khong kh xac nh t tr cua mach t va nh the xac nh t thong, ien ap cuon th cap co dang khong tuyen tnh khi cuon s cap Hnh 6.17: Cam bien t tr c cung cap:
198
CHNG 6
Vm = Vmo
1 (1 + ax )2
vi: x - khoang cach gia oi tng va cam bien
Vmo - phu thuoc vao o t tham, dang hnh hoc va kch thc cua oi tng.
Tn hieu thu c co the tuyen tnh hoa oi vi nhng dch chuyen d be chung quanh mot khoang cach Do cho trc bang cach bo tr hai cam bien hoat ong push-pull. Hai cuon day s cap c mac noi tiep hoac song song, hai cuon day th cap xuat hien cac ien ap Vm1 va Vm2 c mac xung oi, ien ap o c: Vm = Vm2 Vm1 vi:
Vm1 = Vmo
1 [1 + a( Do + d )]
2
; Vm 2 = Vm o
1 [1 + a( Do d )]2
Neu: [
ad 2 ] 1 + aDo
1 Vm = Vm ( Do )
4 ad 1 + aDo
2- Cam bien dong ien Foucault (H.6.18)
Phan t chnh cua cam bien la mot cuon day c cung cap dong ien tan so cao, no se tao ra mot t trng thay oi chung quanh cuon day. Mot vat kim loai nam trong vung t trng nay se xay ra hieu ng dong ien Foucault. Theo nh luat Lenz, dong ien nay co chieu chong lai nguyen nhan tao nen no, tao nen mot t thong ngc lai vi t thong cua cuon day, ieu nay dan en lam giam he so t cam cua cuon day.
Hnh.6.18: Cam bien dong ien Foucault va mach tng ng
Cam bien t tr thay oi ch dung vi nhng oi tng vat lieu sat t, cam bien dong ien Foucault c dung ca nhng vat la kim loai. Tuy nhien ap ng khong ch phu thuoc vao khoang cach oi tng, ma con phu thuoc ac tnh ien (ien tr suat, o t tham) va nhng ac tnh hnh hoc (dang va kch thc). oi tng va cam bien thng at trong moi trng khong kh, viec lap at co the bo tr trong moi trng cach ien, ieu nay cho phep ton
199
hao t oi vi tan so dong ien hoat ong. Ly thuyet n gian ve hoat ong cua loai cam bien nay c xay dng da tren viec xem oi tng kim loai nh mot mach ien co ho cam M vi cuon day. Ta co: Z1 = R1 + fL1: tong tr cuon day Z2 = R2 + jL2: tong tr tng ng cua oi tng M = K L1 L 2 : he so ho cam K: he so ghep gia cuon day va oi tng, phu thuoc vao v tr cua oi tng. Ta co phng trnh: S cap: (R1 + jL1) i1 + j M i2 = e1 Th cap: (R2 + jL2) i2 + j M i1 = 0 Rut gon: [ R1 +
M 2 2
2 2 R2 + L2 2
R2 + j ( L1
M 2 2
2 2 R2 + L2 2
L 2 )] i1 = e1
Khi cuon day c cung cap, tong tr cuon day s cap a c bien oi do ghep them vi cuon th cap. ien tr cuon day s cap gia tang:
R1eq = R1 + M 2 2
2 2 R2 + L2 2
R2
ien cam cuon day giam:

L1eq = L1 M 2 2
2 2 R2 + L2 2
L2
Trong trng hp oi tng la vat dan ien tot: L M 2 2 R2 L 2 2 K2 1 2 2 L2 R2 + L 2 Va tong tr tng ng cuon day s cap rut gon: 2 L 2 R1eq = R1 + K 1 R2; L1eq = L1(1 K ) L2
3- Cam bien hieu ng Hall
Hieu ng Hall c ac trng bi s xuat hien ien ap VH thang goc vi dong ien chay trong vat dan at trong vung t trng B, o ln VH phu thuoc phng va o ln cua B. Hieu ng Hall la ket qua cua lc Laplace tac ong tren ien tch di chuyen. Cam bien hieu ng Hall gom: Phan au do: la mot thanh mong, thng la chat ban dan co dong ien
200
CHNG 6
chay qua, va hai au cua thanh ta o VH. Mot nam cham: tao t trng B, o ln cua t trng trong vung at au do phu thuoc vao v tr cua nam cham.
Hnh 6.19: Nguyen ly au do hieu ng Hall
Mot trong hai phan t (au do hoac nam cham) co nh va ngc lai. Thng au do co nh, trong trng hp nay khoi lng nam cham tng oi nho, ieu nay dan en han che pham vi o lng. ieu li cua cam bien la cho phep xac nh v tr va o dch chuyen xuyen qua mot hanh lang bang vat lieu khong phai bang sat t ngan cach au do va nam cham.
a) Hieu ng Hall
Ta xem mot thanh dan mong hnh ch nhat (chieu dai L, chieu rong l, chieu day e), mot ien ap V cung cap tao ra mot dong ien I co chieu doc theo chieu dai nh hnh 6.19. S dan ien c xem nh do cac am ien t co mat o n, o linh ong , ta co:
I =
V L 1 19 = , q = 1,610 C v i R= R e.l qn
V = EXL . EX: cng o ien trng doc theo chieu dai.

ur Thanh dan at trong vung t trng B , lc Laplace FL tac ong len mot am ien t van toc V: uu r uu r ur uu r uu r F L = qV B , v i : V = E X
I = q n EX el
201
Lc nay co chieu theo truc y tang dan va co gia tr: FL = q EX BN ur vi BN la thanh phan cua B thang goc vi mat phang thanh dan. Di tac dung cua lc FL cac am ien t tch tu tai be mat canh truc Oy theo chieu tang, ieu nay tao nen be mat oi dien mot ien tch co o ln bang no nhng khac dau. Cac ien tch nay tao nen mot ien trng Ey song song vi Oy, va tac ong len am ien t mot lc Fy = qEy.
Vat lieu GaAs ien tr suat 25oC (ohm.m) 210 3 Hieu suat Hall 250C (m3.C1) 3 1,710 5 1,510 3 3,710 4 1,110 4 3,810 5 1,910
InAs
InSb
5 4.510 3 10 5 510 5 510 6 610
Trang thai can bang c xac lap khi hai lc bang nhau. Ey = EXBN ien ap VH phu thuoc vao Ey va be rong l. VH = Eyl = EXBNl =
I BN I BN = KH qn e e
KH =
1 : hang so Hall qn
5
V du: Mot thanh dan bang atimoniuredindium, ien tr suat 510 m, day 0,1mm, dong ien chay qua 1mA, at trong t trng thng trc la 1T. ien ap Hall la 3,8mV.
b) Cach thc hien
o nhay cam bien: SB N = VH /B N = K H I /e o nhay cam bien SBN phu thuoc vao dong I va cach thc hien cam bien, be day e va vat lieu: KH. Khi cam bien dung e bien oi v tr, hoac s dch chuyen, nam cham tao ra t trng ong vai tro chi tiet th nghiem la thc hien viec o s cap. V tr hoac s dch chuyen c bien oi thanh ai lng BN nhay oi vi cam bien. o nhay v tr:
202
CHNG 6
SX =
B N K I B N VH = H SX = SBN x e x x
o nhay SX t le vi SB N va t le vi B N /x
B N /x : phu thuoc vao loai nam cham va khoang cach nam cham so vi
au do. Thong thng tr gia nay la hang so. Chon vat lieu: ien ap Hall t le vi dong I, nhng I b gii han do hieu ng Joule ot nong au do, cong suat tieu tan Pd:
Pd = RI 2 ;
R=
1 L VH = K H qn el
Pd B N Pl = [ K H d ]1/ 2 . B N R e Le
Vi cong suat Pd cho trc am bao s ot nong khong lam h hong au do va neu ien ap VH c o vi thiet b co tong tr ln, th ta chon c vat lieu ma he so KH /n cc ai.
6.2 CAM BIEN IEN TR BIEN DANG (IEN TR JAUGE) (H.6.20)

Viec hieu biet nhng lc nen c kh trong mot cau truc, ieu kien s dung cho phep tham nh s an toan trong hoat ong. Nhng lc nen tao nen s bien dang va gia chung co s lien he c giai thch bang ly thuyet ien tr cua vat lieu. Viec o s bien dang vung nh trc, cho phep tnh nhng lc nen vung nay. Cam bien o s bien dang thng c s dung la ien tr jauge va c at tren cau truc ma ta muon o s bien dang, chung co kch thc rat be c mm hoac cm tuy loai. Nhng ng dung ien tr bien dang con c dung o cac ai lng vat ly khac nh ap suat, lc, gia toc, ngau lc. ien tr jauge va chi tiet th nghiem (chi tiet i kem) cau tao thanh cam bien o cac ai lng vat ly khac nhau. 6.2.1 nh ngha nhng ai lng c hu dung o bien dang : o la t so gia s thay oi kch thc l vi kch thc ban au l: = l /l S bien dang an hoi: S bien dang bien mat cung luc vi lc tac ong. Lc ep : Lc tac ong tren n v tiet dien. Gii han an hoi: Lc ep cc ai khong dan en s bien dang thng 2 trc ln hn 0,2%, n v tnh kGf/mm : thep 20 80; ong 3 12; ch 0,4 1.
203
nh luat Hooke: Trong pham vi an hoi, s bien dang t le vi lc ep. o ln Young Y: Xac nh s bien dang theo chieu cua lc nen.
// =
1 F 1 . = . n v tnh: kGf/mm2. Y S Y
thep: 18 000 29 000; ong: 9900 14000; ch: 500 1800 He so Poisson : Xac nh s bien dang thang goc vi lc nen:
=
6.2.2 Nguyen ly tong quat
//
Trong pham vi an hoi thong thng 0,3. Cac ien tr bien dang la nhng cam bien thu ong, no bien oi s bien dang cua chnh no thanh s thay oi gia tr ien tr, s bien dang nay chnh bang s bien dang cua cau truc lap at ien tr bien dang. Pham vi bien dang 5 co the c o vi o chnh xac at 0,1% trong pham vi o 10 en 210 1 . Thong thng ien tr jauge c cau tao di dang hnh li, gom day dan co ien tr suat , tiet dien S va chieu dai nl; l: chieu dai mot cong va n la so cong, n thong thng t 10 20 oi vi nhng ien tr kim loai va la 1 oi vi ien tr ban dan.
Hnh 6.20: ien tr jauge: a) Kim loai; b) Ban dan
Day dan c at tren mot gia cach ien bang giay hoac bang plastique, tat ca c at tren cau truc can o s bien dang. Ket qua ien tr jauge chu s bien dang giong nh cau truc theo phng song song vi cong day dan, tc o bien dang l/l. ien tr Jauge c dien ta: R = n( l /s)
204
CHNG 6
Di anh hng s bien dang, ien tr jauge thay oi R: R l s = + R l s S bien dang theo chieu dai cua day, dan en s thay oi kch thc ngang la cac canh a va b oi vi tiet dien ch nhat, s thay oi ng knh d oi vi tiet dien tron, s bien dang ngang t le vi s bien dang dai. a b d l = = = a b d l vi : he so Poisson, 0,3 trong vung bien dang an hoi. Ket qua: neu S = a.b hay s =
2 s l d , th: = 2 4 s l
Nhng ien tr jauge kim loai va ban dan c phan biet bi bieu thc dien ta s thay oi ien tr suat /. oi vi ien tr kim loai, cong thc Bridgman cho ta biet s lien he gia ien tr suat va s thay oi the tch V: / = C.V /V ; C: hang so Bridgman. vi: V = snl; V /V = (1 2 )l /l va:
l R l l = C(1 2 ) ; n gian: = [(1 + 2 ) + C(1 2 )] = K R l l l
K: he so Jauge = (1 + 2) + C(1 2). Vi gia tr biet trc ( 0,3; C 1), he so K cua ien tr jauge kim loai thong thng la 2. Vi ien tr jauge ban dan, s thay oi ien tr suat c dien ta bi bieu thc lc ep sigma va he so ap ien tr : / = = Y l /l ; Y: o ln Young. He so ap ien tr tuy thuoc: phng cua cong ien tr so vi phng cua truc tinh the va phng cua lc nen. Loai ban dan P hay N. oi vi ien tr jauge ban dan:
R l vi K = 1 + 2 + Y = [(1 + 2 ) + Y )] R l
Trong ieu kien s dung bnh thng ngi ta lay K = Y 6.2.3 ien tr kim loai ien tr suat cua hau het kim loai giam khi ap suat gia tang. That vay khi giam the tch, khoang cach gia cac nguyen t giam ieu nay dan en giam . V ien tr suat cua kim loai phu thuoc vao s khuech tan cua am
205
ien t trong mang tinh the, kha nang khuech tan gia tang theo o ln cua dao ong nguyen t trong mang tinh the. Khi the tch tinh the thu nho, lc lien ket cac nguyen t gia tang, ket qua dao ong giam i va kha nang khuech tan am ien t giam i, ngha la ien tr suat giam. Vat lieu thng dung la hp kim nickel.
Hp kim Constantan Isoelastic Karma Nichrome V Platine tungstene Thanh phan 45% Ni, 55% Cu 52% Fe, 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 4% (Mn, Mo) 74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3% Cu, 3% Fe 80% Ni, 20% Cr 92% Pt, 8% W 2,1 2,5 4,1 He so Jauge 2,1 3,5
6.2.4 ien tr ban dan Ly thuyet cac vung thung lung cho phep giai thch hieu ng ap ien tr oi vi chat ban dan silicium loai N. Trong tinh the silicium N doc theo moi truc tinh the co mot mc nang lng cc tieu o la vung thung lung. V ly do oi xng, ba vung thung lung giong nhau va co cung mat o ien t giong nhau. Trong moi vung, o linh ong // cua am ien t doc theo truc th cc tieu, ngc lai theo hai phng thang goc o linh ong th cc ai. o dan ien theo mot truc bat ky: = qn (// + 2) n: mat o am ien t trong moi vung thung lung. Khi co mot lc nen tac ong lam thay oi kch thc he thong, keo theo s thay oi mat o ien t thung lung. V du: Lc cat doc theo truc Ox se tao nen s dch chuyen n am ien t vung thung lung x di chuyen ve vung thung lung y va z. ieu nay dan en 1 s thay oi o dan ien. Khi ien trng E song song vi lc nen (H.6.21b), s thay oi 1 cua o dan ien (hieu ng doc truc):
1 = q( n // + n ) = qn( // )
va:
1 > 0 v > //
206
CHNG 6
Hnh 6.21: S phan bo ien t theo ly thuyet vung thung lung
trong tinh the silicium N a) Khong co lc nen; b) Lc nen song song vi E c) Lc nen thang goc vi E Khi E thang goc vi lc nen (H.6.21c), s thay oi t cua o dan ien (hieu ng ngang):
t = q(
n n q 1 // + n ) = n( // ) = 1 2 2 2 2
Di tac ong cua lc nen, s di chuyen cua am ien t theo hai phng: n / 2 am ien t en vung y va n / 2 en vung z. Khi o ta co hieu ng doc: l = qn ( // ) Hieu ng ngang:
t = ( q/ 2)n( // )
Co hai loai ien tr jauge ban dan khac nhau la ket qua cua hai cach che tao. ien tr jauge dang cat c kh va ien tr jauge khuech tan. ien tr jauge dang cat c kh: Co dang mot cong duy nhat c hnh thanh nh viec cat c kh trong mot tinh the ban dan silicium.
Hnh 6.22: Cau tao ien tr jauge ban dan loai khuech tan
Kch thc: chieu dai t vai 10 mm en vai mm, day vai 10 mm. Cong ien tr c at tren mot e plastique. ien tr jauge khuech tan: Co c do viec khuech tan mot chat khac vao mot phan cua chat nen la tinh the silicium. ien tr ban dan jauge loai N co c nh khuech tan mot chat thuoc nhom 5 bang phan loai tuan hoan (P, Sb) vao trong chat nen la silicium P. ien tr ban dan loai P la ket qua cua s
207
khuech tan mot chat thuoc nhom 3 (Ga, In) trong chat nen la silicium N. Moi noi gia chat nen va ien tr hnh thanh mot diod ma s phan cc luon la phan cc nghch e tach ien tr jauge ra khoi chat nen. Tat ca c che ch bang mot lp SiO2. Mot ng dung quan trong cua phng phap che tao khuech tan la ngi ta co the che tao cung luc bon ien tr giong nhau tren cung mot nen, chung c noi vi nhau thanh cau Wheatstone, chat nen silicium khi o c dung lam chi tiet th nghiem.
6.3 CAM BIEN O TOC O

Trong ky nghe, o toc o quay thng gap. V ly do an toan, van toc quay cua may phat phai c kiem soat. Trong trng hp o van toc dch chuyen thang ta thng quy ve viec o van toc quay tron. V the cac cam bien o toc o quay thng la cac cam bien o toc o goc. Trong ky nghe cac cam bien dung e o toc o quay da tren nh luat Faraday: e = d dt
Co gop
Hnh 6.23: Cau tao toc o ke ien t DC
Khi co mot t thong xuyen qua mot mach ien (x) = oF(x), x la khoang dch chuyen thang hay goc. S dch chuyen gia t thong (phan cam) va mach ien t thong xuyen qua (phan ng), tao nen trong mach ien sc ien ong ma o ln t le vi van toc dch chuyen va nh the tn hieu ra cua cam bien co dang: dF ( x ) dx . Cam bien o toc o loai nay la cam bien ien t. Khi cac e = o dx dt chuyen ong co tnh tuan hoan, v du chuyen ong quay tron nh the, viec o toc o co the bat au t viec o tan so. o la loai cam bien o dch chuyen gii han hai au, ma cam bien o at cach oi tng mot khoang cach thay oi tuan hoan, va tn hieu thu c co tan so bang hoac la boi so tuy theo cau tao cua oi tng va tan so cua chuyen ong. V du, tren mot a gan vao truc cua chuyen ong ma ta muon o van toc, co trang b nhng phan trong suot va
208
CHNG 6
can quang xen ke nhau se ong vai tro mot cong ieu tiet nguon sang nhan c cua mot bo phan phan tch quang. Nh the bo phan phan tch quang se tao ra nhng tn hieu dang xung co tan so t le vi van toc. Loai toc o ke nay goi la toc o ke loai xung. Trong trng hp nhng chuyen ong rat cham, v du goc quay kem hn o/1 gi, nhng phng phap ke tren khong the ap dung c, khi o ngi ta co the dung hoi chuyen ke Laser, ma nguyen tac da tren s khac biet bc song gia hai song t nguon phat Laser truyen theo hai chieu ngc nhau trong cung mot moi trng chuyen ong quay. S khac biet bc song t le vi van toc goc quay va c the hien trong giao thoa ke. 6.3.1 Cam bien o toc o quay loai ien t
1- Toc o ke ien t loai DC (H.6.23)
Phan ng hay goi la phan cam c cau tao bang vat lieu sat t mang 2p cc c hnh thanh do s quan day tren cc t hoac phan cam la nam cham thng trc. Phan quay hay phan ng co cau tao dang tru, do cac la sat ghep lai, phan ng co mang nhng ranh song song vi truc cua rotor, trong ranh co at n = 2K day dan, hai au day dan c noi vi co gop, co gop co dang tru cung truc vi rotor. Hai choi than c bo tr tiep xuc vi co gop. Sc ien ong thu c co dang: E = ( 2 ) n o = Nn o , Mot cach tong quat: E =
p . n o 2 a
trong o: p - so oi cc; - van toc goc a - so ng quan song song; n: so day dan
209
2- Toc o ke ien t loai AC: Loai nay co li la khong co co gop, khong co choi than. ieu nay dan en ben hn, khong co giam ien ap do choi than, khong co nhieu do tia la ien. Ngc lai loai nay mach o phc tap hn, s xac nh o ln tn hieu thng phai chnh lu tn hieu thu c. a) May phat ong bo (H.6.24): o la may phat xoay chieu, loai nho. Phan quay c noi vi truc ma ta muon o toc o. Phan quay la mot nam cham co hai hoac nhieu cc. Phan ng c quan day mot pha hoac ba pha. Sc ien ong thu c stator co dang: e = Esint vi: E = K1; = K2; K1, K2: phu thuoc vao cau tao may.
Hnh 6.24: May phat ong bo
a) Mot pha hai cc; b) Ba pha bon cc c noi hnh sao V du ve ac tnh cua toc o ke ien t (hang che tao Chauvin-Arnoux). Rotor: Nam cham thng trc ba cap cc. Stator: mot pha. Loai 64: Van toc cc ai: 3000v/phut. ien ap 24V 1%, 50Hz 1000v/phut. Loai 64 GV: Van toc cc ai 6000v/phut. ien ap 24 V 1%, 200Hz 4000v/phut. b) May phat khong ong bo (H.6.25) Cau tao giong nh ong c khong ong bo loai mot pha. Phan quay co dang tru bang vat lieu kim loai khong dan t, c keo vi van toc goc can o, rotor co khoi lng nho e giam quan tnh.
210
CHNG 6
Hnh 6.25: Nguyen tac may phat khong ong bo
Phan ng c cau tao bang tole silic ghep thanh va mang hai cuon day c bo tr thang goc nhau, mot cuon day kch t c cung cap tn hieu Ve, co mach so e rat vng: ve = Ve coset Mot cuon day o, ni ay se thu c mot sc ien ong em, co bien o t le vi : em = Em cos( et + ) = K .Ve cos( et + ) K - hang so phu thuoc vao cau tao cua may. Goc lech pha thay oi khoang vai o trong pham vi van toc o. Khi rotor khong quay, se xuat hien mot ien ap be hai au cuon day o. Hien tng nay la do cong nghe che tao khong hoan toan oi xng: s khong oi xng cua rotor hoac s bo tr hai cuon day khong hoan toan thang goc. Sau ay la vai ac tnh o lng: Pham vi o: 10 vong/phut 210 vong/phut ien ap o 1000 vong/phut: 1 10 von Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,1 2% khoang o. ien ap lech: 10 en 100 mV Momen quan tnh cua rotor: vai g.cm2 6.3.2 Toc o ke ien t o toc o thang Trong trng hp s dch chuyen thang tng oi ln (> m), viec o van toc thang c qui ve o van toc goc. V du nh con lan nho van toc di chuyen thang cua cac tam tole qua con lan c bien oi thanh van toc di chuyen goc cua con lan t Hnh 6.26: Cam bien o van le vi van toc thang. toc thang cuon day di o la trng hp van toc di chuyen
4
211
thang cua tam tole i qua may can c xac nh nh van toc goc cua rulo. Trng hp van toc goc dch chuyen be, mot cam bien ien t hnh thanh nh mot nam cham va mot cuon day, mot trong hai thanh phan nay co nh, thanh phan con lai c noi lien vi oi tng di ong can xac nh van toc, sc ien ong thu c t le vi van toc dch chuyen. Trong trng hp cuon day di chuyen trong vung t trng cua nam cham, sc ien ong thu c t cuon day: e = 2 r n BV = l BV trong o: r - ban knh cuon day; n - so vong day quan cuon day V - van toc dch chuyen; B - cam ng t tao bi phan cam. oi vi s dch chuyen cc ai c vai mm, o nhay c von/m/giay va khoang cach tuyen tnh c 10%.
Hnh 6.27: Cam bien loai nam cham di ong
a) Cau tao;
b) Noi gia cac cuon day o
oi vi s dch chuyen tng oi ln, co the at ti 0,5m, luc o cam bien c cau tao co nam cham di ong. Sc ien ong ng trong moi cuon day o do s dch chuyen cua nam cham t le vi van toc dch chuyen va co dau ngc nhau, o la ly do tai sao hai cuon day c mac ngc chieu e co sc ien ong khac khong. 6.3.3 Toc o ke loai tn hieu xung Chi tiet th nghiem thng la mot a c gan len truc quay ma can xac nh van toc goc. a thng c cau tao co dang tuan hoan, tren a thng c chia lam p phan bang nhau, moi phan c anh dau mang mot ac tnh nh: lo, rang, v.v... Mot cam bien phan tch c at oi dien vi chi tiet th nghiem, phan tch so phan t anh dau i ngang qua ong thi tao ra mot tn hieu xung tng ng. Tan so f cua tn hieu xung tao bi cam bien co gia tr: f = p N (Hz)
212
CHNG 6
trong o: N - so vong quay cua chi tiet th nghiem trong n v thi gian p - so phan t c anh dau tren a. Viec chon cam bien c gan lien vi loai vat lieu lam a quay cung nh phan t anh dau tren a. Ngi ta s dung tuy theo trng hp, hoac mot trong nhng cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au hoac mot cam bien quang. Cam bien t tr thay oi oi hoi chi tiet th nghiem la mot a bang vat lieu sat t, ma phan t anh dau la thanh phan mach t gian oan. Cam bien dong ien Foucault rat nhay oi vi khoang cach thay oi cua phan t dan ien. Cam bien quang va nguon chieu sang cho phep phan tch nhng phan t anh dau cau tao bi nhng lo, nhng khe. ieu li cua toc o ke loai xung bao gom: mot phan do cau tao n gian, chac chan, viec bao quan de dang. Mat khac, no khong tao nen tieng on, nhieu ky sinh, hn na viec bien oi thanh di dang so rat n gian.
a) Cam bien t tr thay oi (H.6.28)
Cuon day phan tch co nong sat t cho phep mot t thong xuyen qua no, tao ra t mot nam cham thng trc, cuon day c at oi dien vi mot a (bang vat lieu sat t). S di chuyen cua thanh phan mach t gian oan (do cau tao phan rang, lo), c mang bang a tao nen mot s thay oi tuan hoan t tr cua mach t cuon day. Nh the trong cuon day se co sc ien ong cam ng ma tan so t le vi van toc quay.
Hnh 6.28: Nguyen tac cua
toc o ke loai t tr thay
o ln cua sc ien ong tuy thuoc vao khoang cach gia cuon day va a, va giam rat nhanh khi khoang cach tang, thong thng khong vt qua vai mm, sc ien ong con t le vi van toc quay. oi vi nhng van toc be o ln cua sc ien ong thu c qua nho va nh the ta goi la vung chet khong the o c.
b) Toc o ke quang hoc
Cau tao n gian, gom mot nguon sang va mot bo phan phan tch quang:
Hnh 6.29: Nguyen tac toc o
ke quang hoc
213
Loai Diod quang hoac transistor quang. a quay c trang b nhng phan trong suot va ngan sang xen ke nhau. a c at gia nguon sang va bo phan phan tch quang. Bo phan phan tch quang nhan c mot lng sang c ieu khien bang a quay, se tao ra mot tn hieu ien co tan so t le vi van toc quay, va bien o oc lap oi vi van toc. Khoang o van toc phu thuoc: So lan gian oan tren a (so phan t anh dau tren a: lo, khe...). Bang thong cua bo phan phan tch va mach ien i kem.
c) Cam bien dong ien Foucault: Trong cam bien nay, a quay bang vat
lieu khong t tnh. Cuon day co ien cam L la mot phan t cua mach dao ong sin. Ta biet khi a mot thanh kim loai en gan cuon day th ac tnh L va R cua cuon day thay oi, ieu nay dan en s tat cua mach dao ong. Nh the khi a quay, moi lan a a phan rang en oi dien vi cuon day se lam tat mach dao ong va ieu nay co the phan tch c. V du bang viec kiem soat dong cung cap cho mach dao ong. Tn hieu thu c co tan so t le vi van toc quay va bien o cua no khong phu thuoc vao van toc nay, nen khong co vung chet va thng dung e o nhng van toc quay be. 6.3.4 Hoi chuyen ke (H.6.30) Hoi chuyen ke la nhng thiet b c gan tren nhng phan t chuyen ong (nh may bay, hoa tien), cho phep xac nh van toc goc cua chung. Tuy theo nguyen ly hoat ong ta co cac loai hoi chuyen ke: Hoi chuyen ke c kh: hoat ong da tren nguyen tac con vu quay. Hoi chuyen ke quang hoc: loai laser va si quang da tren hien tng truyen song.
Hoi chuyen ke loai quang
Nguyen tac: Khi song anh sang truyen trong moi trng chuyen ong, quang ng truyen se khong giong nhau ma phu thuoc vao phng truyen cung chieu, hay ngc chieu vi chieu chuyen ong. V du: Co hai gng phang M1 va M2 at cach nhau L, gia hai gng co s truyen cua song anh sang. Neu hai gng ng yen, quang ng truyen cua song theo chieu t M1 M2 la d12 va theo chieu t M2 M1 la d21: Ta co d21 = d12 = L. uu r Khi hai gng dch chuyen vi van toc la V gia s theo chieu t M1 M2, quang ng truyen d12 = L (1 + V C ) . Vi V C, C la van toc
214
CHNG 6
truyen cua anh sang, d21 se giam i: d21 = L (1 V C ) . S sai biet quang ng truyen t le vi V: d12 d21 = 2L ( V C ) Khi s truyen cua hai song theo hai chieu ngc nhau tren mot ng tron ban knh r, chu vi 2r quay vi van toc goc , s sai biet quang ng truyen se la: d12 d12 = 2L r C Cach thc hien:
Hnh 6.30: Hoi chuyen ke quang hoc
a) Loai Laser; b) Loai si quang Hnh 6.30a gom co mot bay cong hng Laser at trong moi trng chuyen ong. S truyen cua hai song theo hai chieu ngc nhau se dan en s khac biet quang ng truyen cua hai song co tan so khac nhau. S chong chap cua hai nguon sang se cho ta biet khoang cach f cua hai song (t le vi van toc quay):
f = 4 A L
trong o: A - dien tch bay cong hng; L - chieu dai quang ng
- o dai song trung bnh cua nguon phat.
215
ay la nguyen tac cua hoi chuyen ke Laser o van toc goc rat be: 102 o/gi Hnh 6.30b: au ra cua si quang ta co hien tng giao thoa cua hai nguon sang. Viec em so Z van giao thoa dch chuyen do van toc quay cua si quang cho phep xac nh van toc:
Z = 2 L r C
trong o: L - chieu dai si quang; - o dai song Laser. Vi hoi chuyen ke loai si quang cho phep tang L bang cach thc hien quan nhieu vong si quang, ieu nay cho phep o van toc goc nho hn hang tram lan so vi loai laser.
6.4 CAM BIEN O LC, TRONG LNG

6.4.1 Cam bien ap ien Hieu ng ap ien bao gom s xuat hien phan cc ien, hoac s thay oi phan cc, a hien hu san trong vai chat ien moi trong thien nhien (thach anh, tourmaline, ...) hoac nhan tao (sulfate de lithium, quartz de synthese ...). Cac tinh the nay khi b bien dang di tac ong cua lc theo mot phng thch hp, se dan en s di chuyen cua cac ien tch trai dau nhau ve tap trung hai be mat oi dien. Nh the mot hieu ien ap c hnh thanh, t le vi lc ap dung. Mot cam bien cho phep o cac lc, cac ai lng vat ly khac nhau nh ap suat, gia toc, c goi la cam bien ap ien. oi vi chat ien moi, khi ap mot ien trng vao se dan en s di chuyen cua cac ien tch. S xuat hien va thay oi cac momen lng cc se keo theo s thay oi kch thc tinh the. Neu trong tinh the chat ien moi co mot tam oi xng th hien tng xay ra theo cac phng, t le bnh phng ien trng va c goi la hien tng ien giao. Neu mau tinh the khong co tam oi xng th se xay ra hieu ng ap ien ngc, bien o rat ln so vi hieu ng ien giao, mau tinh the, trong trng hp nay co s phan cc mc o ln hien hu thng xuyen trong vat lieu va s phan cc nay co the thay oi do lc tac ong (hieu ng ap ien) va con thay oi do nhiet o ma ta goi la hieu ng quang hoa ien. Tat ca chat quang hoa ien eu la chat ap ien, nhng khong ngc lai v chat quang hoa ien co s phan cc trc rat ln. Tom lai, cac tinh the tuy theo cac thanh phan oi xng cua chung, va cac tnh chat vat ly, co the c phan loai nh sau: 32 loai tinh the:
216
CHNG 6
21 loai khong co tam oi xng, trong o co 20 loai la chat ap ien gom: * 10 loai khong phai chat quang hoa ien. * 10 loai la chat quang hoa ien 11 loai co tam oi xng. Trong moi trng chat ap ien, cng o va dau cua hieu ng ap ien tuy thuoc: Hng quan sat, tc v tr at cac be mat thu ien tch Phng cua lc tac ong.
a) Nhng ai lng c kh
Mot cach tong quat, nhng lc nen tac ong la ket qua cua to hp cac thanh phan lc doc truc va be mat. Ta e y thanh phan ij la thanh phan lc truc i (i = x, y, z) cua lc nen tac ong tren n v dien tch cua be mat thang goc truc j (j = x, y, z) trong khoi vat lieu.
Hnh 6.31: Lc nen tac ong tren ba be mat
Hnh 6.32: Lc doc truc 2
cua mot khoi tinh the Ta co: ij = ji va chu y: Thanh phan doc truc: xx 1; yy 2; zz 3 Thanh phan be mat: yz 4; zx 5; xy 6.
217
b) Ma tran o ln ap ien
Mot cach tong quat, ngi ta dien ta hieu ng ap ien bi mot ma tran cac he so vi trng bang 0, cac lc ep (1 6) va cac ien tch q thu c be mat thang goc vi truc Ox, Oy, Oz (hay truc 1, 2, 3) Ta co: q1 = d111 + d122 + d133 + . . . + d166. q2 = d211 + d222 + d333 + . . . + d266. q3 = d311 + d322 + d333 + . . . + d366. Hoac n gian: qm = dmnn. V du: Thach anh, trong trng hp nay, ta goi truc 1 la truc ien, truc 2 la truc c, truc 3 la truc quang. Ma tran o ln ap ien: d11 0 0 d11 0 0 0 0 0 d14 0 0 0 0 0 0 d14 2d11
Hnh 6.33: Lc be mat 4
V du: Cho mau thach anh co be day e, kch thc L va l nh hnh 6.34 (ta thu ien tch be mat thang goc truc x). Neu co mot lc F1 theo phng Ox, se xuat hien ien tch hai be mat oi dien (thang goc truc x): q1 = d111 ien tch tong cong Q1 t le vi lc: Q1 = Llq1 = d11F1. Neu lc tac ong ngang, theo d122 = d11 2
' = d11 ( L /e) F ien tch tong cong: Q1 = Ll q1 2
Hnh 6.34: Mau thach anh
dang Curie
' = phng y co tr gia F2 (lc ep 2 = F2 /l e ), mat o ien tch be mat: q1
218
CHNG 6
c) Cau tao cam bien
Hnh 6.35: Cac loai bien dang cua mau tinh the ap ien
a) Bien dang theo chieu dai; b) Bien dang theo chieu ngang c) Lc cat be day; d) Lc cat be mat S bien dang cua tinh the xac nh cach hoat ong cua cam bien nh hnh ve tren. e tien s dung, chang han trong cach mac day hoac n gian e tang o nhay, mot hay nhieu cam ap ien c ghep vi nhau, tuy theo s phan cc va tuy theo s bien dang cua cam bien co the c ghep vi nhau nh sau: hai cam bien ghep song song, hai cam bien ghep noi tiep, nhieu cam bien ghep song song.
Hnh 6.36: a) Hai cam bien ghep song song b) Hai cam bien ghep noi tiep; c) Nhieu cam bien ghep song song
6.4.2 Cam bien t giao Cac vat lieu sat t di tac ong cua t trng se chu mot s thay oi cau truc hnh hoc (s thay oi kch thc co kem theo hoac khong co thay oi the tch, ngau lc, lc uon), va thay oi c (o ln Young Y) hieu ng t giao trc tiep c dung trong viec truyen song ngan, o phan t sat t hoat ong cong hng c. Mot cach ho tng, nhng lc ep di tac ong cua lc can o se lam thay oi ng cong nam cham hoa va ngi ta co the trien khai s thay oi o Hnh 6.37: Cam bien t giao co ien cam thay oi
219
t tham hoac t d e o lc.

a) Cam bien co o t tham thay oi
Cam bien gom mot cuon day co loi bang vat lieu sat t b bien dang bi lc can o. S thay oi cua o t tham cua loi sat t co t tr R xac nh o thay oi L ien cam L cua cuon day: R L = = = k R L
b) Cam bien thay oi o ghep
Cam bien gom mot khoi vat lieu sat t gom nhieu la ghep lai, co bon ca so c bo tr thang goc, tren cac ca so co bo tr hai cuon day s va th. Cac cuon day bo tr 45o so vi phng cua lc tac dung, o t tham cua vat lieu ong nhat. V du oi vi permalloy khi co lc tac ong doc truc, ket qua la giam o t tham theo phng cua lc nen, va mot s gia tang o t tham theo phng ngang. S oi xng cua ng t sc khong con na, mot tn hieu xuat hien cuon th cap khi cuon s cap c cung cap tn hieu, bien o tn hieu t le vi lc can o, mot goc lech pha gia s va th cho biet chieu cua lc.
Hnh 6.38: Cam bien t giao loai thay oi o ghep a) Cau tao; b) ng sc cua cam ng t cua cam bien khi khong co lc tac ong; c) Khi co lc tac ong
c) Cam bien t d thay oi
Mac du co s thay oi ng cong nam cham hoa, vi s thay oi B tng oi ln di tac ong cua lc, ngi ta van thch o s thay oi t d v ly do viec o t d thay oi th on nh va n gian. Ta xem mot cuon day co nong sat bang vat lieu nickel, hien hu t d Br, di tac ong cua lc can o, v du lc ep (d < 0), Br gia tang, ta co:
dBr /d = 1, 5 109 Wb.m 2 /N .m 2
S thay oi t thong dan en cam ng mot sc ien ong trong cuon day t le vi dBr/dt, ien ap o c khi mach h:
220
CHNG 6
vm = K
dBr dBr d =K . dt d dt
K: he so t le phu thuoc so vong day va tiet dien cua day. 6.4.3 Cam bien ien tr jauge Cam bien nay o lc, lc o (ai lng s cap) tac ong tren chi tiet th nghiem, di tac dung cua lc cat, nen, uon cong dan en s bien dang (ai lng th cap) c bien oi thanh tn hieu nh ien tr jauge at tren chi tiet th nghiem, cac ien tr jauge c noi day hnh thanh cau Wheatstone. Cac chi tiet th nghiem co nhieu dang khac nhau nh dang nhan ong lc tron, cac chi tiet th nghiem phang dang hnh ch nhat, tam giac, v.v...
Hnh 6.39: Cac dang chi tiet th nghiem c dung e o lc
6.4.4 Cam bien o lc bang s dch chuyen
221
Hnh 6.40: a) Lo xo helice
b) Cam bien o lc dung lo xo helice + bien ap vi sai Lc tac ong can o se tac dung len chi tiet th nghiem lam thay oi kch thc l, s thay oi nay c o nh mot cam bien o s dch chuyen, Vm la tn hieu thu c:
vm ,
F vm : t so bien oi cua cam bien v tr l l : t le nghch vi o cng, goi la o mem cua chi tiet th nghiem F
o mem ln se tang o nhay, tuy nhien se giam o tinh. Nhng cam bien loai nay thng dung e o nhng lc tng oi yeu, chi tiet th nghiem phai co o mem ln. Nhng chi tiet th nghiem thng dung la: nhan ong lc, lo xo helice. Cam bien o s dch chuyen: tuy theo ieu kien s dung, nhng loai cam bien sau ay c s dung: Bien tr o lng co trang b can khuech ai c s dch chuyen Cam bien ien cam loai t tr thay oi, hoac bien ap vi sai Cam bien ien dung. V du ve cach thc hien va ac tnh o lng: Cam bien FTA-G-1 K: Dung lo xo helice + bien ap vi sai (H.6.40). Khoang o: 1daN. o ln tn hieu ra tng ng vi gia tr thang o: 1,1V hieu dung (tng ng nguon kch thch 5V, 2,5 kHz). o chnh xac: 0,25%
vm l l F
6.5 CAM BIEN O NGAU LC
222
1- o ngau lc dung hieu ng t giao
CHNG 6
Khi cho lc tac dung len vat lieu sat t se keo theo s thay oi o t tham . V du: gia tang trong vung keo dai ra va giam i trong vung nen lai. Neu mot thanh sat t hnh tru chu tac ong cua ngau lc va momen co phng trung vi truc sat t th ket qua lc tac ong gom hai thanh phan thang goc nhau tao thanh goc 45 so vi truc hnh tru va doc theo chung nhng t tham
1 va 2 thay oi cc ai co dau ngc nhau. e phan tch s thay oi nay, ngi ta co the s dung mot loi hnh ch thap tren co bo tr cuon day s cap p va hai cap cuon day th cap S1 va S1 noi tiep, S2 va S2 noi tiep, hai cap nay mac xung oi. Khi khong co ngau lc th 1 = 2, v1 = v2, vm = 0.
Khi ngau lc co phng nh hnh ve th 1 > 2, v1 > v2 vm > 0
Hnh 6.41: o ngau lc dung hieu ng t giao
a) Dang loi sat mang cac cuon day b) Cach bo tr; c) Mach ien tng ng
2- o ngau lc dung bien tr bien dang
Hnh 6.42: Thiet b o ngau lc dung cau ien tr
jauge + chi tiet th nghiem dang tru a) Nguyen tac; b) V tr ac cac ien tr Jauge J1, J2, J3, J4 Khi chi tiet th nghiem co dang tru, cac ien tr jauge c at v tr tao thanh mot goc 45o so vi truc hnh tru nh hnh 6.42. Ta co trong trng
223
hp chi tiet th nghiem dang hnh tru ac ban knh R, o cng G, momen xoan , s bien dang se la: = R 3G ien tr jauge c mac thanh cau Wheastone nham muc ch: S tuyen tnh cua cau o. o nhay cao. S bu tr nhng lc nhieu.
6.6 O GIA TOC, O RUNG VA S VA CHAM

- Khai niem tong quat Theo nh luat tong quat ve c, gia toc dien ta s lien he gia lc va khoi lng. Cac cam bien o gia toc da tren nh luat vat ly nay va t s lien he nay ngi ta thu c mot tn hieu ien. Cac cam bien o gia toc c phan loai theo nguyen ly hoat ong cua cam bien va co the o trc tiep lc tac ong (cam bien ap ien, cam bien can bang ngau lc) hoac o gian tiep bi s dch chuyen hoac bien dang cua chi tiet th nghiem. - Nguyen tac gia toc ke chan ong (H.6.43) Mot khoi chan ong M c noi vi hop kn nh mot bo phan c (tinh the ap ien, lo xo, thanh mong) S dch chuyen cua khoi chan ong bien oi thanh tn hieu ien.
1- Gia toc ke ap ien
Nguyen tac hoat ong: Trong loai nay, khoi chan ong c at tren mot cai e bang chat ap ien, nh the se tao ra tn hieu ien t le vi lc an hoi do s dch chuyen cua khoi chan ong, tat ca c cau tao chac chan va c at trong mot cai hop kn. Mot cach tong quat, cac gia toc c o theo hai chieu doc theo phng cam ng cua cam bien. Va nh s lien ket c kh, lc tac ong tren cam bien co the la: lc nen, lc cat, lc keo va thng cam bien chu tac ong cua mot lc trc nham ni rong thang o gia toc theo hai chieu. Ngi ta phan cac cam bien nay theo ten goi cua lc tac ong len cam bien.
224
CHNG 6
Hnh 6.43: Nguyen tac cua gia toc ke chan ong a) Gia toc ke ap ien loai nen. Nhng ac tnh rieng cua cam bien loai nay:
Tan so cong hng kha cao. Cau tao chac chan. Nhay oi vi hieu ng ap ien cho nen can thiet trang b phng tien bu tr khi ieu kien s dung khong nh mong muon.
Hnh 6.44: Cac kieu gia toc ke ap ien loai nen
b) Gia toc ke ap ien loai cat Cac gia toc ke loai nay c cau tao: Gom mot chong cac thanh ap ien c ket noi bang bu lon gia hai mieng kim loai dung lam khoi chan ong (H.6.45a). Gom mot phan t ap ien co dang hnh nhan (H.6.45b) hoac di dang nhieu phan t phang chu tac ong cua lc cua khoi chan ong va truc trung tam (H.6.45c).
225
Hnh 6.45: Cac kieu gia toc ke ap ien lc cat
c) Gia toc ke ap ien hnh cai phan. Trong loai nay, ngi ta s dung mot cap thanh mong chat ap ien gan chat vao nhau, mot au thanh mang khoi chan ong nh hnh 6.46.
Hnh 6.46: Nguyen tac gia toc ke ap ien hnh cai phan
2- Gia toc ke ien tr piezo
Nguyen tac: Khoi chan ong M c gan vi mot thanh an hoi tren o co bo tr hai hay bon ien tr bien dang c mac thanh cau Wheastone. S uon cong cua thanh an hoi se dan en s bien dang cua ien tr jauge mot cach trc tiep (gia toc ke tan so thap) hoac gian tiep nh ket hp vi bo khuech ai c (gia toc ke tan so trung bnh).
226
CHNG 6
Hnh 6.47: Nguyen tac gia toc ke ien tr piezo
3- Gia toc ke thch nghi
Trong loai nay ngi ta dung lc an hoi cua khoi chan ong tao ra tn hieu ien: S di chuyen cua khoi chan ong di s tac ong cua lc khi o se tao nen mot phan ng chong lai no lam giam thieu s dch chuyen. Khi can bang, tn hieu ien (dong ien) la nguon goc cua tac ong bu tr, cho ta ket qua o gia toc, ac tnh cua loai cam bien nay la: o chnh xac cao Bang thong: T vai Hz en vai tram Hz Tn hieu ra kha cao: vai mA Gia thanh cao, de v. * Gia toc ke thch nghi can bang ngau lc (H.6.48).
Hnh 6.48: Gia toc ke thch nghi can bang ngau lc
a) Nguyen tac; b) Cach thc hien
227
Mot khung quay rat nhe giong nh khung quay trong c cau o t ien (ien ke) c treo trong vung t trng nh mot gia co o ma sat rat be, ve mot pha cua khung co gan mot khoi chan ong e o. Di tac ong cua lc quan tnh tao ra do gia toc, khoi chan ong di chuyen va keo theo khung quay chuyen ong. Khung c trang b hai mieng mong hai ben hoan toan can bang di chuyen trc mat hai cuon day c cung cap bi mot nguon xoay chieu co tan so cao (loi 1MHz). Khi khung quay di chuyen, hai mieng mong di chuyen trc mat hai cuon day, ien cam cua chung thay oi, nh the ien ap hai cuon day thay oi. ien ap nay c chnh lu va so sanh vi mot ien ap chuan, khoang cach ien ap c khuech ai va bien oi thanh dong ien I chay trong mach khung quay va tao ra mot ngau lc khang Cr: Cr = KI vi: K - he so t le vi cam ng t va so vong day quan cua khung. Khi can bang ngau lc khang Cr bu tr ngau lc Cm tao bi lc quan tnh. Khi goc quay be, ta co: Cm = M R vi: M - khoi chan ong; R - ban knh chuyen ong; - gia toc can o. KI = MR I = K1 vi K 1 = M R/K Dong ien t le vi gia toc can o, gia tr nay biet c bang cach bo tr mot ien tr noi tiep trong mach cung cap cho khung quay va o ien ap xuat hien hai au ien tr.
228
CHNG 7
Chng
O NHIET O
7.1 THANG O NHIET O
7.1.1 Nhng thang o nhiet o khac nhau Gom cac thang o Celcius (oC), thang o Fahrenheit (oF), thang o Kelvin (oK), thang o Rankin (oR). T(oC) = T(oK) 273,15 T(oF) = T(oR) 459,67 T(oC) = [T(oF) 32](5/9) T(oF) = (9/5)T(oC) + 32 7.1.2 S lien he gia cac thang o nhng nhiet o quan trong
Kelvin (oK) 0 273,15 273,16 373,15 Celcius (oC) 272,15 0 0,01 100 Rankin (oR) 0 491,67 491,69 671,67 Farenheit (oF) 459,67 32 32,018 212
7.2 O NHIET O BANG IEN TR

7.2.1 o nhay nhiet Mot cach tong quat gia tr ien tr tuy thuoc vao nhiet o T: R(T) = Ro.F (T To) Ro: la ien tr nhiet o To va ham F phu thuoc vao ac tnh cua vat lieu, co gia tr la 1 khi T = To. Nh the ta co: oi vi ien tr kim loai: R(T) = Ro(1 + AT + BT + CT ) T: tnh bang oC, To = 0oC.
2 3
229
oi vi nhiet ien tr bang oxyde ban dan: 1 1 R( T ) = Ro.exp[ B( )] T To T: nhiet o tuyet oi (oK). Nhng he so trong cong thc tnh ien tr R thng c biet trc mot cach chnh xac nh o gia tr ien tr R nhiet o biet trc. Vi s thay oi nho T cua nhiet o chung quanh gia tr T, nh ly tong quat ve s thay oi ien tr co the c tuyen tnh hoa: R(T + T) = R(T).(1 + R.T) vi: R = [1/R( T )] dR/dT ; R: la he so phu thuoc nhiet o cua ien tr hay con goi o nhay nhiet o nhiet o T, R tuy thuoc nhiet o va vat lieu. V du 0oC oi vi platine R = 3,910 /oC. oi vi mot vai loai nhiet 2 ien tr R = 5,210 /oC. Neu ta o nhiet o co gia tr chung quanh o 0oC nh cau o Wheastone ma mot trong nhng nhanh cau o c cau tao bi ien tr o nhiet va ba nhanh con lai c mac bi ba ien tr co nh co gia tr bang nhau Ro tc gia tr ien tr o nhiet nhiet o 0oC th: ien ap lech cua cau: Vm =
E S R E S = R T 4 Ro 4
3
Vi: ES = 2V; T = 1oC Vm = 1,9mV oi vi ien tr platine. Vm = 26mV oi vi nhiet ien tr. Lu y: nhng gia tr nay ln hn so vi trng hp cap nhiet ien: Fer/constantan: Vm = 0,05mV Pt Rh (10%)/Pt: Vm = 0,005mV ac tnh cua may o an nh mot gia tr ien tr thay oi toi thieu co the o c: (R/Ro) min. Ket qua la mot gia tr toi thieu nhiet o co the o c:
Tmin = (
1 R ) min R Ro
6
oi vi trng hp: (R/Ro) min = 10 ta co:
va o nhiet o co gia tr gan 0oC,
230
CHNG 7
oi vi ien tr platine: Tmin = 2,610 oi vi nhiet ien tr:
4o
C. C.
Tmin = 2,010
5o
S thay oi cua ien tr theo nhiet o, ve nguyen ly lien quan en s thay oi ien tr suat va kch thc hnh hoc cua ien tr, oi vi day ien tr hnh tru (chieu dai l, tiet dien S), ta co:
R =
vi:
1 dR 1 d 1 dl 1 dS . = . + R dT dT l dT S dT
1 d = : he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat cua vat lieu dT 1 dl 1 dS . = 1 va . = 21 , l: he so gian n dai cua vat lieu l dT S dT
Ket qua: R = l.
Trong pham vi s dung ien tr, c 103/oC trong khi l c 10 /oC. Trong nhng ieu kien thc te R . 7.2.2 ien tr kim loai
1- Nhng tieu chuan e chon vat lieu
Tuy thuoc vao pham vi o nhiet o ma ngi ta chon vat lieu thch hp, ngi ta thng s dung ien tr bang bach kim, nickel va oi khi bang ong hay tungstene. Bach kim: co the cau tao rat tinh khiet (99,999%) ieu nay cho phep ta biet c ac tnh ien cua no mot cach chnh xac va khong thay oi. No thng s dung nhiet o t 200oC en 1000oC. Nickel: co u iem la o nhay nhiet rat cao, t 0oC en 100oC ien tr cua no c nhan cho 1,617 trong khi bach kim c nhan vi 1,385. Nickel chong lai s oxyde hoa, thng c dung nhiet o nho hn 250oC. ong: c s dung v ac tuyen rat tuyen tnh cua s thay oi ien tr theo nhiet. Tuy nhien v phan ng hoa hoc nen khong cho phep s dung nhiet o ln hn 180oC, va v ien tr suat be, nen khi dung e am bao co gia tr ien tr nhat nh, chieu dai day phai ln gay nen mot s cong kenh bat tien. Tungstene: Co o nhay nhiet cua ien tr ln hn bach kim trong trng hp nhiet o cao hn 100oK va no thng c s dung nhiet o cao hn bach kim vi o tuyen tnh hn bach kim. Tungstene co the cau tao di dang nhng si rat manh cho phep che tao ien tr cam bien co tr so ln, nh vay vi tr
O NHIET O
231
so ien tr cho trc, chieu dai day se giam thieu. Sau ay la mot so ac tnh vat ly cua cac kim loai noi tren:
ong Tf (oC)
o
Nickel 1453 450 90

6 8
Bach kim 1769 135 73
Tungstene 3380 125 120
C (J C Kg ) t (W C m ) l (oC1) (m) (oC1)

o
1083 400 400 16,7. 10 3,9 . 10

o
1 1
12,8 . 10 10 . 10 4,7 . 10
8,9 . 10 3,9 . 10
6 8
6 . 10
6 8
1,72 . 10
8 3
10,6 . 10
5,52 . 10 4,5 . 10
C - t nhiet 20 C; t - he so dan nhiet; l - he so dan n dai
- ien tr suat; - he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat 20C .

2-Thc hien au do cua nhiet ke
Tr gia cua ien tr va kch thc cua day ien tr: mot cach tong quat s thay oi ien tr do nhiet R = RRT tao ra ien ap o: Vm = R.i i la dong ien trong mach o co tr so gii han vai mA e giam thieu s ot nong au do. Nh vay e co c o nhay tot, ngi ta phai s dung ien tr co tr so tng oi ln, ieu nay giai thch: Mot s giam thieu tiet dien day ien tr, va c gii han bang s mong manh de b t khi keo. Mot s gia tang chieu dai cua day va c gii han bang s choan cho. Thong thng e ien tr co tr so 100 nhiet o 0oC, trong trng hp bach kim, ng knh day co tr so vai chuc microns va chieu dai day vao khoang hang chuc cm. Sau khi quan day, chieu dai au do vao c vai cm. Tren th trng au do ien tr 0oC co tr so la 50, 500, 1000 nhng gia tr ien tr cao c dung trong trng hp nhiet o o thap e co o nhay cao. au do tha chm: c bo tr tha chm trong moi trng muon o nhiet o va co cau tao quan day dang helice. Cach quan day nay co the tao nen dang khong co ien cam nham muc ch cho phep o dong ien AC va giam thieu nhng ien cam ky sinh.
232
CHNG 7
Hnh 7.1: Cac ien tr mau bang bach kim
Nhng thong so chu y khi thc hien au do nh sau: - Ni rong pham vi o nhiet o - Bao ve chong lai s an mon hoa hoc - Bao ve chong lai s rung ong va va cham S khac nhau ve he so tan nhiet cua ien tr kim loai va vat lieu lam gia cam bien lam thay oi o nhay nhiet cua ien tr. - Van toc ap ng cang nhanh khi lng calo cua au do cang be. oi vi nhng ien tr bach kim s dung lam ien tr mau, nhng iem 1, 2 va 4 la nhng ieu kien au tien bi v nhng ien tr nay c s dung e o trong nhng ieu kien c che ch chong rung va va cham. Day ien tr c quan tren loi cach ien (thach anh, alumine). Day quan c at trong mot vo bang thep kn, day ra i qua moi trng cach ien. Vo c cha ay mot loai gaz hoa hoc, dan ien tot (v du helium). oi vi ky nghe, s can thiet bao ve hu hieu chong rung va va cham, ien tr c thc hien boc kn trong thuy tinh hoac s va c at trong mot vo thep kn.
O NHIET O
233
Hnh 7.2a: Cac au do trong ky nghe dung ien tr bach kim
7.2.3 Nhiet ien tr ac tnh au tien cua loai ien tr nay la o nhay nhiet rat cao, vao khoang 10 lan ien tr kim loai. Mat khac he so nhiet o co gia tr am, va tuy thuoc vao nhiet o. Chung c cau tao t hon hp cac oxyde kim loai nh: MgO, MgAl2o4, Mn2O3, Fe3O4, CO2O3, NiO, ZnTiO4. Nhng oxyde kim loai ban dan dang bot c nen lai di ap suat va c nung len nhiet o khoang 1000oC co ap suat kiem soat c. Nhng nhiet ien tr c cau tao di cac dang: da, tru, nhan v.v... phan t cam bien co the c che ch hoac khong, bang cach c cau tao dang kn hoac co vo boc. Cac vat lieu co ien tr suat ln cho phep che tao nhng ien tr o co kch thc ien tr be (c mm), ket qua: ien tr co kch thc be cho phep o nhiet o chnh xac. Mot lng calo be khien cho van toc ap ng cao. S on nh cua nhiet ien tr tuy thuoc vao viec che tao va nhng ieu kien s dung. Dang ien tr kn hay dang co vo boc cho phep che ch chong lai s an mon hoa hoc va gia tang s on nh. Pham vi s dung nhiet ien tr, tuy theo loai t vai o tuyet oi en loi 300oC. Tren th trng cac nhiet ien tr co tr so thay oi t 500 en vai chuc M 25oC. 7.2.4 ien tr silicium Loai ien tr ban dan nay c phan biet vi nhiet ien tr bi nhng iem sau: - He so nhiet o cua ien tr suat co tr gia dng, vao khoang 0, 7 102 / C 25C , va s thay oi theo nhiet o cua he so nhiet o rat be ieu nay cho phep che tao cam bien co tnh tuyen tnh cao.
234
CHNG 7
- Pham vi s dung gii han trong khoang 50C 120C , cac ien tr loai nay thng la loai ban dan N c che tao bi phng phap planar: cho khuech tan chat khac vao tinh the n chat silicium. Viec kiem soat cac thong so an nh tr gia ien tr cho phep giam thieu sai so di 1% so vi tr gia danh nh. S thay oi theo nhiet cua ien tr suat cua silicium phu thuoc vao cach che tao va nhiet o.
7.3 O NHIET O BANG CAP NHIET IEN

7.3.1 ac tnh tong quat - o nhay nhiet Mot trong nhng phng phap thong dung e o nhiet o c dung trong khoa hoc va ky nghe la s dung hieu ng nhiet ien. Mot cap nhiet ien gom hai day dan A va B c cau tao bi vat lieu khac nhau, tai iem noi chung cua chung co nhiet o T2 , va hai au con lai cua cap nhiet ien co nhiet o
T1T2 T1 se xuat hien mot sc ien ong nhiet ien E A /B co o ln phu thuoc vao
vat lieu cua A va B cung nh s sai biet ve nhiet o gia T2 va T1 .
Hnh 7.2b: Nguyen ly cap nhiet ien
T2 la nhiet o moi noi chung (con c goi la moi noi o) la nhiet o Tc

at c khi at moi noi chung trong moi trng nghien cu co nhiet o khong biet Tx , nhiet o Tc phu thuoc vao Tx va phu thuoc vao s trao oi nhiet co the co vi nhng moi trng khac (hanh lang, moi trng ben ngoai). Hai au con lai cua cap nhiet ien co nhiet o biet trc va gi khong oi la T1 = Tr ef c goi la moi noi chuan va c noi vi mach o ap. Trong cac thiet b o nhiet o dung cap nhiet ien loai re tien, moi noi chuan c gi nhiet o moi trng. Cap nhiet ien c cau tao vi kch thc rat be: - No cho phep o nhiet o rat chnh xac. - So lng calo cua cam bien c thu nho cho phep van toc ap ng
O NHIET O
235
nhanh. Hai u iem nay cho thay cap nhiet ien c s dung co li iem hn ien tr. Ngoai ra con co mot li iem na la, tn hieu c tao ra di dang sc ien ong ma khong can tao ra dong ien chay qua cam bien nh vay tranh c hien tng ot nong cam bien. Tuy nhien no co iem bat li la trong khi o, nhiet o cua moi noi chuan phai biet ro, tat ca s khong chnh xac cua Tr ef se dan ti s khong chnh xac cua Tc . Cap nhiet ien c cau tao bi cac kim loai hoac hp kim khac nhau va co khoang o rong t 270C 2700C , ap ng cua cap nhiet ien khong tuyen tnh khi nhiet o thay oi ln, tnh khong tuyen tuyen trong moi quan he gia sc ien ong nhiet ien va nhiet o c the hien qua cong thc tnh nh sau:
E=
ai T i
i =o
i =n
vi: E - sc ien ong nhiet ien tnh bang V T - nhiet o tnh bang C . So cac phan t ai cung nh tr gia cua no phu thuoc vao loai cap nhiet ien va nhiet o o (nhiet o moi noi chuan 0C ). Hoac n gian hn, ta co the s dung cong thc gan ung:
E = C( T2 T1 ) + K ( T22 T12 )
vi: C, K - cac hang so phu thuoc vao cap nhiet ien
T2 - nhiet o moi noi o; T1 - nhiet o moi noi chuan.

V du: Cap nhiet ien Cu/constantan co C = 3,75 1012 mV / C va
K = 4, 50 105 mV / C2 , neu T2 = 100C , T1 = 0C , sc ien ong nhiet ien:
E = C( T2 T1 ) + K ( T22 T12 ) = 3,75 102 (100 0) + 4, 50 105 (1002 02 ) = 3,75mV + 0, 45mV = 4, 20mV
o nhay cap nhiet ien Tc c tnh theo bieu thc:

S( Tc) = dE Ac/B dTc
T 0 C
Ro rang S( Tc ) la mot ham theo nhiet o va c tnh bang V /C . V du, oi vi cap nhiet ien Fer/constantan ta co:
236
CHNG 7
S( 0C) = 52,9V / C va S(700C) = 63,8V /C

oi vi cap nhiet ien PtRh(10%)/Pt ta co:
S( 0C) = 6,4V / C va S(1400C) = 11,93V /C

T v du tren ta thay o nhay cua cap nhiet ien nho hn nhieu so vi nhiet ien tr. o nhay cua cap nhiet ien thng khong vt qua tr so 60V /C. 7.3.2 Hieu ng nhiet ien
1- Hieu ng Peltier
Tai moi noi cua hai day dan A va B khac nhau nhng co cung nhiet o T (H.7.3a) se hnh thanh mot hieu ien ap ch tuy thuoc vao loai day dan va T nhiet o cua chung: Vm Vn = PA /B . o chnh la sc ien ong hieu ng Peltier. nh luat Volta: Trong mot mach kn ang nhiet c cau tao bi nhng day dan khac nhau, sc ien ong Peltier tong cong bang khong. Trong mach c cau tao bi nhng vat lieu A, B, C va D (H.7.3b). Ta co:
T T T T PA /B + PB /C + P C/D + PD /A = 0
2- Hieu ng Thomson
Gi hai iem M va N co nhiet o khac nhau, ben trong mot thanh dan ong nhat A (H.7.3c) se hnh thanh mot sc ien ong ch tuy thuoc vao loai day dan va nhng nhiet o TM, TN.
TM T T E AM N
TN
hA dT1
o la sc ien ong Thomson, hA la he so Thomson cua day dan A va la mot ham cua nhiet o. nh luat Magnus: Neu hai au cua mot mach ien c cau tao bang mot day dan duy nhat va ong nhat, ong thi co cung nhiet o th sc ien ong Thomson bang khong.
O NHIET O
237
Hnh 7.3: Hieu ng nhiet ien
a) Hieu ng Peltier; b) nh luat Volta c) Hieu ng Thomson; d) Hieu ng Seebeck

3- Hieu ng Seebeck
Neu trong mot mach ien kn, c cau tao bang hai day dan A va B ma hai moi noi cua chung co nhiet o T1 va T2 se hnh thanh mot cap nhiet ien
T T1 o (H.7.3d). Cap nhiet ien se tao ra mot sc ien ong goi la Seebeck E A2/ B
la ket qua cua hieu ng Peltier va Thomson. That vay: Sc ien ong gia a va b: eab =
T2
T1
hA dT
T1
T2 Sc ien ong gia b va c: ebc = PA /B
Sc ien ong gia c va d: ecd =
T2
hB dT
T1 Sc ien ong gia d va a: eda = PB /A
Sc ien ong tong cong chnh la tong cac sc ien ong ke tren va chnh la sc ien ong Seebeck.
238
T2
2T1 ET A/B
CHNG 7
T2 PA /B
T1 PA /B
T1
( hA hB )dT
e thuan tien ta chon T1 chang han co gia tr chuan biet trc (0oC) sc ien ong cua cap nhiet ien ch phu thuoc vao T2. 7.3.3 Cac loai cap nhiet ien va ac tnh s dung Cac cap nhiet ien va nhng gii han s dung.
Cap nhiet ien Cu / Constantan Loai T (ng knh 1,63 mm) Nh. o s dung 270oC en 370oC E (mV) 6,258 en 19,027 Cap chnh xac 2% t 100oC en 40oC 0,8% t 40oC en 100oC 0,75% t 100oC en 350oC 3oC o t 0 C en 400oC 0,75% t 400oC en 800oC 3oC t 0oC en 400oC 0,75% t 400oC en 12500C 3oC t 0oC en 400oC 0,75% t 400oC en 1250oC 2,5oC o t 0 C en 600oC 0,4% t 600oC en 1600oC 1,4oC t 0oC en 538oC 0,25% t 538oC en 15000C 0,5% t 870oC en 1700oC
Fer / Constantan Loai J (ng knh 3,25 mm) Chromel / Alumel Loai K (ng knh 3,25 mm) Chromel/Constantan Loai E (ng knh 3,25 mm) Platine Rhodium (10%) / Platine Loai S (ng knh 0,51 mm) Platine Rhodium (13%) / Platine Loai R (ng knh 0,51 mm) Platine Rhodium (30%)/Platine Rhodium (6%) Loai B (ng knh 0,51 mm) Tungstene Rhenium (5%)/ Tungstene Rhenium (26%)
210oC en 800oC
8,096 en 45,498
270oC en 1250oC
5,354 en 50,633
270oC en 870oC
9,835 en 66,473
50oC en 1500oC
0,236 en 15,576
50 en 1500oC
0,226 en 17,445
0oC en 1700oC
0 en 12,426
0 oC en 2760oC
0 en 38,45
O NHIET O
239
7.3.4 Cach s dung va lap at cam bien

1- Cach thc hien va bao ve
Can tranh nhng sc ien ong ky sinh trong khi mac day cam bien hoac do cau tao khong ong nhat cua cam bien lam thay oi ac tnh nhiet ien cua cam bien. Nhng s khong ong nhat trong cau tao co ba nguyen nhan chnh: Lc ep c kh co c do s sap xep hoac do s cang day, thong thng chung co the loai bo c nh s nung lai. Nhng tac ong hoa hoc: hai day dan phai c che ch chong lai moi tac nhan co the tac ong en chung, ac biet ieu che vat lieu can thiet phai c tinh khiet. Nhng tia bc xa hat nhan gay ra nhng chuyen oi trong vai hp kim cap nhiet ien. Phan han (moi noi) cua cap nhiet ien phai co the tch giam thieu nham tranh nhng iem co nhiet o khac nhau tai moi noi, ieu nay dan en nhng sc ien ong ky sinh, cung nh nhng thay oi hoa hoc cua vat lieu do mc o han. Mot trong ba ky thuat sau thng c s dung: 1- Han bang thiec khi nhiet o s dung khong qua cao (cap nhiet ien loai T). 2- Han t sinh bang gio a la ky thuat thng c s dung. 3- Han ien. Hai day dan co the c xoan lai vi nhau mot oan gan moi noi nham gia tang bao ve c kh, nhng no tuy thuoc vao van toc ap ng. e tranh nhng iem tiep xuc khac ngoai moi noi, hai day dan c at ben trong vo cach ien bang s. Cap nhiet ien vi vo cach ien thng c che ch them bang mot lp vo e chong s xam pham cua cac kh cung nh nhng ot bien nhiet, lp vo thng bang s hoac thep trong trng hp bang thep moi noi co the c cach vi vo hay tiep xuc vi vo, ieu nay co li la van toc ap ng nhanh nhng nguy hiem hn (H.7.4).
240
CHNG 7
Hnh 7.4: a) Moi noi c cach vi vo; b) Moi noi tiep xuc vi vo
2- Nhiet o chuan ( Tr ef )
Ta biet rang sc ien ong nhiet ien phu thuoc vao s sai biet gia nhiet o moi noi o Tc va nhiet o moi noi chuan Tr ef , e xac nh c nhiet o Tc ta can phan biet ba trng hp: Tr ef = 0C , Tr ef khong oi nhng khac vi 0C , Tr ef bang vi nhiet o moi trng. * Trng hp Tr ef gi nguyen khong oi 0C : Viec o sc ien ong nhiet ien cho phep ta xac nh ngay nhiet o Tc nh s dung bang ac tnh cua cap nhiet ien s dung. * Tr ef khong oi nhng khac vi 0C : Khi nhiet o moi trng thay oi ln, trong ky nghe ngi ta co the chon Tr ef khong oi va ln hn nhiet o moi trng. Viec chon trc Tr ef va s dung bang ac tnh cua cap nhiet ien s dung ta biet c E Aref /B ta se tnh c:
E Ac /B
T 0 C
r ef = E Ac + E Ar/ef B /B
0 C
, khi o sc ien ong nhiet ien cua cam bien,

T
T T
0 C
t o xac nh c Tc
* Tr ef bang vi nhiet o moi trng: Khi biet trc nhiet o moi trng
Ta ong thi tien hanh o sc ien ong nhiet ien cua cam bien nhiet
ong Tc , t o xac nh c nhiet o Tc nh sau:
E Ac /B
T 0 C
a = E Ac + E Aa /B /B
T T
T 0 C
Tuy nhien trong trng hp nay can co mach bu nhiet o chuan Tr ef (thay oi theo nhiet o moi trng) e tao nen ien ap V ( Ta ) = E Aa /B t ong theo nhiet o moi trng nh hnh 7.4A. ien ap V ( Ta ) co c nh s dung nhiet ien tr c gi nhiet o moi trng: tr gia nhiet ien tr R(Ta) xac nh ien ap V ( Ta ) nh s dung cau Wheatstone DC.
T 0 C
theo oi mot cach
O NHIET O
241
Hnh 7.4A: Mach bu nhiet o chuan:
a) Nguyen tac; b) Cau Wheatstone s dung lam mach bu Cau Wheatstone cho phep bu nhiet o khi nhiet o moi trng thay oi ' va Ro '' oc lap vi nhiet o trong xung quanh tr gia 0C , cac tr gia Ro , Ro khi nhiet ien tr R( Ta ) thay oi tuyen tnh vi he so nhiet o la R . Cau can bang khi nhiet o 0C , nhiet o Ta ien ap ngo ra cua cau co tr gia:
' Ro '' ) Ro ( Ro ' )2 ( Ro + Ro
V ( Ta ) = E
R Ta
' , Ro '' c chon lam sao e co: Cac gia tr ien tr Ro , Ro
E
3- Phng phap o
' Ro '' ) Ro ( Ro ' )2 ( Ro + Ro
R Ta = E Aa /B
T 0 C
Sc ien ong nhiet ien ch co the biet chnh xac neu ta giam thieu o giam ap do dong ien chay qua cap nhiet ien va cac day noi, cac ien tr nay thng khong biet chnh xac do chung phu thuoc vao nhiet o moi trng va nhiet o o. Hai phng phap thng s dung e o sc ien ong nhiet ien: - S dung millivon ke co noi tr ln - S dung phng phap bien tr (phng phap xung oi) * Phng phap millivon ke
Hnh 7.4B: o sc ien ong nhiet ien dung millivon ke
242
CHNG 7
Goi Rx la ien tr cua cap nhiet ien, Rl la ien tr noi day, Rv va vm la noi tr va ien ap hai au millivon ke:
r ef vm = E Ac /B
T T
Rv R + Rl T Tr ef ] E Ac = vm [1 + t /B Rt + Rl + Rv Rv
T T
r ef vm ) ta can phai co Rv e ket qua o chnh xac ( E Ac /B
Rt + Rl .
* Phng phap bien tr c trnh bay phan 2.4 (o ien ap DC bang phng phap bien tr), cho ta ket qua o chnh xac hn dung phng phap millivon ke.
4- Day bu
Ngi ta co the lap at e s dung chieu dai day dan cua cap nhiet ien ngan nhat co the, trong trng hp sau: - V ly do tiet kiem, khi s dung cap nhiet ien co gia thanh cao nh PtRh/Pt. - Tranh lam t day dan cua cap nhiet ien khi ma ieu kien o s dung day dan cap nhiet ien rat manh, khi o ngi ta at xen ke gia cap nhiet ien va mach o cac day A va B ma khong lam thay oi sc ien ong nhiet
E Ac /B
T 0 C
tao ra bi cap nhiet ien A/B.
Hnh 7.4C: S o cach mac day bu
e tranh lam t day dan cap nhiet ien ngi ta noi them vao cac day dan co cung loai vi cap nhiet ien nhng co ng knh ln hn. e giam gia thanh cap nhiet ien ngi ta noi them vao cac day dan khac loai vi cap nhiet ien nhng co ac tnh biet trc: o la cac day bu. Bay gi ta xet ac tnh cua day bu: Trong trng hp day dan cua cap nhiet ien c keo dai en mach o:
Tc
vm =
T 0C E Ac /B
T PA/cB
0 C PA /B
( hA hB )dT
0
Trong trng hp s dung day bu:
O NHIET O
T2 Tc T2 0
243
0C v' m = PCu/A ' +
h A 'dT + PA2 ' /A +
h A dT + PAc /B +
2 + hB dT + PB/ B'
hB ' dT + PB ' /Cu
0C
T2
Tc
T2
0C 0 C 0C 0 C Ta co moi quan he: PB ' /Cu + PCu/A ' = PB ' /A ' = PA ' /B '
T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 PA ' /A + PB /B ' = PA ' /B ' + PB ' /A + PB /B ' = PA ' /B ' + PB /A T 0 C v'm = PA/cB PA ' /B ' + T2
( hA ' hB ' )dT + ( hA hB )dT + PA ' /B ' PA/B

T2 T2 0 T2
Tc
e v'm = vm ta can co:

T2 0C PA /B PA /B + + T2 0 C
T2 0 C ( h A hB )dT = PA ' /B ' PA ' /B ' +
T2
0 C
( hA ' hB ' )dT
T2 0C EA /B
T2 0C EA ' /B '
Nh vay e cac day bu A va B khong lam thay oi sc ien ong nhiet ien tao ra bi cap nhiet ien A/B ta can co ieu kien: 1- Cac moi noi A/A va B/B co cung nhiet o T2 . 2- Cac cap nhiet ien A/B va A/B co cung sc ien ong nhiet ien nhiet o T2 .
7.4 DUNG DIOD VA TRANSISTOR O NHIET O

7.4.1 ac tnh tong quat, o nhay nhiet
Hnh 7.5: Cac thanh phan c s dung lam cam bien o nhiet o
a) Diod; b) Transistor mac nh diod c) Hai transistor giong nhau c mac nh diod
244
CHNG 7
Nhng phan t c s dung, diod hay transistor silicium c mac nh diod (cc nen va cc thu noi chung) c cung cap theo chieu thuan dong ien I khong oi, ien ap V hai au cc cua chung tuy thuoc vao nhiet o, ieu nay co the xem nh tn hieu i ra t cam bien tuy thuoc vao nhiet o. o nhay nhiet S cua diod hay transistor c mac nh diod c xac nh bi S = dV/dT co tr gia khoang 2,5mV/oC, no khong hoan toan oc lap vi nhiet o. Mat khac o nhay cung nh ien ap V tuy thuoc vao dong ien ngc Io, dong nay co the co gia tr khac nhau oi vi cac phan t diod hay transistor khac nhau. Cac diod, transistor ch co the oi cho nhau khi cac ac tnh cua chung giong nhau (cung tr gia V oi vi mot dong ien cho trc va co cung tr gia Io). e cai thien s tuyen tnh va ket qua co the hoan v cho nhau, s dung hai transistor c cung cap bi hai dong I1 va I2, ta o s sai biet ien ap gia cac cc nen va phat (H.7.5c). o nhay nhiet co the dien ta: S = d ( V1 V2 ) dT V du: S = 86,56 Log I 1 I 2 tnh bang V. K . Nhng tr gia o nhay cua diod va transistor thng ln hn o nhay cap nhiet ien va khong can s hien hu cua nhiet o chuan. Tuy nhien nhng tr gia nay thap hn so vi o nhay nhiet ien tr co i kem vi mach bien oi. Do ac tnh ien cua cam bien lam gii han pham vi s dung o nhiet o trong khoang t 50oC en 150oC, trong khoang nay ac tnh ien cua cam bien rat on nh. 7.4.2 S lien he ien ap va nhiet o
1- Diod hay transistor mac nh diod
1
Dong ien I va ien ap V c lien he bi cong thc. I = Io [exp ( qV ) 1] KT T: oK ; K: kang so Boltzman Neu phan cc thuan (I I = Io exp ( Io) ta co:
qV qV m ) vi Io = C T exp ( ) KT KT
O NHIET O
245
trong o: V - o cao vung cam tnh bang volt, oi vi silicium co tr gia 1,12 von. m - thong thng co tr gia la 3. c - he so oc lap oi vi nhiet o T nhng tuy thuoc vao dang hnh hoc moi noi. Nh the ta co the tnh V: V = V + KT/qLogI KT/qmLogT KT/qLogC Hang so c va dong I co the loai ra khoi bieu thc tren neu ta e y la ien ap co gia tr V1 oi vi cung dong ien I nhng nhiet o la T1.
T V = V1 T + V (1 T ) + m KT L og 1 T1 T1 q T
Bieu thc tren cho thay ien ap khong tuyen tnh theo nhiet o. Khoang cach tuyen tnh t 20oC en 150oC cua transistor MTS 102 (hang Motorola) c gii thieu nh hnh 7.6.
Hnh 7.6: Cam bien transistor o nhiet o
a) So sanh sai so tuyen tnh cua transistor vi ien tr bach kim va cap nhiet ien; b) Mach o
2- ien ap sai biet gia hai transistor giong nhau c mac theo hnh 7.5c
Hai transistor Q1 va Q2 giong nhau, co cung dong Io c cung cap cac dong I1 va I2, cac ien ap nen va phat la V1 va V2.
I 1 = I oexp I 2 = I oexp qV1 I KT V1 = L og 1 KT q Io qV2 I KT V2 = L og 2 KT q Io
246
CHNG 7
Viec o ien ap sai biet Vd = V1 V2 cho phep loai anh hng cua Io.
Vd = I KT KT L og 1 = L ogn q I2 q
n: t so cac dong ien khong oi = I 1 /I 2
Hnh 7.7: Cam bien o nhiet o dung hai transistor
a) Sai so tuyen tnh khi dung hai transistor so sanh vi trng hp mot transistor; b) Mach o V du: Vd = 86,56TLogn; Vd: tnh bang V; T: oK. Neu n = 2 suy ra: Vd = 59,73.T. o nhay nhiet: S =
dVd K = L ogn dT q
1
V du: S = 86,56.Logn. Tnh bang V.K . o nhay nhiet nho hn so vi cach mac mot diod, hay mot transistor nhng no oc lap vi nhiet o T, ieu nay cai thien rat nhieu s tuyen tnh.
7.5 O NHIET O BANG IC

Ky thuat vi ien t cho phep che tao nhng mach ket gom nhng transistor giong nhau c s dung e lam cam bien hoan hao o nhiet o da vao viec o s khac biet ien ap VBE di tac ong cua nhiet o. Cac cam bien nay tao ra dong ien hoac ien ap t le vi nhiet o tuyet oi, vi o tuyen tnh cao, li the cua no la van hanh n gian, tuy nhien pham vi hoat ong gii han 50oC en 150oC. V du: cam bien IC AD590.
O NHIET O
247
Cam bien nay tao ra mot dong ien thay oi tuyen tnh theo nhiet o tuyet oi, c dung o nhiet o trong trng hp dung day dan vi khoang cach xa. S o n gian ve cau tao cam bien nh hnh 7.8.
Hnh 7.8: Cam bien o nhiet o dung IC AD 590
a) S o nguyen ly; b) Mach o nhiet o; c) Mach bu tr Cac transistor Q3 va Q4 co cung ien ap VBE va co dong cc phat giong nhau bang IT/2; dong ien nay qua Q4 cung chnh la dong ien cc phat cua Q1, no xac nh ien ap nen phat la:
VBE1 = I KT L og( T ) 2I o q
Dong ien I T / 2 chay qua Q3 i qua Q2, co ien ap nen phat (thc te gom tam transistor giong Q1, moi transistor co dong ien IT/16) la:
VBE2 = I KT L og( T ) 16 I o q
S sai biet gia ien ap VBE1 va VBE2 xuat hien hai au ien tr R co dong ien I T / 2 chay qua.
248
CHNG 7
VBE1 VBE2 =
RI T 2 KT KT IT = . . L og8 . L og8 VBE1 VBE2 = R q q 2
IC AD 590 c dung e o nhiet o nh hnh 7.8. Dong ien IT tao nen hai au ien tr R (1K) mot ien ap co tr so bang T(mV). Vi T la nhiet o tuyet oi cua cam bien. Nguon ien ap chuan do IC AD580L co Eref = 2,5V va nh mach chiet ap tao ra ien ap co tr gia khoang 273,15mV (lien quan en tr gia ien ap hai au R nhiet o oC )vi bo khuech ai co o li G = 10, ngo ra tn hieu Vo t le vi nhiet o cua cam bien tnh theo oC: Vo = 10(T 273,15)mV = 10(ToC)mV.
7.6 DUNG CAM BIEN THACH ANH O NHIET O

Mot ng dung co ien cua thach anh la thc hien bo dao ong co o vng ln, tan so dao ong ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o. Ban thach anh co phng tinh the nh trc ac trng cho s thay oi nhiet o anh hng en tan so dao ong. Khi dung lam cam bien o nhiet o, ban thach anh co phng tinh the lam cho tan so dao ong thay oi gan nh tuyen tnh vi nhiet o cua ban thach anh. Cam bien nay rat chnh xac va nhay, mat khac viec xac nh nhiet o dan en viec em tan so co li do: Viec o rat chnh xac. Viec chuyen oi ra dang so rat de dang oi vi thong tin lien quan en tan so. 7.6.1 Cong hng c cua thach anh Tinh the thach anh SiO2, co dang mot lang knh co sau mat, cau truc cua no co nhng ac tnh vat ly co the ac trng bi ba nhom truc: Truc quang Z (noi lien nhng iem nh cua tinh the) va trong mat phang thang goc vi truc Z: Ba truc ien X, X, X moi truc noi lien hai nh oi dien cua mat phang sau canh.
O NHIET O
249
Ba truc c Y, Y, Y moi truc thang goc vi hai canh oi dien cua mat phang sau canh.
Hnh 7.9: Tinh the thach anh
a) Dang tong quat;
b) Tiet dien thang goc vi truc quang
Trong tinh the c cat theo dang tiet dien vuong, tam giac hoac tron, cac ac tnh phu thuoc vao dang hnh hoc, va kch thc cua chung cung nh phng tinh the. Thach anh la mot chat ap ien. Trong trng hp cac mat phang thu ien tch thang goc vi truc ien se xuat hien cac ien tch trai dau tren mat phang. o la hieu ng ap ien trc tiep. Mot s thay oi be day cua ban thach anh, nen lai hoac be ra tuy thuoc theo dau cua ien ap khi a vao cac be mat, o la hieu ng ap ien ngc. Mot ban thach anh co the xay ra cac dao ong c lien quan en cac loai bien dang khac nhau: s keo dai ra, uon cong, cat. Tan so dao ong c xac nh bi dang hnh hoc, kch thc, phng tinh the cua ban thach anh va co the dien ta bi cong thc:
f = ( n /l ) c/p
trong o: c - o ln an hoi, phu thuoc phng tinh the
- trong lng rieng cua thach anh

l - kch thc cua ban thach anh theo phng truyen dao ong n - so nguyen; 1 < n < 5. Khi ap vao hai mat cua ban thach anh mot ien ap xoay chieu ma tan so bang vi tan so dao ong co the, hieu ng ap ien ngc xay ra keo theo s dao ong cua ban thach anh. Nh the co the xay dng mot hien tng dao ong c ien vi s bien oi tuan hoan nang lng c ra nang lng ien va ngc lai, va nang lng mat mat rat be. He so pham chat Q ac trng cho
250
CHNG 7
hien tng cong hng co c:
Q = 2
na n g l n g c hoa c i e n c c a i na n g l n g ti e u ta n tua n hoa n

4 5
oi vi ban thach anh, Q co gia tr rat cao, thng t 10 10 . V tr hai ban cc thu ien tch so vi truc tinh the cua ban thach anh xac nh lc cat. V du: Lc cat X goi la mau Curie: hai ban cc thang goc vi truc X. mot ien ap xoay chieu c ap vao hai mat oi dien, ban dao ong co the dao ong theo chieu dai va hai tan so cong hng quan trong la:
f1 = 2860/e va f 2 = 2860/l ; f tnh bang kHz

e va l: be day va be rong cua ban tnh bang mm. Lc cat AT, hai mat ban cc quay chung quanh truc X va tao thanh mot goc gan bang 35o so vi truc Z, ban dao ong co the dao ong theo lc cat be day va tan so dao ong co tr gia:
f =
1675 . n e
f: kHz; n: so nguyen 5
Hnh 7.10: a) Lc cat X; b) Lc cat AT
Vi nhng lc cat khac c s dung: tan so dao ong c luon luon t le nghch vi mot trong nhng kch thc cua chung. Cac ien cc cho phep at mot ien ap vao ban dao ong, no c cau tao bang thanh kim loai at tiep xuc vi ban dao ong.
O NHIET O
251
Chung quanh tan so cong hng c, ve phng dien ien ban thach anh co the c bieu th bang mot lng cc cau tao bang hai nhanh song song. Mot nhanh L, C, R. Cac phan t nay co gia tr c xac nh bi ac tnh hnh hoc, c kh va tinh the cua ban dao ong va co o ln: L: t vai H en 10 H, C: t 10 R: vai k en vai chuc k Mot nhanh gom ien dung Co o la ien dung c hnh thanh bang cac ien cc kim loai co gia tr khoang: 1 en 100 pF; t so C/Co co gia tr tong 2 3 quat t 10 en 10 . Lng cc nay co the co hai tan so cong hng ien: Cong hng noi tiep cua nhanh L, C, R tan so fS:
4 2
pF en 10 pF,
fS =
1 2 L C
1 2 L C 1 1 + ( C/Co )
Cong hng song song, gia Co va nhanh L, C, R tan so fP:

fp =
Cac tan so nay rat gan nhau: 7.6.2 o nhay nhiet
f p fS fS
1 C 2 Co
Tat ca s thay oi nhiet o keo theo mot s thay oi kch thc cua ban dao ong, trong lng rieng va he so an hoi, ket qua: Mot s thay oi tan so cong hng c: f = n l c Mot s thay oi cac gia tr cac thanh phan L, C, R ac trng cua ban dao ong, ve phng dien ien. Mot cach tong quat: f(T) = fo(1 + aT + bT2 + dT3); T: oC
f f 0 = aT + bT + dT vi f = f(T) fo.
Cac he so a, b, d tuy thuoc lc cat ban dao ong (H.7.11).
252
CHNG 7
Hnh 7.11: S thay oi theo nhiet o tan so cong hng cua thach anh oi vi
cac lc cat khac nhau Vi lc cat LC (tuyen tnh) ve nguyen tac cac he so b va d bang 0. o nhay nhiet cua tan so cong hng la mot hang so:
S=
6
f = a. f o T
vi: a = 35,4510 /oC va fo = 28,208 MHz; ta co: S = 1000 Hz/oC. Lc cat LC thng c s dung oi vi ban thach anh dung lam cam bien o nhiet o. Hnh 7.12 cho thay s thay oi o nhay nhiet cua ban thach anh co lc cat LC.
Hnh 7.12: o nhay thay oi theo nhiet o
cua thach anh co lc cat LC
O NHIET O
253
7.6.3 Mach dao ong dung ban thach anh Mot dao ong sin c cau tao gom mot mach khuech ai va mot mach hoi tiep (H.7.13). A - o li mach khuech ai
a - goc lech pha tao bi mach khuech ai . - t so hoi tiep, o la t so tn hieu au vao va au ra cua mach khuech ai, r goc lech pha tao bi mach hoi tiep. ieu kien Barkhausen e cho mach dao ong: A. 1 va a + r = 2.
Hnh 7.13 la mot mach dao ong n gian.
Hnh 7.13: a) S o nguyen ly mach dao ong
b) Mach dao ong n gian dung thach anh 7.6.4 Cach che tao nhiet ke va cach o e o nhiet o bang cam bien thach anh ta at ban thach anh ben trong hop thep cha helium nham muc ch gia tang s dan nhiet gia thach anh va hop. Thach anh c noi vi cac phan t tac ong nh day cap va se tao nen mach dao ong vi tn hieu o em: em = Emcosmt vi m = 2fm fm = fo + f va f = S (T To) = ST khi To = 0oC Vi mach dao ong chuan bang thach anh, tao nen tn hieu chuan er tan so fo, oc lap vi moi trng.
er = E r cos ot .( o = 2f o )
254
CHNG 7
Cac tn hieu em, er c a vao mach thay oi tan so (mach nhan chang han) se tao nen tn hieu Vo: Vo = Kemer = Eo [cos(m r )t + cos(m + r)t] Vi mot mach loc thap qua no gii han tan so cao au ra: Vo = Eocos(m r )t = Eo cos 2f.t Mot bo em tan so cho phep xac nh f va vi S biet c, ta se biet T = f/ S. ac tnh o lng cua cam bien thach anh o nhiet (hang che tao Hewlett Packard): Khoang o: 80 en 250oC. Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,05% khoang o. o nhay: 1000 Hz/oC. Kha nang o: 0,0001oC. o nhanh: hang so thi gian nhiet 2,5 giay trong nc co van toc 2m/giay.
O CAC AI LNG C HOC CHAT LONG
255
Chng

8.1 O VAN TOC CHAT LONG
Phng phap o van toc chat long thng c o mot cach gian tiep bi viec thc hien thng da tren: ac tnh vat ly cua chi tiet th nghiem. Mot hieu ng vat ly ma van toc chat long la mot trong nhng thong so va hieu ng xay ra oi vi chi tiet th nghiem. Chi tiet th nghiem co the c cau tao bi chat long can o hoac chi tiet th nghiem la mot phan t cau tao nen cam bien. Khi chi tiet th nghiem la chnh chat long can o, van toc c xac nh bi: Ap suat ong: =
U2 ; : khoi lng rieng; U: van toc. 2
Hieu ng Doppler xay ra vi mot nguon laser hoac mot nguon sieu am. Trong trng hp nay ngi ta s dung cam bien thch hp oi vi ai lng vat ly can o: ap suat, nguon sang, song ngan. Nhng cam bien nay khong ac trng cho tnh chat c cua chat long va viec tm hieu chung c trnh bay ni khac, tuy nhien nhng phng phap o se c trnh bay sau. Khi chi tiet th nghiem la mot phan t cua cam bien at trong chat long, van toc cua chat long c xac nh bi ac tnh vat ly: Nhiet o va ien tr cua mot si day ot nong c cung cap nh nguon DC. Van toc quay cua mot chong chong.
256
Nhng cam bien loai nay rat ac trng cho viec o van toc chat long va se c trnh bay sau. 8.1.1 Toc o ke loai cong hay thanh ien tr un nong
1- Nguyen ly, cau tao va nh luat trao oi nhiet
Khi ngi ta at trong vung chat long di chuyen, mot cong hoac mot thanh ien tr c un nong nh hieu ng Joule co nhiet o ln hn nhiet o dong chay, se xay ra mot s trao oi nhiet cho nhau. Viec trao oi phu thuoc vao ac tnh vat ly cua chat long, van toc chat long va khoang sai biet nhiet o gia ien tr ot nong va chat long. Nhiet o can bang cua cong hoac thanh ien tr cam bien c xac nh do viec o ien tr cam bien, no tng ng vi cong suat Joule tieu tan va do o van toc cua dong chay c xac nh. Kim loai dung lam cam bien phai co he so nhiet ien tr cao, trong chat kh ngi ta thng dung mot si bach kim hoac tungstene rat manh (0,6m < D < 10m), trong chat long v ly do can chac chan, cam bien la tam bach kim mong, at tren cay hnh tru cach ien va co vo c boc thach anh (H.8.1).
Hnh 8.1: Cong va thanh un nong dung lam toc o ke
Cong suat Joule Pj tieu tan tren mot ien tr nhiet o T, tr gia R(T), dong 2 ien IDC chay qua c dien ta: Pj = R(T)I .
257
S trao oi nhiet vi chat long nhiet o Ta, cong suat trao oi co the viet: PC = hS1(T Tc) vi: h - he so trao oi nhiet S1 - tiet dien ngoai cua cam bien oi vi dang cong (tiet dien tron): S1 = Dl D - ng knh; l - chieu dai. oi vi dang thanh (tiet dien ch nhat): S1 = 2Dl vi: D - chieu rong; l - chieu dai. Khi can bang nhiet Pj = PC R(T) I = h . S1(T Ta). Van toc U cua chat long tham gia vao bieu thc tnh h va nhng cong thc khac nhau cho phep tnh tr gia h nh sau: Cong thc King: h=a+b U a, b: la nhng hang so oi vi moi chat long va cam bien cho trc, ta co the n gian: R(T) I2 = (A + B U )(T Ta) Vi A = a S1; B = b S1. e thay ro nhng thong so lam anh hng en viec o, ta at mot cach tong quat: h = N u /D
2
- o dan nhiet cua chat long

D - ng knh cua cong hoac be rong cua thanh Nu - he so Nusselt. Nh the phng trnh can bang co the viet: R(T)I2 = N u/D . S1(T Ta) Trong trng hp dang cong: N u = R( T ) I 2 /l ( T Ta ) Co nhieu bieu thc khac nhau e tnh c Nu, va thng c ky hieu T + Ta ) nh sau: Nuf ( nhiet o Tf = 2 Cong thc Kramer: Nuf = 0,42Prf ng chat long; : o nht. Prf = / : hang so Prandtl; : he so khuech tan cua chat long.
0,2
+ 0,57Prf
0,33
.Ref
0,5
Ref = UD / : hang so Reynold; V: van toc chat long; D: ng knh bnh
258
CHNG 8
Cong thc Collis va Williams: Nuf = (A + BRef ) ( vi: n = 0,45; A = 0,24; B = 0,56 neu 0,02 < Re < 44. hay: n = 0,51; A = 0; B = 0,48 neu 44 < Re < 150.
2- Mach o
T + Ta 0,17 ) 2Ta
Co hai loai mach o c dung cho van toc ke loai cong hoac thanh un nong: cach mac dong ien khong oi va cach mac nhiet o T khong oi. * Cach mac dong ien khong oi: Dong ien I chay qua ien tr cam bien c gi khong oi, nh mot ien tr mac noi tiep vi cam bien, va c cung cap nh mot nguon dong. Ta biet cong suat nhiet trao oi phu thuoc van toc chat long, chat long co van toc thay oi dan en nhiet o cam bien thay oi, ien tr cua cam bien phu thuoc vao nhiet o cua no, nh vay ien ap hai au ien tr cam bien phu thuoc vao van toc chat long. Hnh 8.2 cho ta thay s o nguyen tac mach o loai dong ien khong oi va co mach bu tr quan tnh nhiet e cai thien van toc ap ng.
Hnh 8.2: Cach mac mach o dong ien khong oi
* Cach mac nhiet o khong oi: Trong trng hp nay, nhiet o va ien tr cua cam bien c gi khong oi. ien tr cam bien c mac vao mot nhanh cua cau Wheastone va dong ien c ieu chnh cho cau can bang se phu thuoc vao van toc chat long nh hnh 8.3.
259
Hnh 8.3: Cach mac mach o nhiet o khong oi
8.1.2 Toc o ke dung canh dang Coupelles va canh dang helice Loai toc o ke nay c thiet ke nh banh xe nc, gom co mot chi tiet th nghiem mang nhng canh Couplles hay dang canh helice no se quay di tac ong cua dong chay. Van toc quay, c o bi mot thiet b o van toc thch hp t le vi van toc chat long.
1- Toc o ke dang Coupelles
Nhng Coupelles co dang na trai cau rong, vi so lng ba hay bon na trai cau tuy theo kieu, moi cai c gan tren mot nhanh cua truc quay (H.8.4).
Hnh 8.4: Van toc ke dang Couplles
a) Loai ba Coupelle b) Hnh ve van toc ke co bon Coupelles trong phan tnh toan at trong vung dong chay, toc o ke dang Couplles se quay di tac ong cua he so keo co gia tr phu thuoc vao dong chay tac ong vao mat nao cua hnh ban cau rong. Phng trnh can bang c thiet lap mot cach de dang bang cach quan sat toc o ke thi iem hai na ban cau (v du 1 va 3) v tr thang goc vi
260
CHNG 8
uu r van toc U cua dong chay, nhng lc tac ong tren hai na ban cau con lai (2 uu r uu r va 4) t can bang (hnh ve tren). Hai na ban cau 1 va 3 co van toc V va V uu r co cung phng vi van toc U , nhng lc keo tac dung len hai ban cau nay co tr so tng ng.
1 F1 = Cx S(U V )2 2 vi: - khoi lng rieng chat long, S - ngau lc chnh.

F3 =
1 ' Cx S(U + V )2 2
vi: Cx va C'x la nhng he so keo oi vi moi be mat cua ban cau rong. Ta co: Cx . (U V) = Cx(U + V) U = V
2 2
Cx + C'x Cx C'x
Ta co: Cx = 1,42 va C'x = 0,38 oi vi ban cau rong va U = 3,1V. Lu y: viec tnh toan tren ch la cach tnh toan n gian. Nhng he so Cx thay oi oi vi he so Reynolds mot cach phc tap phai ke en nhng hieu ng re song. Neu van toc tng oi ln nhng hieu ng khong tuyen tnh phai ke en.
2- Toc o ke loai helice
Truc quay cua toc ke helice c at song song vi van toc dong chay Trong trng hp khong ke en s trt, ta co the viet c: U=h.N trong o: U - van toc dong chay N - so vong /giay cua helice h - hang so. Nhng cong thc khac co the c neu ra co tnh en hieu ng trt, ch dung luc khi hanh: U=a+bN U = a N + b N + C (Baumgarten) U = a + b N + C/U (Rateau)
2
Hnh 8.5: Toc o ke loai
261
Nhng hang so tham gia trong cac cong thc tren d nhien phu thuoc vao ac tnh cua helice va chat long. Hn na mot vai ac tnh co the thay oi, v du s hao mon do tac ong cua dong chay.
3- Mach bien oi, cach thc hien
Mot mach bien oi tn hieu i ra t banh xe nc c thc hien bang bon phng phap. Phng phap co ien la viec bien oi bang c kh. Noi au ra bang mot bo phan em vong quay bang c ta gap trong thiet b o van toc bang c kh ten goi Chronometre. Phng phap th 2 la noi lien mot may phat o toc o vi truc quay. Thong thng ngi ta s dung hai phng phap: Phng phap th 3: at 1 nam cham nho tren helice, ieu nay dan en mot xung ien xuat hien moi khi nam cham i ngang qua cuon day. Phng phap th 4: Dung mot cam bien quang ien, cam bien b che khuat moi lan tam chan i ngang qua. Mot s phan tch tn hieu bang cach o tan so cho phep ta biet c van toc hoac nh mot mach bien oi tan soien ap ta co ien ap mot chieu t le vi van toc can o. 8.1.3 Phng phap o toc o bang nhng cam bien khong ac trng ay ta e cap en nhng phng phap o trong o viec xac nh van toc mot cach gian tiep, nhng cam bien c s dung thch hp rieng cho viec o cac ai lng vat ly cu the.
1- o van toc nh ong Pitot
Hnh 8.6: Cau tao ong Pitot
Phng trnh Bernouilli cho biet s lien he van toc U co ap suat P1 va P2 iem 1 va 2 tng ng:
U = 2( P1 P2 )/
trong o: - khoi lng rieng cua chat long. S sai biet ap suat P1 P2 c o nh mot cam bien ap suat vi sai.
2- Van toc ke laser
Nguyen tac: Hai nguon sang phat xuat t nguon laser hoi tu tai tieu iem
262
3
CHNG 8
cua he thong thau knh trong vung the tch khoang 0,1mm cua chat long se xay ra hien tng giao thoa. Khoang cach van giao thoa: d= 2 sin( / 2)
Hnh 8.7: Van toc ke laser
a) Cau tao, day chuyen o lng; b) S phu thuoc tan so c) Mach em tan so; d) Dang tn hieu
- chieu dai bc song nguon sang; - goc hp bi hai nguon sang.

Neu cac phan t chat long vung giao thoa di chuyen, se xay ra hieu ng Doppler anh sang se b khuech tan va ong thi c tiep nhan nh mot cam bien quang hoc (chang han photodiod) va no se c bien ieu vi tan so fD (tan so Doppler) phu thuoc vao van toc dong chay U va khoang cach van giao
263
thoa d:
fD =
U 2U = sin d 2
vi U la thanh phan van toc dong chay vuong goc vi van giao thoa. Tan so fD t le tuyen tnh vi van toc U va gia tr co the o bang phng 3 3 phap nay, thong thng t 10 m/giay en 10 m/giay. Hai ky thuat co the s dung e phan tch tn hieu i ra t cam bien quang: s phu thuoc tan so va viec em tan so. - Phng phap th nhat (H.8.7b): tan so fD cua tn hieu Doppler c loc va so sanh vi tan so cua mot nguon dao ong co the ieu chnh c. Khoang cach tan so c chuyen oi thanh mot ien ap t le tac ong len bo dao ong sao cho tan so cua nguon dao ong co gia tr fD. Mot bo bien oi tan so-ien ap tiep theo cho phep co c mot tn hieu t le vi van toc cua chat long. He thong nay co li la tn hieu DC nhng no oi hoi so phan t di chuyen kha nhieu e khong cat t tn hieu Doppler. - Phng phap th hai (H.8.7c): ap dung cho dong chay co mat o nho. Tn hieu Doppler c loc co cung dang c xac nh nh mot tn hieu thi gian chuan co tan so cao FH, ngi ta em so chu ky NH cua tn hieu chuan FH nam trong so chu ky co nh ND cua tn hieu Doppler:
fD =
3- Toc o ke sieu am
ND FH NH
Song am thanh truyen trong moi trng cho trc co van toc C tuy thuoc theo nhiet o moi trng. V du trong khong kh: C = 331,4m/giay 8oC va 342,9 m/giay 20oC. S truyen tieng ong trong chat long nhanh hn trong moi trng khong kh: C = 1435 m/giay trong nc 8oC. Hnh 8.8: Nguyen tac uu r Neu moi trng di chuyen vi van toc U so cua toc o ke sieu vi quan sat vien, van toc C c o nh quan sat vien la: C = C + Ucos uu r vi la goc tao bi van toc U va phng truyen song nh hnh 8.8.
264
CHNG 8
Thiet b o gom co mot may phat nhng xung sieu am va mot may nhan at cach nhau L, thi gian tP truyen cua xung sieu am t may phat en may t P = L / ( C + U cos ) thu la: May phat va thu la nhng ban mong bang chat ap ien, phan phat c cung cap bang mot ien ap co tan so cao (chang han 1MHz), phan thu tao ra tn hieu ien co dang phu hp vi s thay oi ap suat cua song sieu am ma no nhan c.
8.2 LU LNG KE
Viec o lu lng la mot van e quan trong trong he thong chuyen ch chat long va viec trang b trong ky nghe o can kiem soat lng chat long tham gia vao qui trnh san xuat: Nhng phan ng hoa hoc, trung tam san xuat nang lng, ong c ot trong v.v... 8.2.1 Lu lng ke ien t
a) Nguyen tac: Trong thi gian dt, s di chuyen cua thanh dan M1M2 chieu dai l, tao vi van toc U mot goc , trong vung t trng B, ta co the viet:
Dien tch quet: dSC = lUsin dt uuu r r uu r r uuuuuu r Hoac di dang vect: dS c = l U dt v i l = M1M 2 ur ur T thong xuyen: d c = B.d S cdt Sc ien ong ng: e =
r ur d c ur uu = B U .l dt
uu r ur r uu r khi U thang goc vi l va B thang goc vi mat phang tao bi l va U , ta co: e = B.l.U
Cong thc tren c tong quat hoa cho trng hp chat long co van toc uu r ur U thang goc vi B di chuyen ben trong mot ong dan ng knh D thang goc ur uu r vi B va U : e = BD U That ra, van toc thay oi doc theo ng knh cua ong dan, tuy nhien khi
265
s phan bo van toc oi xng so vi truc cua ong dan, ta xem van toc U o c la van toc trung bnh cua dong chay. Trong nhng ieu kien nay, tn hieu e t le vi lu lng.
b) Cach thc hien
Hnh 8.9: Lu lng ke ien t: cau tao va phan tch tn hieu
Cam ng t co o ln t 10 en 10 Tesla, c tao nh hai cuon day at hai ben day o bang vat lieu khong nhiem t, mat trong day o c phu mot lp cach ien chong lai s an mon do s di chuyen cua dong chay. Hai ien cc e thu tn hieu c at tai hai au cua ng knh thang goc vi ng sc. Hai cuon day c cung cap nh dong ien xoay chieu (v du 30 Hz) e lam the nao tranh s phan cc. Tn hieu thu c co dang. e = U. D. Bo cos (t + ) B0: gia tr cc ai cua cam ng t Bien o tn hieu t le vi U va o ln c mV, tn hieu tach ra nh bo hoan ieu ong bo.
c) ac tnh o lng: Cac chat long phai co o dan ien toi thieu. Mat
khac, may phat tn hieu phai co noi tr rat thap so vi ien tr vao cua may o. Khoang o: No tuy thuoc vao ng knh cua day o, van toc dong chay thong thng thay oi t 1 en 10m/giay. V du: ng knh 10mm lu lng toi thieu 0,28m /gi. Lu lng cc ai: 2,8m /gi ng knh 1 m. Lu lng min: 2800m /gi Lu lng max: 28000m /gi.
3 3 3 3
266
CHNG 8
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: < 0,25% khoang o. o chnh xac: 1% khoang o. Hang so thi gian khoang 1 giay. Nhng ieu li khi s dung lu lng ke ien t: Viec o khong tuy thuoc vao ac tnh vat ly cua chat long (t trong, o nhn, o dan ien mien la o dan ien phai ln hn mot gia tr toi thieu). Viec o thc te oc lap oi vi viec phan bo van toc cua dong chay, ieu nay cho phep at lu lng ke trong trng hp can kiem soat lu lng gan mot chng ngai vat (nh coude, van v.v...) Khong co s mat mat lu lng khi van hanh bi v khong tao nen mot chng ngai vat khi o. Khong co nhng phan t di ong tranh c s hao mon. Chong lai s an mon (v du nh acid) nh viec chon lp phu ben trong thch hp (teflon, email, verre) va vat lieu ien cc (titane, palette). 8.2.2 Lu lng ke c kh vi bo bien oi tn hieu ien Mot chi tiet th nghiem c at trong thiet b o cho phep chat long di chuyen se tao nen s chuyen ong turbine (rotor turbine) hoac s dch chuyen (phao noi cua rotametre, palette). Mot cam bien thch hp, cam bien o toc o quay trong trng hp au, hoac cam bien o v tr trong trng hp th hai tao ra tn hieu t le vi lu lng.
1- Lu lng ke dang turbine: nguyen tac giong nh thiet b o van toc chat long co chong chong quay dang helice. Dong chay trong trng hp nay se keo turbine quay tron c at doc theo truc cua thiet b o van toc quay tron N (vong/giay) t le vi lu lng Q:
Q = K.N he so K tuy thuoc vao cau tao cua lu lng ke, nhng ve nguyen tac oc lap oi vi chat long.
267
Hnh 8.10: Lu lng ke dang turbine
Hnh 8.11: Nguyen ly
cua Rotametre
2- Rotametre: c cau tao gom mot phao noi nho at trong mot bo phan hng dan dang con theo chieu thang ng. Phao noi at can bang mot mat di tac ong cua lc ay Archimede va lc keo, mat khac do trong lng cua no.
SU 2 = o gV 2 vi: V, o: - the tch va khoi lng rieng cua phao gV + Cx

U, : - van toc va khoi lng rieng cua chat long; Cx - he so keo 2 S - tiet dien cua phao. S = Do ; g: gia toc trong trng. 4 phao di chuyen en v tr ma van toc U c tnh: 2 gV o U = ( 1) Cx S ng knh cua phan t hng dan thay oi tuyen tnh theo chieu cao Z: D = Do + aZ Lu lng Q:
2 ] Q = [( Do + aZ )2 Do 4
2 gV o ( 1) Cx S
Neu s phan ky cua phan t hng dan nho, ta co :
Q = .aZ
2 gV o ( 1) = KZ Cx S
268
CHNG 8
Viec anh dau v tr cua phao noi c thc hien bang viec oc trc tiep tren mat chia vach cua phan t hng dan cau tao bang thuy tinh, hoac bang cac te bao quang ien at cach khoang eu an, cuoi cung bang to hp phao noi + ti noi vi loi cua bien ap vi sai. Cac chi tiet cua Rotametre rat khac nhau va nh the, lu lng o c 4 3 rat khac nhau, khoang o t 10 en 200m /gi.
3- Lu lng ke Palette
Di tac ong thuy lc cua dong chay se ay Palette len xuong nhieu hay t phu thuoc vao lu lng, ngoai ra Palette con chu tac ong cua trong lng va lc chieu hoi cua lo xo.
Hnh 8.12: Lu lng ke Palette
V tr can bang cua Palette phu thuoc vao lu lng va c bien oi ra tn hieu ien nh mot bien tr co truc quay c gan chat vao Palette. ap ng co the tuyen tnh hay khong phu thuoc vao dang tn hieu a vao mach o. ieu li cua loai nay la cau tao n gian, chac chan va gia thanh re. 8.2.3 Lu lng ke loai khoi nhiet
Hnh 8.13: Lu lng ke loai khoi nhiet
a) Nguyen ly cau tao; b) S phan bo nhiet o ve hai pha cuon day c) Mach un nong va mach o
a) Nguyen tac: Thiet b o la loai cam bien c cau tao bang mot mieng
269
kim loai mong, ng knh nho, ben ngoai mieng kim loai ngi ta at mot cuon day un nong, va oi xng ve hai pha cuon day co at hai cam bien o nhiet o tng ng T1 va T2. Khi lu lng bang khong, s un nong oi xng T1 = T2; khi co lu lng, T1 giam T2 tang, o sai biet: T = T2 T1 t le vi lu lng Q can o.
b) Cach thc hien: Nhng cam bien o nhiet o co the la hai cap nhiet ien, hoac hai nhiet ien tr c mac vao hai nhanh cua cau o Wheastone vi hai ien tr co nh khac c mac trong hai nhanh con lai cua cau, ien ap khong can bang chnh la tn hieu o.
Trong cach thc hien khac, viec un nong va viec o T c am bao ong thi nh hai cap nhiet ien tr c cung cap bi dong ien u lam un nong dong chay.
8.3 O VA DO MC CHAT LONG

Cong viec sang nhng va cha chat long trong cac bon cha oi hoi viec xac nh mc chat long, hay noi mot cach khac mc chat long at c bao nhieu tai iem khao sat. Cong viec ghi nhan lien quan en mc chat long co the thc hien di hai hnh thc: viec o lien tuc hoac viec tham do n thuan. Trong viec o lien tuc, mot cam bien va mach bien oi tao ra tn hieu ien ma o ln hoac tan so gan lien vi mc chat long trong bnh cha. Bat ky luc nao, ngi ta cung co the biet c chnh xac the tch chat long hien co hoac the tch con co the cha c chat long. Trong viec tham do mc chat long, ta bo tr thiet b tham do, bao gom mot cam bien tao ra mot thong tin kep bieu hien mc chat long, at hay khong at so vi mc chat long nh trc. Tham do mc cao cua chat long cho phep viec ngng cho them chat long, tranh s tran ay. Tham do mc thap cua chat long dan en viec ngng chnh xac am bao so khoi lng chat long d tr toi thieu tranh c tnh trang cac bm chay khong tai. Viec do mc cao va thap cua chat long cho phep thc hien them vao hay lay ra mot lng chat long mot cach t ong. Cong viec tham do va o co the da tren nhng phng phap thng c s dung nh sau: Phng phap thuy tnh vi bo bien oi ien. Phng phap da tren ac tnh ien cua chat long.
270
CHNG 8
Cac phng phap s dung e xac nh mc chat long thng chu y en: ac tnh vat ly va hoa hoc cua chat long cung nh nhng thay oi: o dan ien, hang so ien moi, khoi lng rieng, o nhn, ac tnh an mon. Nhng ieu kien cha chat long: nhiet o, ap suat, co u phan the tch e dan n. 8.3.1 Phng phap thuy tnh Ket qua co c do viec bo tr thiet b o hoat ong lien tuc theo o cao cua mc chat long, khong phu thuoc vao ac tnh ien cua chat long nhng phu thuoc vao khoi lng rieng.
Hnh 8.14: Phng phap thuy tnh o chat long
a) Phao noi;
b) Trai chm;
c) Cam bien ap suat vi sai
Mot phao noi (H.8.14a) c gi ngang mat chat long, c cau tao chac chan nh gan vi mot cam bien o v tr qua he thong puli va day cap, tao ra tn hieu ien gan lien vi mc chat long. Mot trai chm (H.8.14b) c cau tao bang mot hnh tru tha chm trong chat long ma o cao cua no gan bang vi chieu cao cc ai cua chat long trong bnh cha. Trai chm c treo nh mot cam bien o lc, chu tac ong cua mot lc (trong lng bieu kien), phu thuoc vao chieu cao h cua chat long. F = P gSh trong o: gSh - lc ay Archimede tac ong len phan the tch trai chm nam trong chat long
- khoi lng rieng chat long;
g - gia toc trong trng.
Mot cam bien o ap suat vi sai (H.8.14c) c at ay bnh cha co ap suat P:
271
P = Po + gh trong o: Po - ap suat nh bnh cha
gh - ap suat thuy tnh do chieu cao h cua chat long.

Cam bien co chi tiet th nghiem dang mang cho phep mot mat cua chi tiet chu tac ong cua ap suat P, con mat kia chu tac ong cua ap suat Po. S bien dang cua chi tiet th nghiem dang mang c bien oi thanh tn hieu ien t le vi o cao h. 8.3.2 Phng phap ien ay la nhng phng phap s dung nhng cam bien ac biet, bien oi trc tiep mc chat long ra tn hieu ien, tien li cua phng phap nay la bo tr thiet b n gian, van hanh de dang,
1-Cam bien o o dan ien
Hnh 8.15: Cam bien o o dan ien xac nh mc chat long
a) S dung hai ien cc; b) Mot ien cc; c) Phat hien mc chat long Hnh 8.15a: dung hai ien cc (bnh cha cach ien). Hnh 8.15b: dung mot ien cc (bnh cha dan ien). Hnh 8.15c: do mc chat long. Ch s dung oi vi chat long dan ien, khong an mon, khong ac trng cho tnh cach ien. au do c cau tao bang hai ien cc hnh tru, mot trong hai ien cc c the bang bnh cha (bang kim loai). au do c cung cap bi ien ap xoay chieu co tr so thap (khoang 10V) e tranh hien tng phan cc cac ien cc. e o mc chat long, au do c at theo phng thang ng va chieu dai chung h cua ien cc thay oi theo mc chat long. Dong ien tao ra co o ln t le vi chieu dai ien cc nam trong chat long, gia tr nay tuy thuoc vao o dan ien cua chat long.
272
CHNG 8
e do mc chat long, ta at mot ien cc ngan theo chieu ngang tng ng vi mc chat long. Mot dong ien co bien o khong oi xuat hien khi mc chat long at en v tr au do.
2- Cam bien o ien dung
Khi chat long la chat cach ien, mot tu ien c hnh thanh gia hai ien cc hnh tru, hoac gia mot ien cc va vo cua bnh cha bang kim loai. Moi trng ien moi bao gom chat long trong khoang hai ien cc chm trong chat long va khong kh phan ien cc ben ngoai. Viec gan cac ien cc e o hoac do mc chat long c thc hien giong nh trng hp cam bien o o dan ien. Viec o va do mc chat long d nhien dan en mot s thay oi ien dung quan trong neu hang so ien moi r cua chat long ln hn gia tr cua moi trng khong kh. Ngi ta thng s dung phng phap nay vi ieu kien r > 2. Trng hp chat long dan ien, ngi ta ch s dung mot ien cc c bao phu bang vat lieu cach ien, ong vai tro ien moi cua tu ien va ban cc con lai c hnh thanh do s tiep xuc vi chat long dan ien.
O AI LNG QUANG
273
Chng
O AI LNG QUANG
9.1 CAC AC TNH RIENG CUA CAM BIEN QUANG
Cac cam bien quang cho phep tao ra cac tn hieu ien khi no nhan c cac nguon sang co o dai song nam trong hoac gan ke vi vung anh sang thay c. Tn hieu ien au ra cua cam bien quang thong thng co dang dong ien. Gia tr dong ien va nhng s bien oi theo cac thong so phu thuoc vao cau tao cam bien. 9.1.1 Dong ien vung toi o la dong ien thng c tao ra bang s bo tr cam bien quang trong vung toi va c phan cc trong nhng ieu kien xac nh. Dong ien vung toi co hai nguon goc chnh: Nguon goc ben trong: tao bi nhng ien tch t do. Do s kch thch nhiet, tien trnh nay tr nen quan trong nhiet o cho trc khi chieu dai bc song rieng S cua vat lieu kha ln, noi cach khac nang lng ion hoa kha nho (o la trng hp cac vat lieu nhay oi vi cac tia bc xa hong ngoai). Nguon goc ben ngoai: tao bi tia bc xa nhiet, trong vung tia hong ngoai, do moi trng chung quanh bc xa va c tiep nhan vi cam bien se xay ra hieu ng quang ien khi cam bien nhay oi vi cac tia bc xa. Ket qua dong ien vung toi ac trng: o nhay oi vi nhiet o, ieu nay nguy hiem do viec dong nhiet ien co the tron lan vi nhng thay oi cham cua tn hieu. Nhng dao ong quanh mot tr gia trung bnh. Nh the se co li khi chon va s dung cam bien sao cho dong ien vung toi rat thap so vi dong quang ien cc tieu cua tn hieu. ieu nay dan en
274
nhng cam bien nhay oi vi tia bc xa hong ngoai phai at trong mot hop lam nguoi, mot mat e giam s kch thch nhiet, mat khac e gii han s tiep xuc vi tia bc xa cua moi trng chung quanh. 9.1.2 o nhay Quang thong cua tn hieu quang c tiep nhan nh cam bien tao ra mot dong quang ien IP cong them vi dong ien vung toi Io, xac nh dong ien I chay qua cam bien: I = Io + Ip Dong ien Ip cho biet ac tnh ap ng cua cam bien oi vi tia bc xa tiep nhan. No tuy thuoc vao mot phan cau tao cua cam bien, mat khac phu thuoc vao loai tia bc xa, thanh phan pho va quang thong. Khi Io khong oi, s bien thien I cua dong ien cam bien bang s bien thien Ip cua dong quang ien. Cam bien di tac ong cua quang thong tao ra dong quang ien Ip, o nhay cua cam bien c xac nh bang t so I vi s thay oi ai lng o : S = I / = I p / Tuy theo n v quang thong, o nhay c dien ta bi A/W hay A/lumen hoac A/lux khi quang thong ac trng bang chieu o ma no tao ra. oi vi cam bien tuyen tnh, o nhay oc lap oi vi va bang o nhay S = I p / tnh:
1- o nhay pho S()
o la o nhay cam bien khi tia bc xa nhan c la n sac, no c ac S( ) = I p /( ) trng bi o dai song : oi vi cam bien tuyen tnh:
S( ) = I p /( )
ng cong ap ng pho cho biet s bien thien theo bc song cua o nhay tng oi: S()/S(p) vi p la bc song co o nhay pho cc ai. Mot s ap dung ly thuyet cho phep d oan dang ng cong o nhay pho.
O AI LNG QUANG
275
Hnh 9.1: Dang tong quat ng cong o nhay pho
Vi > s (S: o dai bc song rieng) dong ien IP ve nguyen tac bang khong. Vi S, dong ien Ip t le vi so ien tch t do G trong mot giay: vi: S() ~
(1 R ) S( ) vi P = S. va = h.C S( P ) P
Ip~G=
(1
va R tuy thuoc vao , ng cong ap ng pho co dang nh phng trnh tren.

2- o nhay tong cong St: o la o nhay cam bien quang khi nhan tn hieu
quang khong phai n sac, ma tuy thuoc mot phan vao o nhay pho cua cam bien oi vi cac o dai song cua tia bc xa nhan c, mat khac phu thuoc vao s phan bo pho. Bieu thc o nhay tong cong co the bieu dien de dang, gia s cam bien tuyen tnh: St = I p / . Dong ien I la tong cac dong ien dIP() oi vi cac o dai song nhan c, neu d () la quang thong trong khoang va + d:
dI P ( ) = S( ).d ( ); d ( ) = [ d ( )/d ] d
vi: d ( )/d - mat o pho cua quang thong co o dai song , cho phep dien ta quang thong tong cong nhan c.
2
d ( ) ] d d
vi: 1, 2 - o dai song gii han cua pho tia bc xa. Dong ien tong cong IP co gia tr :
276
2
CHNG 9
IP =
S( )[
2 1
d ( ) ] d d
o nhay tong cong ly thuyet la:
S( )[
2 1
St =
d ( ) ] d d
d ( ) ] d d
o nhay tong cong d nhien luon nho hn o nhay pho cc ai S( p ) .
9.2 IEN TR QUANG

Cam bien dang ien tr nay c ac trng nh anh hng cua quang thong bc xa nhan c va s phan bo pho tac ong len gia tr ien tr cam bien. Vi mot mach bien oi i kem, ien tr quang la mot trong so nhng cam bien quang co o nhay cao. Hieu ng vat ly c s dung o la: quang dan ien - ket qua cua hieu ng quang ien ben trong. S phong thch cac ien tch ben trong cac vat lieu di tac ong cua nguon sang va he qua la s dan ien gia tang. 9.2.1 Hieu ng vat ly Xet mot thanh ban dan co the tch V, cha cac nguyen t chat cho (donneurs) co mat o Nd, mc nang lng kem hn Wd so vi mc nang lng vung dan. Ta gia s Wd kha ln e cho Hnh 9.2: Nguyen tac cua ien tr ieu kien nhiet o moi trng bnh thng va trong vung toi cac donneurs b ion hoa do hieu ng nhiet la rat be. Trong vung toi, mat o cac am ien t c phong thch trong n v thi gian do hieu ng nhiet cua cac nguyen t chat cho, t le vi mat o cac nguyen t chat cho khong b ion hoa: a (Nd no) vi a ~ exp( qWd/KT)
O AI LNG QUANG
277
So am ien t tai hp trong n v thi gian vi cac nguyen t ion hoa, t le vi mat o nguyen t ion hoa no, va mat o cac am ien t, nh vay t le 2 vi bnh phng no: r. n o ; r: he so tai hp.
Hnh 9.3: S dch chuyen ien t trong chat ban dan
a) Trong vung toi; b) Trong vung sang S thay oi mat o am ien t t do c dien ta bang phng trnh:
2 dn o dt = a( N d n o ) r n o
trang thai can bang thng trc, ta co: dn o dt = 0 vi: no =

a a2 aN d 1/ 2 +[ 2 + ] r 2r 4r
S dan ien vung toi c dien ta: o = qno. q - tr gia tuyet oi ien tch cua am ien t.
- o linh ong cua am ien t.

Khi nhiet o gia tang, o linh ong giam nhng mat o no gia tang nhieu do hieu ng nhiet va ket qua la s dan ien gia tang. Khi chat ban dan c chieu sang, cac photon co nang lng h Wd ion hoa cac donnueurs tao ra g am ien t trong mot n v thi gian bi mot n v the tch, cong them cac ien t t do, do s kch thch nhiet. g= vi:
G 1 (1 R ) = V A. L h
V = A.L ( G = n a = (1 R ) na - so photon hap thu trong mot giay
) hC
- hieu suat lng t

R - he so phan chieu cua vat lieu. Phng trnh ong hoc tr thanh: dn /dt = a( N d n ) + g r n 2
278
CHNG 9
Tia bc xa tao ra cac ien t t do thng rat ln so vi cac ien t gay ra bi s kch thch nhiet: g a(Nd n); n no. Vi ieu kien tren, n gian phng trnh ta co c mat o ien t t do di tac ong cua nguon sang: n = ( g/r )1/ 2 . S dan ien lien quan en = qn, nh vay s dan ien t le khong tuyen tnh oi vi quang thong, no thay oi t le vi 1/ 2 . 9.2.2 He so o li So ien t tai hp moi giay trong mot n v the tch t le thuan vi mat o ien t hien dien n, va t le nghch vi i song cua no n , nh vay so ien t tai hp t le vi n /n . Khi can bang, so ien t tai hp moi giay n /n trong mot n v the tch bang vi so ien t phong thch g bi tia bc xa trong mot n v the tch, ta co: n = gn . Vi n la mot ham theo quang thong. ien tr R cua ien tr quang c tnh:
R =
1 L 1 L = A qn A
Khi cung cap ien ap V, dong I p chay qua ien tr quang:
I p = qn
Cng o ien trng: E =
A V L V L L v
Cac ien t di chuyen vi van toc trung bnh: v = E Thi gian di chuyen cua ien t: tr = Dong ien I p co the c viet lai:
Ip = q n G = q. F .G tr
Nh vay dong ien I p chay qua ien tr quang ln gap F lan ien tch c tao ra moi giay, F la he so o li va tr gia cua no vao khoang 105 , ieu nay giai thch cac ien tr quang co o nhay cao. Ta co the viet lai nh sau:
O AI LNG QUANG
279
F =
n V = n2 tr L
Nh vay dong ien I p , ket qua cua hieu ng quang ien, cang ln khi: - i song n cua cac ien t t do cang dai - ien ap cung cap cho ien tr quang cang ln - Chieu rong L cua ien tr quang cang ngan. 9.2.3 Vat lieu s dung ien tr quang c che tao nh cac vat lieu ban dan ong nhat a tinh the hoac n tinh the, tinh chat hoac co tap chat (dope). Vat lieu a tinh the: CdS, CdSe, CdTe, PbS, PbSe, PbTe. Vat lieu n tinh the: Ge va Si tinh chat hoac dope bi Au, Cu, Sb, Zn, SbIn, AsIn, PIn, CdHgTe. 9.2.4 ac tnh cua ien tr quang 1- ien tr
Hnh 9.4: Vung pho s dung oi vi cac vat lieu
ien tr quang khac nhau
280
CHNG 9
Hnh 9.5: S thay oi cua ien tr quang
di tac ong cua nguon sang Gia tr ien tr vung toi Ro tuy thuoc dang hnh hoc, kch thc, nhiet o 4 9 va thanh phan ly hoa cua ien tr quang. Co gia tr rat cao (10 en 10 3 25oC) oi vi PbS, CdSe,CdS. Co gia tr tng oi thap (10 en 10 25oC) oi vi SbIn, SbAs, CdHgTe. ien tr Rc cua ien tr quang di tac dung cua tia bc xa giam rat nhanh theo chieu o. ien tr quang co the c bieu dien bi s o mach tng ng gom ien tr vung toi RCo, at song song vi ien tr RCP c xac nh bi hieu ng quang ien co dang: RCP = a
-
vi: a tuy thuoc vao vat lieu, nhiet o va pho cua tia bc xa
thng co gia tr trong khoang 0,5 va 1.

Trong nhng ieu kien nay RC co the viet:
RC = RCo RCp RCo + RCp = RCo + a RCo.a
trong ieu kien thng s dung Rcp
Ro, ta co: RC = a
O AI LNG QUANG
281
S thay oi ien tr theo quang thong khong tuyen tnh, co the tuyen tnh hoa trong mot vung quang thong gii han, nh mot ien tr co nh at song song vi ien tr quang. ien tr RC di tac ong nguon sang tuy thuoc vao nhiet o, tuy nhien o nhay nhiet qua be so vi tac dung cua nguon sang. 2- Cong suat tieu tan Cong suat cc ai tieu tan c mW oi vi mm2 be mat cam bien. S thay oi cong suat tieu tan Pd theo hoat ong cua Rc tuy thuoc vao nguon cung cap. ien ap V cung cap khong oi: Pd = V 2 /RC Dong ien I cung cap khong oi: Pd = RCI . Cung cap bi nguon sc ien ong ES noi tiep vi ien tr RS.
Pd =
2 ES khi RC = RS ; = P dmax 4 RS ( RS + RC )2 2 RC E S
S ot nong lam gii han cong suat tieu tan co the chap nhan c. Viec s dung bo phan giai nhiet cho phep lam giam s gia tang nhiet o nhng lam kch thc cong kenh.
3- o nhay ien tr quang
Theo s o mach ien tng ng cua ien tr quang, o dan ien Gc cua ien tr quang: vi: Gco =
Gcp =
Gc = Gco + Gcp
1 : o dan ien vung toi Rco

1 1 = : o dan ien do hieu ng quang ien. Rcp a
Goi V la ien ap cung cap, dong ien I chay qua ien tr quang: I = GcV = GcoV + Gcp V = I o + I p vi: GcoV = I o : dong ien vung toi
Gcp V = I p : dong ien hieu ng quang ien.

Trong ieu kien s dung thong thng: I o
V a Tr trng hp ac biet = 1 , dong ien I khong tuyen tnh theo quang I p va I = I p =
thong bc xa. oi vi quang thong bc xa co phan bo pho c xac nh, ty so I V = 1 bien oi tnh: a
282
CHNG 9
o nhay:
I V = 1 , ta nhan thay: a
- o nhay co o ln bang vi ty so bien oi tnh nhan vi . - ien tr quang la mot cam bien khong tuyen tnh, tr trng hp ac biet = 1 , o nhay giam khi quang thong tang, tuy nhien cam bien co the coi nh tuyen tnh oi vi tn hieu nho khi ma tn hieu co quang thong thay oi be xung quanh mot tr so khong oi ln. - o nhay t le thuan vi ien ap V cung cap, ieu nay ch co y ngha khi V co tr so tng oi nho bi v hieu ng Joule t le vi V se lam gia tang nhiet o cua cam bien, ma s gia tang nhiet o se lam giam o nhay. Khi tia bc xa n sac, dong I p di tac ong quang thong cho trc la mot ham theo :
I p = qFG
vi: F - o li; G - so ien tch tao ra trong 1 giay.
Ip = q
n V L
2
(1 R ) ( ) hC
( s )
vi: n la mot ham theo ( ) ; , R phu thuoc vao .
I thng c` xac nh bang tr gia tng oi ( ) bi ng cong ap ng pho; o ln cua o nhay pho cc ai (tuy thuoc vao vat lieu), co tr so trong khoang 101 en 102 A/W oi vi ien ap cung cap
o nhay pho S( ) = 10V va be mat tiep nhan anh sang 1 cm 2 . o nhay pho S( ) la mot ham theo nhiet o, khi nhiet o giam ngi ta nhan thay gia tr S( ) gia tang. Khi tia bc xa khong n sac, o nhay tong cong St phu thuoc vao phan bo pho cua quang thong va ng cong ap ng pho cua cam bien.
4- Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang
Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang cho phep xac nh tnh nhanh cua cam bien c hieu la thi gian can thiet e ien tr quang thay oi tr so khi co s thay oi ot ngot quang thong bc xa.
O AI LNG QUANG
283
Thi gian ap ng cua cam bien khac vi thi gian ap ng cua mach ien c hnh thanh t nhom cac ien tr, tu ien trong mach ien bao gom ca ien tr quang va c an nh bi hang so thi gian RC cua mach ien. Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang thng ln hn hang so thi gian cua mach ien. Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang tuy thuoc vao vat lieu va cach che tao:
0,1s oi vi SnIn, AsIn, CdHgTe

0,1 100ms vi PbS, PbSe, CdSe
Thi gian ap ng giam khi s thay oi o sang gia tang.

5- ng dung ien tr quang
S dung ien tr quang co nhng iem li la o nhay cao, cach mac day s dung n gian. Nhng ieu bat li la: ap ng khong tuyen tnh oi vi quang thong Thi gian ap ng tng oi cao, bang thong gii han Can phai lam nguoi oi vi mot vai loai cam bien ac tnh khong on nh (do s bao hoa). ien tr quang c ap dung chnh trong viec nghien cu, khong dung e xac nh chnh xac mc o quang thong ma dung e dien ta cac mc o quang thong khac nhau (toi sang, cac xung anh sang). Tuy nhien viec s dung chung e o lng anh sang co the thc hien c vi ieu kien cac ac tnh cua chung c xac nh trc chnh xac va on nh.
Hnh 9.6: Cach mac ien tr quang ieu khien rle
a) ieu khien trc tiep; b) ieu khien nh noi vi transistor khuech ai Viec o cac ien tr quang hay phan tch s thay oi ien tr quang co the thc hien c nh mot trong nhng mach bien oi cam bien ien tr:
284
CHNG 9
Nguon cung cap khong oi, cach mac phan ap, cau Wheastone, mach khuech ai, mach dao ong RC. Mot vai v du ve ng dung ien tr quang: - ieu khien: s tiep nhan lng sang ln hn mc o nh trc, se lam ien tr cam bien giam nhieu, keo theo s xuat hien dong ien I trong mach mot cach trc tiep, hoac nh mot mach khuech ai, thiet b se thay oi gia hai trang thai: M va ong mot r le. Ngng hoac dan Thyristor v.v... - Tiep nhan tn hieu quang: ien tr quang va mach bien oi cho phep bien oi cac xung anh sang nhan c thanh cac xung ien (trong cac thiet b em, thiet b o van toc quay nh mot a tren truc quay).
9.3 DIOD QUANG

9.3.1 Cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong Ta biet rang hai ben moi noi ban dan loai P hoac N se co mot s khuech tan cac ien tch t do cho en khi at s can bang do s hnh thanh mot ien trng. hai ben moi noi hnh thanh mot ien ap moi noi Vb. Neu khong co ien ap ben ngoai tac ong vao, dong ien chay qua moi noi bang khong.
Hnh 9.7: Moi noi PN va ien ap moi noi
Khi ap vao moi noi mot ien ap ben ngoai se lam thay oi ien ap moi noi keo theo s thay oi dong ien do s xuat hien cac ien tch t do, do s ion hoa cac chat dope va lam thay oi be rong cua vung khuech tan. Khi ien ap Vd ap vao moi noi, dong ien I chay qua moi noi.
O AI LNG QUANG
285
I = I o exp(
qVd ) Io KT
oi vi ien ap ngc u ln, dong ien do cac ien tch t do cua chat dope tr nen khong ang ke va ch co dong Io do cac ien tch tao bi tac ong nhiet, o chnh la dong ien ngc cua diod: Ir = Io. Khi diod chu tac ong cua tia bc xa co o dai song S (S: o dai song rieng) se dan en xuat hien cac cap ien t lo trong. e cho cac ien tch nay co the tao nen dong ien, ieu can thiet la tranh hien tng tai hp, do vay oi hoi phai tach chung nhanh nh mot ien trng. Trng hp nay ch co the xay ra trong vung khuech tan va s dch chuyen cac ien tch cung chieu vi cac ien tch tao bi hieu ng nhiet dan en mot s gia tang dong ien ngc.
Hnh 9.8: Cap ien t -lo trong c tao ra do hieu ng quang ien trong vung
khuech tan cua moi noi PN Tia bc xa i en vung khuech tan cua moi noi khong c giam nhieu. Quang thong truyen i giam dan theo be day truyen qua.
(x) = o exp( x), vi vao loi 10 cm , ieu nay tng ng vi o

giam 63% oi vi be day truyen qua c 10 A . Khi thc hien diod quang can lu y:
3 o
286
CHNG 9
Vung khuech tan phai rong e viec hap thu tia bc xa c ln. Chat ban dan c chieu sang phai rat mong e s truyen quang thong de dang. Cac vat lieu c ban cho viec che tao diod quang silicium va Germanium oi vi tia bc xa trong vung anh sang thay c va gan vung hong ngoai, GaAs, InAs, InSb, HgCdTe oi vi tia bc xa trong vung hong ngoai. 9.3.2 Cach hoat ong
1- Cach mac diod quang
Cach mac c ban gom nguon ES, diod c phan cc nghch, va ien tr Rm, hai au ien tr ta thu tn hieu. Khi Vd < 0: ien ap nghch a vao diod, dong ien nghch Ir chay qua diod c dien ta.
I r = I o exp( qVd )+ Io + I p KT
Hnh 9.9: Cach mac c ban
IP: dong ien tao ra do hieu ng quang ien trong vung khuech tan do quang thong truyen qua vung P be day X:
IP = q(1 R ) o exp( X ) h.C
Cac thong so trong bieu thc tren a c xac nh. Vi ien ap ngc Vd u ln, thanh phan ham mu tr nen khong ang ke, ta co: Ir = Io + Ip Ngoai tr nguon sang qua yeu, ta co: Ir = Ip Ta co phng trnh can bang: ES = VR Vd, vi VR = RmIr. Cach hoat ong diod quang th tuyen tnh v ien ap VR giong nh Ir t le vi quang thong. Ngi ta bieu dien diod quang bang s o mach ien tng ng.
Hnh 9.10: S o mach ien
tng ng cua diod quang
O AI LNG QUANG
287
S o gom: Nguon dong Ir = Io + IP. ien tr rd song song vi nguon dong, no ac trng cho ien tr ong moi noi. Trong cach mac ien tr quang diod c phan cc nghch rd co tr so rat 10 cao vao c 10 . ien tr rS mac noi tiep: o la ien tr cac phan t ban dan gia hai au diod va vung khuech tan, rS co tr so c vai chuc va khong ang ke so vi ien tr Rm. ien dung Cd song song vi rd, ien dung co tr gia c vai chuc pF khi cha co ien ap a vao moi noi, ien dung nay Hnh 9.11: Diod quang vi cach giam kha nhieu khi co ien ap mac ien ap quang: ien ap ngc a vao diod theo cach h mach theo quang thong bc mac ien tr quang. xa 2- Cach mac ien ap quang (photovoltaic) Khong co s phan cc do nguon ben ngoai cung cap, diod ong vai tro bien oi nang lng, tng ng mot may phat, ngi ta o ien ap h mach hoac dong ien ngan mach. ien ap h mach VCo: VCo =
Ip KT L og(1 + ) q Io
Hnh 9.12: Diod quang vi cach
ien ap h mach thay oi theo quang thong tac ong. Nguon sang yeu: Ip Io
KT I p . q Io
VCo =
mac ien ap quang: Dong ngan mach theo quang thong bc xa
ien ap VCo, trong trng hp nay rat be va tuyen tnh theo quang
288
CHNG 9
thong nhan c bi diod ( KT /q = 26mV khi T = 300 K ). Nguon sang manh: Ip Io ; VCo =
Ip KT L og( ) q Io
ien ap VCo trong trng hp nay rat quan trong (0,10,6V) nhng t le vi logarit theo quang thong nhan c. ien ap VCo co the o c trong thc te khi ien tr tai Rm co tr so rat ln so vi rd. o dong ien ngan mach ICC: Khi ta mac hai au diod vi ien tr Rm co tr gia nho hn rd, dong ien chay qua trong mach la Ip, o la dong ien ngan mach cua diod va dong ien nay t le vi quang thong tac dung. Dong ien ngan mach thay oi theo quang thong tac ong. ac tnh quan trong cua cach mac ien ap quang la do khong co ien ap phan cc nen khong co dong ien vung toi, ieu nay cho phep o nhng quang thong rat yeu. Bang tom tat ac tnh cua diod quang theo cach mac khac nhau
Tia bc xa Cach mac diod quang Nguon phan cc nghch Quang thong be Quang thong ln I r = Io + Ip I r = Ip ien dung Cd giam Cach mac ien ap quang Khong co nguon phan cc. VCo = VCo =
KT Ip . ; Icc = Ip q Io
Ip KT .Log ; Icc = Ip q Io
ien dung Cd ln
9.3.3 Dong ien vung toi cua diod quang Dong ien vung toi I o trong cach mac ien tr quang co o ln c nA nhiet o moi trng. Dong quang ien I p co o ln xap x vi I o khi tiep nhan nhng quang thong yeu trong khoang 108 en 1010 W tuy theo loai cam bien. Tuy nhien dong ien I o se gia tang nhanh khi nhiet o tang, ieu nay dan en ien ap VCo vi canh mac ien ap quang nhay vi nhiet o, he so nhiet o cua no 9.3.4 o nhay
1 dVCo vao khoang 0, 8%/ C . VCo dt
O AI LNG QUANG
289
oi vi nguon sang co thanh phan pho c xac nh, dong quang ien I p c xac nh chnh xac t le thuan vi quang thong bc xa, dong I p t le tuyen tnh vi quang thong bc xa. o nhay pho:
S( ) =
I p
q(1 R )exp ( X ) ; hC
( s )
Ro rang S( ) phu thuoc vao , vao hieu suat lng t , he so phan chieu R va he so hap thu . oi vi moi loai diod quang, o nhay pho c xac nh da tren ng cong ap ng pho S( )/S( p ) ( p la o dai song co o nhay pho cc ai) va da tren tr gia S( p ) ; S( p ) thng co tr gia trong khoang 0,1 1 A /W . S giong nhau cua bieu thc dong quang ien I p trong hai cach mac ien tr quang va ien ap quang ( I cc = I p ) dan en s giong nhau cua o nhay pho trong hai cach mac. o nhay pho chu anh hng cua nhiet o, o nhay co thay oi nho khi nhiet o gia tang, do luc nay o dai song p co o nhay pho cc ai di chuyen cham theo chieu tang, he so nhiet o cua dong quang ien vao c 0,1%/ C . 9.3.5 Thi gian ap ng S xuat hien dong quang ien rat nhanh ngay khi diod quang c chieu sang: thi gian tre t dm vao khoang 1012 giay. Tuy nhien, s tang nhanh cua dong ien c o bi thi gian len t m (hoac khi dong ien giam do khong c chieu sang ta o thi gian xuong t c ) c xac nh bi s o tng ng cua diod va mach o i kem (H.9.12bis), trong mach ien thong thng ien tr Rm c mac song song vi ien dung ky sinh C p hnh thanh do day cap chang han (H.9.12bis).
1 dI p I p dT
290
CHNG 9
Hnh 9.12bis: S o tng ng cua diod quang va mach o i kem
a) S o ay u; b) S o n gian e n gian viec tnh toan, ien tr rs co tr so thng khong ln hn c chuc ohm nen ta co the bo qua, hang so thi gian cua mach ien:
= ( Cd + C p ) rd Rm rd + Rm
do Rm
rd 1011 , ta co: = ( Cd + C p ) Rm
Hang so thi gian lien quan en t m va t c tuy thuoc vao: - Cach mac diod quang, no xac nh tr so Cd . - Tr so ien tr tai Rm . Vi diod quang 4203 (Hang Hewlett Packard) trong cach mac vi C p = 2 pF va Rm = 50 , ta co: - Vi cach mac ien tr quang: t m = t c = 2, 2 < 1ns - Vi cach mac ien ap quang: t m = t c = 2, 2 = 300ns vi cach mac ien tr quang, ien dung Cd giam do viec s dung ien ap phan cc ngc, ieu nay dan en thi gian ap ng rat ngan va chnh v vay cach mac ien tr quang c s dung cho trng hp quang thong bc xa hien dien di dang nhng xung cc ngan. 9.3.6 Mach ien i kem vi diod quang Ngi ta chon cach mac diod quang phu thuoc vao cong viec nghien cu. Cach mac ien tr quang, co nhng ac tnh: Tuyen tnh Thi gian ap ng ngan va bang thong rong
O AI LNG QUANG
291
Hnh 9.13: Cach mac diod quang
a) Cach mac c ban: Vo = Rm (1 +
R2 )I r R1
b) Cach mac co o ap ng nhanh : Vo = (R1 + R2).Ir

Cach mac ien ap quang, co ac tnh:
Hoat ong tuyen tnh hoac t le logarit tuy theo tai. Thi gian ap ng ln va bang thong hep. o nhay nhiet ln.
Hnh 9.14: Cach mac ien ap quang
a) Cach mac tuyen tnh. o dong ien ngan mach Icc: Vo = Rm.Icc b) Cach mac t le logarit. o ien ap h mach VCo:
Vo = (1 + R2 ) VCo R1
9.4 TRANSISTOR QUANG

9.4.1 Cau tao va nguyen tac hoat ong No hoat ong giong nh mot transistor thong thng la transistor silicum loai NPN, co chat ban dan cc nen c chieu sang, va thng ch co cc thu va cc phat c phan cc ngoai. Moi noi gia cc nen va thu c phan cc nghch, trong khi ien ap moi noi nen va phat khong thay oi (Vbc 0,6V 0,7V). Khi vung moi noi nen thu c chieu sang, no hoat ong giong nh mot diod quang, c mac nh mot ien tr quang co dong ien ngc: Ir = Io + Ip vi: Io - dong ien vung toi
292
CHNG 9
q(1 R )exp( X ) o : la dong quang ien do nguon quang h.C thong o xuyen qua be day cc nen X, co o dai song nho hn o dai song rieng S. Dong Ir ong vai tro dong ien cc nen va se keo theo dong ien cc thu IC cua transistor: IP =
Hnh 9.15: Transistor quang
a) Cach mac day; b) Mach tng ng c) Tach cac ien tch t do do s chieu sang cc nen IC = ( + 1). Ir = ( + 1). Io + ( + 1) IP vi: - o li cua transistor theo cach mac cc phat chung ( + 1) Io = ICo: dong ien vung toi transistor ( + 1) IP = ICP: dong ien cc thu do quang thong tao ra. Nh the ta co the bieu dien mot transistor quang la mot to hp diod quang va mot transistor. 9.4.2 Dong ien vung toi Dong ien vung toi ICo 25oC vao khoang 10 ien ap thu-phat va nhiet o.
8
en 10 A, no tuy thuoc
O AI LNG QUANG
293
9.4.3 o nhay Tiep nhan quang thong o, o dai song < S diod nen thu tao ra dong ien IP, keo theo dong ien transistor: ICP = ( + 1) IP.
I CP =
( + 1)q(1 R )exp( X ) .. o hC
Dong ien cc thu IC = f (VCE) phu thuoc IB c thay the bi quang thong o, vi o cho trc, ng cong ap ng pho c xac nh bi loai diod nen thu. Vat lieu cau tao, thng la silicium va chat dope. Vi o dai song cho trc dong ien cc thu IC khong hoan toan tuyen tnh oi vi quang thong hay chieu o, v o li tuy thuoc vao dong ien IC va hau qua o nhay IC/o tuy thuoc vao o. Chang han oi vi transistor BPW22 o nhay c 2 2 nhan vi 1,6 khi chieu o trong khoang 1mW/cm en 8mW/cm .
Hnh 9.16: Dong ien vung toi cua transistor quang thay oi theo
a) ien ap thu phat; b) Nhiet o moi noi (transistor quang BPW22) o ln cua o nhay pho phu thuoc vao o dai song. S (P) t 1 en 100 A/W. o nhay tong cong thng c xay dng da vao nguon bc xa cua ngon en co tim bang tungstene c nung nong vao khoang 2850 oK. o nhay tong cong thap hn o nhay pho va tuy thuoc vao o dai song, no giam theo nhiet o cua tim en, va cung nh o nhay pho no tuy thuoc vao quang thong tac ong.
294
CHNG 9
Hnh 9.17: a) Cac ac tuyen cua transistor quang
b) ng cong ap ng pho (transistor quang BPW22) 9.4.4 Thi gian ap ng Cac ai lng khac nhau ve thi gian ap ng co the tnh toan khi da vao s o mach tng ng Giacoletto cua transistor quang va ien tr tai Rm . Ta nhan thay: - Thi gian tre t dm , thi gian len t m , thi gian xuong t c , ca ba se giam khi dong ien cc thu tang. - t m va t c tang theo ien tr tai Rm , ieu nay cung ung vi t dm khi
Rm c k tr len.
Tuy theo loai transistor quang va tuy theo iem hoat ong, ien tr tai, cac ai lng thi gian thay oi t vai s en hang chuc s . 9.4.5 Cach mac transistor Transistor quang co the c s dung trong viec chuyen oi, hoac c s dung trong viec tuyen tnh. Trong viec chuyen oi no, thay the diod quang va cho phep dong ien tng oi ln. Trong viec tuyen tnh, nham em lai o khuech ai ln nen ngi ta thch dung no hn diod quang trong cac hoat ong tuyen tnh.
O AI LNG QUANG
295
1- Transistor quang hoat ong chuyen oi (H.9.18)
Thong tin trong trng hp nay co hai trang thai: tia bc xa hien hu hoac khong hien hu, hoac nguon sang ln hn hay khong so vi mc o nh trc. Transistor ngng dan hay bao hoa se ieu khien trc tiep, hoac sau khi khuech ai mot r le, mot cong logic, mot thyristor hoac mot triac. o nhanh cua s chuyen oi c gii han bang ien tr tai cua transistor quang, c cai thien ang ke neu nh ta thc hien tiep theo cach mac co tong tr nhap thap: Cach mac cc nen chung Bien oi dong ien-ien ap.
Hnh 9.18: S dung transistor hoat ong chuyen oi e ieu khien
a) R le; b) Mot r le sau khi khuech ai; c) Cong logic; d) Thyristor

2- Transistor hoat ong tuyen tnh (H.9.20)
Co hai loai ap dung: Viec o o sang khong oi, o transistor quang cho phep thc hien cac lux ke n gian. Tiep nhan tn hieu bien ieu di dang: (t) = o + 1(t) o bien ieu 1(t) co bien o kha be, mot mat khong lam transistor bao hoa, khong lam transistor ngng dan, mat khac, e co o nhay xem nh hang so. Trong ieu kien nay, dong ien cc thu transistor co dang: ic (t) = Ic(o) + S1(t) Transistor quang vi phan cc co nh cc nen, co li la cho phep chon iem hoat ong tuyen tnh toi u. Dong ien vung toi transistor T1 co the c gii han qua tai bang cach s dung mot transistor th hai T2 giong T1 co cung dong ien vung toi. T2 khong chieu sang nhng cung nhiet o vi T1, dong ien vung toi co gia tr
296
CHNG 9
chung va khong chay qua tai.
Hnh 9.19: Cach mac cho phep gia tang van toc chuyen oi
a) Cach mac cc nen chung; b) Bien oi dong - ap
Hnh 9.20: Transistor quang hoat ong tuyen tnh
a) S o lux ke; b) Chon iem hoat ong nh phan cc cc nen c) Giam dong ien vung toi i qua tai
9.5 CAM BIEN PHAT XA QUANG

Hieu ng quang ien co the chia lam ba loai: hieu ng ien tr quang (photoconductive), hieu ng ien ap quang (photovoltaic) va hieu ng phat xa quang (photoemissive). Trong cam bien ien tr quang, ien tr cua cam bien thay oi khi c chieu sang; trong cam bien ien ap quang, cam bien tao ra mot ien ap t le vi cng o tia bc xa. Trong cam bien phat xa quang, cam bien khi tiep nhan nguon sang se tao ra tn hieu ien do hieu ng phat xa quang: so lng cac ien t c phat xa t be mat cua am cc quang t le vi so pho-ton chieu vao am cc quang, cac ien t s cap nay tao nen dong ien am cc va:
O AI LNG QUANG
297
- Tap trung dng cc trong en quang ien chan khong. - Ion hoa cac phan t kh do s va cham trong en quang ien kh hiem. - Tao nen phat xa ien t th cap trong en nhan quang ien. 9.5.1 S phat xa quang, vat lieu phat xa quang Chung ta can phan biet ba qua trnh trong hieu ng phat xa quang: - S giai phong ien t ben trong vat lieu khi hap thu pho-ton. - S di chuyen en be mat vat lieu cua cac ien t t do. - S phat xa ien t be mat vat lieu. oi vi chat ban dan tinh khiet, s giai phong ien t ben trong vat lieu ch hien hu vi nang lng pho-ton nho hn hay bang chieu rong vung cam Eg, do vay ien t khong u nang lng e di chuyen en be mat vat lieu. S di chuyen cua ien t t do co tnh chat ngau nhien va theo moi hng: mot t le rat nho trong so o i en c be mat vat lieu, so con lai khi di chuyen nhng oan ngan se co s ung, va cham vi cac ien t khac hoac vi cac pho-ton, ieu nay lam giam nang lng cua chung. S phat xa ien t be mat vat lieu ch co the xay ra khi ien t co the vt qua rao can ien ap ngan cach gia chat ban dan va ben ngoai o chnh la ai lc ien t E a . Hieu suat lng t (so ien t trung bnh phat ra be mat vat lieu khi hap thu mot pho-ton) cua vat lieu khong bao gi vt qua 30% va thng nho hn 10%. Hieu suat lng t trong vung pho s dung la tieu ch e chon vat lieu s dung. Ngi ta thng s dung hai nhom vat lieu: - Hp kim alcalim:
AgOCs nhay vi tia hong ngoai. Cs3 Sb,
( Cs) N a2 KSb, K 2 CsSb nhay vi vung anh sang thay c va vung o dai
song ngan hn. Cs2 T e, Rb2 T e, Cs I nhay vi tia cc tm.
298
CHNG 9
- Hon hp thuoc nhom 3 va 5: c cau tao t cac phan t thuoc nhom 3 va 5 cua bang phan loai tuan hoan:
GaAsx Sb1 x , Ga1 x I n x As, I n Asx P1 x s dung trong vung hong ngoai ( 1m ) va tuy thuoc vao thanh phan hon hp (x), chung co ai lc ien t E a yeu: hieu suat lng t co the at 30%.
9.5.2. Dong ien am cc Co hai ky thuat e thc hien am cc (H.9.21): - at vat lieu phat xa quang tren mot gia bang kim loai, tat ca c at trong mot lp vo che: Cac ien t s cap se phat xa khi be mat am cc c chieu sang. - Mot lp mong (c 100A) vat lieu phat xa quang c at tren be mat ben trong lp vo che: cac ien t s cap se phat xa be mat oi dien vi be mat c chieu sang, ky thuat nay thng c s dung nhat.
Hnh 9.21: Cac cach thc hien am cc quang
a) S phat xa bi be mat chieu sang b) S phat xa bi be mat oi dien

1- Dong ien vung toi
Hieu ng nhiet ion hoa phat xa ien t cua catot la nguon goc chnh cua dong ien am cc vung toi I ko , gia tr dong ien tang theo nhiet o c xac nh bi nh luat Richardson Dushman:
I ko = ACT 2 exp[
Ws ] KT
vi: A - dien tch cua am cc quang, ( m 2 ) C - hang so: C = 1,20 106 (MKSA) Ws - Sai biet nang lng gia lo trong va mc Fermi cua vat lieu phat xa quang.
O AI LNG QUANG
299
2- o nhay
oi vi tia bc xa co o dai song ln, o nhay c xac nh bi vat lieu phat xa quang dung lam catot va no an nh hieu suat lng t. Ngc lai, oi vi song ngan no b hap thu cua lp vo hoac ca so cua cam bien va c ac trng bi he so truyen T ( ) .
Hnh 9.22: He so truyen T ( ) cua vat lieu khac nhau
qua ca so cam bien theo o dai song Nh vay to hp vat lieu phat xa quang va vat lieu lam vo xac nh ap ng pho va to hp nay c ky hieu di dang Sn .
Ky hieu Vat lieu phat xa quang Vat lieu lam vo Thuy tinh Thuy tinh Thach anh Thuy tinh Thach anh
S1 S11
S13
AgOCs Cs3Sb
Cs3Sb
S20 S23
Na2KSb(Cs ) Rb2Te
Tia bc xa co quang thong ( ) co o dai song cha ni pho-ton:

( ) ( ) = h hC nt - so hat pho-ton xuyen qua ca so i en catot: nt = T ( )ni ni =
( ) - hieu suat lng t o dai song ne - so ien t s cap phat xa moi giay bi catot, hnh thanh dong ien
am cc I k . Ta co:
q( )T ( ) ( ) hC
ne = ( t )nt ; I k = qne I k =
Ro rang dong ien am cc t le thuan vi quang thong bc xa.
300
CHNG 9
o nhay pho cua dong ien catot bao gom ca lp vo:

SK ( ) = I k q( )T ( ) = hC ( )
Hnh 9.23: o nhay cua nhng to hp vat lieu
lam vo va catot quang Hnh 9.23 cho thay s thay oi o nhay pho theo o dai song tia bc xa cua nhng to hp vat lieu khac nhau lam vo va catot quang. o nhay pho cc ai Sk ( p ) co gia tr trong khoang 10 en 100mA/W. 9.5.3 en quang ien chan khong Gom mot catot bang vat lieu phat xa quang va mot dng cc, c at ben trong mot lp vo co ca so trong suot, ap suat ben trong en vao khoang 106 108 mmHg. Hnh dang va s bo tr v tr tng oi gia cac ien cc am bao catot nhan c quang thong bc xa cc ai va dng cc thu c cac ien t phat xa t catot.
Hnh 9.24: V du ve cach thc hien cac
en quang ien chan khong
O AI LNG QUANG
301
1- Quan he dong - ap
Cach mac c ban cua en quang ien nh hnh 9.25a. S thay oi dong ien anot I a theo ien ap anot - catot Vak vi o chieu sang khac nhau c gii thieu nh hnh 9.25b. Ta nhan thay tren cac ac tuyen co hai vung: - Vung ien tch khong gian: tai ay dong ien tang theo ien ap Vak , mot phan cac ien t phat ra bi catot tao nen ien tch khong gian, ong thi ay ngc cac ien t mi phat ra ve hng catot lam gii han dong ien anot. Anh hng cua ien tch khong gian se giam khi gia tang ien ap Vak . - Vung bao hoa: tai ay dong ien phu thuoc rat t vao ien ap Vak , cac ien tch phat ra bi catot c thu nhan bi anot. Dong ien I a trong vung nay that s ch phu thuoc vao quang thong bc xa. S dung ac tuyen trong vung bao hoa, en quang ien c xem nh mot nguon dong co tr so ch phu thuoc vao quang thong nhan c.
Hnh 9.25: en quang ien chan khong
a) Cach mac c ban;

2- Dong ien vung toi
b) ac tuyen tnh
c hnh thanh t hai nguyen nhan chnh: - S phat xa ien t do hieu ng nhiet ion hoa - Dong ien ro gia cac ien cc, ieu nay co the giam thieu bi cong nghe che tao bang cach at xa cac au ra cua ien cc va tranh e en b am t. Dong ien vung toi khoang 108 1013 A .
302
3- o nhay
CHNG 9
Dong ien anot trong vung bao hoa that s bang vi dong ien catot va bieu thc o nhay pho cua en giong nh o nhay pho cua dong ien catot, ket qua la cam bien hoat ong tuyen tnh, o nhay pho cc ai co gia tr trong khoang t 10 100mA/W, he so nhiet o cua o nhay thng rat be.
4- o nhanh
Thi gian di chuyen cua ien t cang ngan khi ien ap Vak cang cao: no co the nho hn 109 giay, v vay thong thng thi gian di chuyen cua ien t khong dung e xac nh tnh nhanh cua ap ng ma ngi ta s dung hang so thi gian cua mach ien bao gom ca cam bien, co mach tng ng nh hnh 9.26.
Hnh 9.26
Hnh 9.27
S o mach ien tng ng
Mach o quang thong dang xung
Hang so thi gian cua mach = Rm C p . Thi gian len t m , thi gian xuong t c : t m = t c = 2, 2 Rm C p . Ta can lu y: - Cac en quang ien bo tr e o quang thong be s dung ien tr Rm co gia tr cao (t 1 100 M ) nham thu c hai au ien tr mot ien ap thch hp. - Cac en quang ien bo tr e o cac xung quang thong ln tao ra dong ien co tr nh ln va nh vay ien tr Rm khong can ln, th du Rm = 50 chang han. V du: en 150TV (hang RTC): Dong nh cc ai 25 A ; Rm = 1M ; Cp = 20pF; t m = t c = 44s .
O AI LNG QUANG
303
en AVHC 201 (hang RTC) o cac xung quang thong ln: Dong nh cc ai: 30A; Rm = 50 ; Cp = 30pF; t m = t c = 3, 3ns . 9.5.4 en quang ien kh hiem c cau tao giong nh en chan khong nhng ben trong en cha kh hiem, thong thng la kh argon ap suat thap t 101 en 102 mmHg. Khi ien ap dng cc u ln, cac ien t bc xa bi catot se di chuyen va va cham vao cac nguyen t kh hiem tao nen s ion hoa, ket qua dong ien dng cc se ln hn t 5 en 10 lan dong ien catot.
1- Quan he dong - ap
Khi ien ap nho hn khoang 20V, cac ng ac tuyen dong ap giong nh trng hp en chan khong, luc nay cac ien t bc xa t catot di chuyen vi van toc tng oi cham, khi va cham vi kh hiem, nang lng khong u e ion hoa cac nguyen t kh hiem, nhng khi ien ap Vak gia tang, s ion hoa kh hiem se bat au xay ra va tang nhanh khi Vak tang, ien ap Vak thng gii han mc 90 von e tranh pha huy catot quang.
Hnh 9.28: en quang ien kh hiem a) ac tuyen tnh; b) Anh hng ien ap Vak oi vi o nhay
2- Tnh chat cua en quang ien kh hiem
o nhay cua en ln hn t 5 en 10 lan so vi en chan khong va tang theo quang thong, ieu nay dan en ap ng khong tuyen tnh. Mat khac, o nhay giam theo thi gian van hanh do s di chuyen cua cac ion dng en catot lam cho catot phat xa ien t giam i. Tnh nhanh cua en b gii han do s gia tang thi gian di chuyen cua ien t v ien t b va cham va o linh ong be cua ion dng.
304
CHNG 9
ap ng khong tuyen tnh, o on nh khong cao, o la nhng ly do ngi ta khong s dung cam bien nay va thay no bang transistor quang. 9.5.5 en nhan quang ien (photomultiplier tube)
1- Nguyen tac cau tao
Khi be mat cua chat ran chu s va ap cua cac ien t co nang lng u ln, no se phat xa cac ien t: o la s phat xa th cap. Khi so ien t phat ra ln hn so ien t va ap, co the xem nh mot s khuech ai tn hieu s cap va c ng dung trong en nhan quang ien. Tn hieu s cap c hnh thanh t cac ien t phat xa di tac ong cua tia bc xa hap thu bi catot quang c at trong bau chan khong. Cac ien t se hoi tu tai ien cc th nhat cua chuoi ien cc goi la ong cc (dynode), cac ong cc c phu bi vat lieu ma hieu ng phat xa ien t th cap rat ln. ien ap cung cap cho cac ong cc c cung cap bi mot mach phan ap co ien ap tang dan theo cac ong cc lam sao cho cac ien t phat xa th cap ong cc th k se c hap thu bi ong cc th (k+1) va moi ien t se tao ra nhieu ien t th cap.
Hnh 9.29: S o nguyen tac en nhan quang ien
Neu moi ien t khi ap vao ong cc se tao ra trung bnh ien t th cap, vi n ong cc ma hieu ien ap gia hai ien cc ke nhau la bang nhau th dan en so ien t phat xa th cap bi n ong cc gay ra bi mot ien t la: M = n .
O AI LNG QUANG
305
That ra, tat ca cac ien t phat xa bi catot se khong i en ong cc th nhat mot cach ay u: neu goi t la gia tr hieu dung di chuyen, bieu thc o li M c viet lai:
M = c ( t )n
vi: n - so ong cc, thng t 5 15.
- he so phat xa th cap, co tr gia t 5 10.

c , t - gia tr hieu dung tap hop va di chuyen thng ln hn 90%.
o li M cua en nhan quang ien t 106 108 . o li M phu thuoc nhieu vao s phat xa ien t th cap, o la l do v sao trong en nhan quang ien ngi ta chon vat lieu co phat xa th cap ln nh ta a biet: Cs3 Sb, K 2CsSb , N a2 K CsSb , GaP( Cs ) , AgOMg, BeOCu
(Cs ) .
Hnh 9.30: He so phat xa th cap
theo nang lng ien t s cap

2- Cach mac c ban
Viec thc hien mach o s dung en nhan quang ien can thiet: - Xac nh mach ien cung cap cho cac ong cc (H.9.31). - Xac nh ien tr tai Rm .
Hnh 9.31: Mach ien cung cap cho cac
ong cc en nhan quang ien
306
CHNG 9
Mach ien cung cap cho cac ong cc: dung e cung cap cho cac ong cc cac ien ap thch hp, cau tao bi mot mach chiet ap c cung cap bi ien ap cao VH T , ien ap sai biet gia cac ien cc tuy thuoc vao loai en va tuy thuoc vao o li, no co the thay oi t vai chuc en vai tram von. Tuy nhien, ien ap Vkd1 gia catot va ong cc th nhat phai c an nh chnh xac bi anh hng cua no en gia tr hieu dung di chuyen cua ien t phat xa catot cung nh t le gia dong ien va quang thong bc xa, chnh v vay ien ap nay can on nh nh mot diod Zener. Dong ien I trong mach chiet ap thng phai ln hn nhieu so vi dong ien anot trung bnh I a nham e am bao ien ap cung cap cho cac ong cc cung nh o li cua en khong b anh hng bi dong ien mach vong cua cac ong cc tao ra bi s phat xa th cap. Ngi ta thng chon I > 100 I a , I co tr gia trong khoang 0,1 1mA. iem chung (mass) cua mach o co the at canh anot hoac catot. Trong trng hp at canh anot, tn hieu ien lay t ien tr tai co the cung cap trc tiep cho mach o pha sau, cach mac nay thch hp e o nguon sang co s thay oi rat cham.
Hnh 9.32: Cac loai ket noi ien tr tai khac nhau
a) Ket noi trc tiep; b) Ket noi tu ien; c) Bien oi dong - ap.
O AI LNG QUANG
307
Trong trng hp iem mass at gan catot, ien tr tai c ngan cach vi mach o pha sau bi mot tu ien, cach mac nay co li trong trng hp quang thong thay oi nhanh, ngi ta nhan thay viec at iem mass gan catot se lam giam nhng dao ong dong ien vung toi. ien ap cao (HT) thng co tr so trong khoang t 700V en 3000V, an nh o li M va v vay can on nh, ta co:
dVH T dM =n M VH T
n la so lng ong cc, vi n = 10 e o li M co o on nh 1%, ien ap cao VH T can co o on nh la 0,1%.

3- Dong ien anot vung toi
Dong ien anot vung toi I ao tng ng vi trng hp khong co quang thong bc xa, no co nguon goc: - S phat xa ien t do hieu ng nhiet ion hoa catot tao nen dong ien catot vung toi I ko - Cac dong ien ro xuat hien gia cac ien cc, co the giam thieu cac dong ien ro xuong mc o khong ang ke bang cach tranh e en b am t. Trong ieu kien nh vay ta co: I ao = M I ko Dong ien vung toi I ao phu thuoc vao: - Giong nh o li M, phu thuoc vao ien ap cao HT va ien ap gia cac ong cc. - Giong nh dong ien I ko , phu thuoc vao nhiet o catot, vi viec lam lanh 20C thong thng cho phep giam dong ien I ko t 10 100 lan so vi nhiet o moi trng.
4- o nhay
Ta co:
I a = MI k
o nhay M tuy thuoc vat lieu phu cac ong cc, s bo tr va so lng cac ong cc, ien ap cao VH T .
Ik = q( )T ( ) q( )T ( ) ( ) ( ) I a = M ( VH T ) hc hc
308
CHNG 9
Hnh 9.33: o li M theo ien ap cao
va theo so ong cc Trong o lng dong I a khong vt qua mot gia tr cc ai nh trc o li M oc lap oi vi I a va ac tnh cua en nhan quang ien th tuyen tnh, o nhay pho anot Sa ( ) c tnh:
Sa ( ) = I a q( )T ( ) = M ( VH T ) hc ( )
Sa ( ) = M ( VH T )Sk ( )
vi Sk ( ) la o nhay pho catot. Thong thng cac ai lng tren co tr so nh sau: M: t 105 108
Sk ( p ) : t 10 100mA/W Sa ( p ) : t 103 107 A/W

en nhan quang ien co o nhay ln nen c dung trong viec o nguon sang yeu. S thay oi theo nhiet cua o nhay ve o ln va ve dau tuy thuoc vao vat lieu lam catot va o dai song vao khoang 0,1% 1%/ C . e o ai lng quang mot cach chnh xac, en nhan quang ien c bo tr lam the nao e co c nhiet o on nh.
5- Thi gian ap ng
Tnh nhanh cua en nhan quang ien c xac nh bi thi gian di chuyen cua cac ien t gia catot, cac ong cc, anot. oi vi cau truc cac ong cc cho trc, thi gian di chuyen trung bnh gia catot va anot tuy thuoc
O AI LNG QUANG
309
vao gia tr ien ap VH T :
Ttr =
ha n g so VH T
vi Ttr thng co tr so t 10 100ns S o mach ien tng ng cua en nhan quang ien va ien tr tai Rm nh hnh 9.34.
Hnh 9.34: S o tng ng cua en nhan quang ien
va ien tr tai Rm
vi: I a - dong ien anot
Rd - ien tr noi cua en nhan quang ien, Rd > 1012

Cp - ien dung ky sinh gia anot va mass. Trong trng hp Rm
Rd , hang so thi gian cua mach ien
= Rm C p , ta co:
' : t' Thi gian len t m ' va thi gian xuong t c m = t' c = 2, 2 Rm C p
' = t 'c = 0, 5ns . Vi Rm = 50 , Cp = 10 F t m

Vi so lieu tren cho thay viec s dung ien tr tai Rm tng oi nho la ieu co the c do o nhay cao cua en nhan quang ien, ieu nay cho phep lam giam hang so thi gian cua mach ien.
310
CHNG 10
Chng
10
DAO ONG KY, TIA AM CC VA MAY GHI X-Y

10.1 ONG PHONG IEN T (CRT)
10.1.1 Cac bo phan trong CRT (cathode ray tube) Tim en F: Dung e ot nong catot cua CRT, ien the ot tim en la 6,3 VAC. Catot C: be mat co phu mot lp oxit kim loai khi tiep thu nhiet nang se bc xa ien t (hien tng nhiet phat xa). Li ieu khien: Co dang cai ly bang nikel, co mot lo e cho chum ien t qua, li ieu khien nay bao quanh catot. ien the phan cc gia catot va li se tao ra ien trng ieu khien so ien t c phep ra khoi li. Khi VGK (ien the gia li va catot) cang am th so ien t thoat ra khoi li cang t, neu VGK at en ien the ngng dan th chum tia ien t khong thoat ra c khoi li. Ban cc gia toc A1 (H.10.1) co nhiem vu lam tang toc cho chum tia ien t, ban cc nay co dang hnh tru, mot au h hng chum tia ien t i vao, mot au kn ch cha mot lo nho tai tam cho chum tia ien t tap trung lai va i qua. A2 A3: Hai ban cc nay phoi hp vi ban cc A1 tao thanh he thong thau knh ien t (H.10.2). Do s phan cc ien ap khac nhau gia A1, A2 va A2, A3 chung ta co lc tnh ien tac ong len chum tia ien t, lc tac ong nay phu thuoc vao cac ng ang the. Cac s phan cc ien ap nay thay oi th cac ng ang the thay oi se tao ra s thay oi o hoi tu cua chum tia ien t.
311
Hnh 10.1: Ong phong tia ien t CRT
Hnh 10.2: He thong thau knh hoi tu chum tia ien t
dung tnh ien Ban lech doc va ban lech ngang: Khi chum tia ien t i qua ban lech doc hoac lech ngang, th ien trng gia hai ban cc nay se lai chum tia ien t lech theo chieu doc va chieu ngang bang lc tnh ien (ieu nay khac vi s lech chum tia ien t cua en hnh trong ti vi bang lc ien t, ngha la co cuon day lech thay cho ban cc lech). o lech cua chum tia ien t theo chieu doc hoac ngang phu thuoc vao ien ap gia hai ban cc.
V du 10.1: Ban cc lech doc co hai au, mot au ien ap ( + E / 2) mot au
ien ap ( E / 2) (H.10.3), th khi o ien ap gia hai ban cc la E ve pha tren, do o chum tia ien t b keo lech ve pha tren.
312
CHNG 10
Hnh 10.3: S keo lech chum tia ien t
Con neu ien ap ( E / 2) ban lech tren va ( + E / 2) ban lech di th chum tia ien t b keo ve pha di. o lech tia c xac nh:
d = VL l / 2DVA1
trong o: V - ien ap gia hai ban cc L - chieu dai cua ban cc l - khoang cach t ban cc en man anh huynh quang D - khoang cach gia hai ban cc VA1 - ien ap at vao ban cc so vi mass. Thong thng o lech c xac nh tren man anh n v (1V/cm). Do o o nhay S c xac nh:
S( vo n / cm ) = V ( vo n ) 2 DVA1 = d ( cm ) lL
V du 10.2: D = 1cm; l = 2cm, L = 15cm va ien ap gia A1 va catot bang 50V.
Do o o nhay cua o lech:
S( V cm ) =
2 1cm 50V 100 = ( V/ cm) 30 2cm 15cm
Gia hai ban cc lech doc va lech ngang cua dao ong ky co mot ban chan noi mass e ngan cach anh hng ien trng cua hai ban lech doc va lech ngang lan nhau. Man huynh quang: mat trong cua man anh ong CRT c phu mot lp phat quang, tuy theo vat lieu cua lp phat quang nay ma tia sang phat ra khi chum tia ien t ap vao man anh huynh quang se co mau khac nhau:
313
Chat phat quang (Zn2SiO4 va Mn): cho mau xanh la Chat phat quang muoi sulfuric cadnium: cho mau vang. Lp than ch xung quanh ong canh man anh thu nhan cac ien t phat xa th cap (cac ien t ap vao man anh doi tr lai). Do o ien the am khong tch tu lai tren man anh. ien ap phan cc cho anot co tr so rat ln vao khoang kV (103V) no rat manh (tang toc) cho chum tia ien t ap manh vao man huynh quang. Cac vong ien tr hnh xoay oc ben ngoai c noi mass se lam cho cac ien tch tu, do ien trng ln gia catot va anot b trung hoa ien tch. 10.1.2 S phan cc cho cac bo phan CRT
Hnh 10.4: Mach phan cc cua ong phong tia am cc
ien the phan cc cho li, v du: 2 kV (Vg), khi thay oi bien tr P1 ien the VGK thay oi VK = 1950V. Nh vay VGK < 0 anh hng en s phong ien t ra khoi li. Vay P1 ieu chnh o sang cho chum tia ien t.
314
CHNG 10
Bien tr P2 thay oi ien trng cho cac ban cc hoi tu A1, A2, A3 nh a e cap tren, phan hoi tu chum tia ien t. Bien tr P3 dung e thay oi ien the gia hai ban cc lech doc. V du con chay cua bien tr P3 dch chuyen ve pha trai th ien ap Y1 tang so vi ien ap Y2, tia sang (chum tia ien t) b keo lech ve pha tren (pha Y1). Con neu con chay lech ve pha phai, ien the Y1 giam dan so vi Y2, chum tia ien t keo lech ve pha di (Y2). Khi con chay gia bien tr P3 hieu ien ap gia Y1, Y2 bang khong, chum tia ien t khong b keo lech ve pha nao. Bien tr P4 dung e thay oi chum tia ien t theo chieu ngang (ly luan nh phan ieu khien tia sang quet doc) Bien tr P4: co nhiem vu thay oi ien ap ban cc phu e ieu chnh o lech cua chum tia ien t do t trng nhieu tao ra.
10.2 CAC KHOI CHC NANG TRONG DAO ONG KY

10.2.1 Tong quat (H.10.5)
Hnh 10.5: Cac khoi chc nang trong dao ong ky
Nguon cung cap tao ra ien ap mot chieu anot (vao khoang vai kV) cho li, catot, cc gia toc va tat ca ien the DC cho cac mach ien trong dao ong ky. Khoi khuech ai tn hieu ieu khien chum tia ien t quet theo chieu doc .
315
Khoi tao tn hieu rang ca lam chuan thi gian cho truc X cua man anh dao ong ky Khoi khuech ai tn hieu ieu khien chum tia ien t quet theo chieu ngang . Khoi tao tn hieu xung kch cho s ong bo hoa, ieu khien chum tia ien t quet doc va ngang e cho hnh anh hien th tren man anh ng yen (ngha la phai co s phoi hp ong bo cho s ieu khien quet doc va quet ngang cua chum tia ien t) 10.2.2 Khoi khuech ai quet doc (H.10.6)
Hnh 10.6: Mach khoi khuech ai quet doc
Tn hieu vao thanh o (prope) c a qua mach phan tam o (mach giam - attenuator network) e tn hieu a vao mach tien khuech ai preamplifier) ay la mach khuech ai ien ap nh phan von-ke ien t. Ngo vao cua mach phan tam o co khoa S1 cho hai cach ghep: Ghep trc tiep DC (direct coupling), tn hieu DC va AC eu c a vao. Ghep gian tiep AC (alternative coupling) ch cho tn hieu DC vao. Con v tr O khoa S1 noi mass khong co tn hieu vao. Tuy theo v tr cua nut thay oi tam o (theo n v Volt/Div), mach giam co khoa S2 v tr tng ng. Sau o tn hieu a vao mach khuech ai vi sai (Q2, Q3) co mach khuech ai theo ien ap (mach khuech ai em) Q1, Q4. Cuoi cung tn hieu C2, C3 (VC2 VC3) c a vao mach khuech ai cong suat (main frame amplifier). ien ap hai au ra cua mach khuech ai cong suat a vao hai ban cc lech doc (ket hp vi ien ap DC co san cua ban cc lech doc).
316
CHNG 10
Hnh 10.7: Mach phan tam o va mach khuech ai ien ap
10.2.3 Khoi khuech ai quet ngang (H.10.8)
Hnh 10.8: Mach khoi khuech ai quet ngang
Khoi khuech ai quet ngang giong nh khoi khuech ai quet doc. Ngoai ra tn hieu vao co hai cach phu thuoc vao v tr cua khoa S2. Neu khoa S2 v tr EXT, tn hieu quet ngang c a t ngoai vao. Neu S2 v tr INT th tn hieu quet dang rang ca t mach tao tn hieu quet rang ca (sweep generator) c a vao.
317
10.3 TRNH BAY TN HIEU TREN MAN ANH CUA DAO ONG KY
10.3.1 S phoi hp cua tn hieu y = f(t) va x = Kt e trnh bay tn hieu can quan sat tren man anh tn hieu quan sat c a vao ngo quet doc (vertical input) con tn hieu song rang ca mach tao tn hieu quet a vao ngo quet ngang (horizontal input). Tn hieu dang rang ca nay con c goi la tn hieu chuan thi gian (time base). Nh vay canh len cua tn hieu quet ngang la ng thang t le theo thi gian t: X = Kt He so K co the thay oi c khi thay oi tan so cua tn hieu quet dang rang ca. Cho nen khi tn hieu vao, gia s la tn hieu sin, co bieu thc: y = Asi n t Khi o tn hieu c bieu dien tren man anh:
Y = A si n ( x/K )
Nh vay s phoi hp gia hai tn hieu Hnh 10.9: S bieu th hnh quet doc va quet ngang cua hnh 10.9a,b se sin tren man anh cho hnh 10.9c bieu dien hnh anh cua tn a) au vao dao ong doc hieu tren man anh. b) au vao dao ong 10.3.2 S ong bo hoa gia hai tn hieu quet doc va quet ngang canh len OA cua tn hieu quet dang rang ca the hien hnh 10.9b se cho tn hieu sin xuat hien tren man anh en iem so 9. Sau o trong thi gian canh xuong AB cua tn hieu quet rang ca, chum tia ien t c quet ngang tr lai. Nhng trong luc chum tia ien t quay tr ve th tn hieu quan sat van tiep tuc hien hu theo thi gian. Do o dan en iem bat au chu ky quet th hai cua tn hieu khao sat khong cung tai v tr cua lan quet th nhat (v du lan quet th nhat (H.10.9c) bat au tai so (1) nhng lan quet th hai tai iem khac). Nh vay chung ta co hien tng tn hieu quan sat tren man anh chay (nhanh hoac cham) tren man anh. o la hien tng khong ong bo cua tn
318
CHNG 10
hieu quet ngang va doc. Trong thi gian chum tia ien t quay tr ve th canh xuong cua tn hieu quet rang ca i vao mach xoa ng hoi (blanking), se tao ra ien the li VGK rat am e cho khong co tn hieu quet ngang cua chum tia ien t xuat hien tren man hnh trong thi gian nay.
Hnh 10.10: S o khoi cua mach quet tn hieu rang ca
co s ieu khien e cho tn hieu quan sat va tn hieu rang ca co cung v tr khi au moi lan quet, th tn hieu rang ca khong c t do xuat hien ma phai xuat hien khi co xung kch ma xung kch co tan so phu thuoc vao tn hieu quan sat nh trnh bay cua s o khoi hnh 10.10. Tn hieu quan sat c qua mach khuech ai trigger (trigger amplifier) tuy theo cach lay ngo ra se co tn hieu Vo1 va Vo2 trai pha. Sau o c a
319
vao mach kch Schmitt, mach vi phan (differentiator), mach xen (clipper). ay la khoi ong bo hoa cho tn hieu quet rang ca e cho tn hieu rang ca xuat phat cung tai v tr khi au cua tn hieu quan sat phan quet doc (H.10.11)
Hnh 10.11: Tn hieu quet rang ca c ong bo
vi tn hieu sin quan sat Hnh 10.11a: e the hien mot chu ky tn hieu sin tren man anh cua dao ong ky, th tn hieu xung kch (gai am) phai xuat hien trc khi canh len cua tn hieu quet rang ca at en mc kch tren cua mach kch schmitt ngay tai v tr cuoi cua chu ky cua tn hieu sin khao sat. ieu nay lam cho canh cua tn hieu quet ot ngot giam ve 0. e bat au quet cho chu ky tn hieu sin ke tiep cho iem bat au giong nh trc. Nh vay s hoat ong cua tn hieu quet rang ca c ieu khien bang xung kch (gai am), ong thi khi o tai canh xuong cua tn hieu rang ca cung lam cho mach xoa ng hoi (blanking) tao ra ien ap VGK rat am e khong co chum tia ien t xuat hien tren man anh (H.10.12).
320
CHNG 10
Hnh 10.12: a) Tn hieu khong co mach xoa ng hoi
b) Tn hieu co mach xoa Con hnh 10.11b la s the hien hai chu ky cua tn hieu sin, thi iem bat au chu ky th hai cua tn hieu sin nh co mach hold-off (khong cho tn hieu xung kch xuat hien) tai v tr nay cua xung rang ca, cho nen tn hieu rang ca tiep tuc quet ngang e cho chu ky th hai cua tn hieu sin c xuat hien tren man anh. Cho en khi tn hieu rang ca at gan en mc tren cua mach kch th xung kch (gai am) xuat hien e tn hieu rang ca co canh xuong va lam cho tn hieu quet tr lui. iem bat au cua tn hieu quan sat tren man anh phu thuoc vao ien ap ra cua mach khuech ai ien ap kch (triggering amplifier) ien ap ra nay c ieu chnh bi bien tr R10 nh hnh 10.13. Khi ien ap ra co tr so gan bang mc kch tren cua mach kch schmitt th iem bat au xuat hien cua tn hieu sin mc 0.
Hnh 10.13: S thay oi ien the DC cho mc kch
e ieu xung xung kch
321
Hnh 10.13b: Khi ien ap ra cach xa mc kch tren cua mach kch schmitt th iem bat au cua tn hieu quan sat xuat hien mc cao hn, phu thuoc vao khoang cach cua hai mc nay.
10.4 DAO ONG KY HAI KENH

10.4.1 Tong quat e co the cung luc quan sat c hai tn hieu khao sat tren man anh, ngi ta thc hien dao ong ky hai kenh (hoac nhieu kenh). Trc het, cai tien ong phong tia ien t (CRT).
Hnh 10.14: Ong phong ien t co hai tia sang
xuat hien tren man anh Co hai loai: - Loai hai catot phat ra hai chum tia ien t (dual beam) (H.10.14a) - Loai mot catot phat ra mot chum tia ien t nh khoa chuyen oi ien t thc hien tuan t chum tia ien t c quet doc moi kenh (do tan so chuyen mach ln hn tan so lu anh cua mat cho nen chung ta thay c hai hnh anh cua hai kenh tren cung mot man anh). Nh vay mach khuech ai quet doc se co hai mach cho moi kenh. Tn hieu quet ngang tuan t phoi hp vi tn hieu moi kenh A va B theo hnh 10.16.
322
CHNG 10
Hnh 10.15: S o khoi dao ong ky
Hnh 10.16: S trnh bay tn hieu hai kenh tren man anh
323
chu ky th nhat tn hieu quet ngang phoi hp vi tn hieu sin cho kenh A. chu ky th hai cua tn hieu quet ngang phoi hp vi tn hieu dang rang ca cua kenh B (H.10.16c). Ket qua hai tn hieu hai kenh cung xuat hien tren man anh.
10.5 THANH O (PROBE) CUA DAO ONG KY

Thanh o cua dao ong ky co hai mc thay oi ien ap. - Mc ien ap 1: 1 - Mc ien ap 10: 1. ien dung Cc - ien dung ky sinh cua day dan. Ci - ien dung ngo vao quet doc. Ri - ien tr vao cua ngo quet doc. trong trng hp nay tong tr vao cua ngo quet doc:
Z i = [ Cc + Ci ] // Ri
Trng hp thanh o co bo giam 10:1 (H.10.18). Trong thanh o co ien tr R1, tu C1, Cs (thay oi) Cc khi co ien ap vao V1 cua ngo vao quet doc Vi :
Vi = V1
at: C2 = Cs + Cc + Ci.
Vi = V1
[( Cc + Cs + Ci )// Ri ] [ C1 // R1 ][( Cs + Cc + Ci )// Ri ]

1 ( C1 // R1 ) 1+ ( C2 // Ri )
C2 // Ri = V1 ( C1 // R1 ) + ( C2 // R1 )
do o e thanh o co: Vi = V1 th: Ngha la: hoac:

C1 // R1 =9 C2 // Ri Ri R1 =9 1 + j C1 R1 1 + j C2 Ri R1 1 + j C1 R1 =9 1 + j C2 Ri Ri
324
CHNG 10
Nh vay e cho tn hieu ngo vao quet doc giam i 10 lan va khong phu thuoc vao tan so tn hieu th phai thoa them ieu kien sau: C1 R1 = C2 Ri , khi o R1 = 9Ri
Hnh 10.17: Thanh o khong co giam ap
Hnh 10.18: Thanh o co giam ap 10:1
n g bi e t ); Ci =10pF; V du 10.3: R1 = 9 M ; C1 =10pF; Ri = 2M ; Cc (kho

Cs la tu ien thay oi (co tr so ln nhat 100pF), suy ra muon cho mach o la bo giam 10:1 va khong phu thuoc tan so tn hieu th:
R1C1 = Ri .C2
C2 = Cc +Cs +Ci = R1C1 9 M 10 pF = Cs + Cc + 10pF = 90pF = 1M Ri
Suy ra:
Cs + Cc = 80 pF
Khi o neu Cc trong khoang t 1pF en 80pF th chung ta thay oi c Cs e thoa ieu kien tren. Trong trng hp Cc > 80pF th phai thay oi C1 cho phu hp. Gia s Cc = 100pF, th C1 phai thay tr so ln hn (v du C1 = 15pF). Khi o: Cs + 100pF = (135pF 10pF); ieu chnh: Cs = 25pF. Khi a tn hieu xung vuong vao, se co anh hng en dang cua tn hieu tu C1 va C2 nh a noi tren. Neu tn hieu xung vuong xuat hien tren man anh co dang hnh 10.19a.
325
Hnh 10.19: Cac dang tn hieu xung vuong ap ng
vi tn hieu xung vuong a vao ngo quet doc ap ng cua mach RC ngo vao cua dao ong ky khong thch hp vi tan so cao (bo chnh tan so yeu). Khi o chung ta ieu chnh Cs e tn hieu xung vuong co dang nh hnh 10.19c (bo chnh tan so ung). Neu tn hieu xuat hien co dang nh hnh 10.19b mach RC ap ng qua mc oi vi canh len va xuong cua xung. Chung ta phai ieu chnh tu Cs e co ap ng nh dang hnh 10.19c.
10.6 BO TAO TRE

oi vi tn hieu khao sat co tan so cao, e cho van toc bay cua chum tia ien t catot en ban lech doc hoac lech ngang, phu hp vi toc o truyen cua tn hieu t ngo vao en ban cc lech doc hoac lech ngang, ngi ta thng cho tn hieu i qua bo tao tre (v toc o truyen tn hieu ln hn van toc bay cua ien t). Bo tao tre thng co hai dang loai day song hanh hoac day ong truc, co hai dang mach nh sau:
Hnh 10.20: Mach tao tre
Khi tn hieu i qua mot mach LC, no se co thi gian tre la:
326
CHNG 10
t ( s) = L C
{ L (H ), C(F)}
Khi o tn hieu i qua n bo se co thi gian tre: T = nt Va ien tr tai R =
L C e co s ieu hp tong tr, giup cho cong
suat tn hieu ra khong b suy giam.

V du 10.4: T = 0, 25 sec; n=11bo ; R= 600. Xac nh t, tr so L va C Giai: Thi gian tre cua 1 bo t = 0, 25 106 /11 sec
Do o Suy ra
L C = 0, 25 106 /11 sec va R 2 =L /C = 6002 L = 6002 C ; C 2 6002 = ( 0, 25 106 )/11 sec C=
0, 25 106 2500 = 1012 11 600 66
C = 37,87pF # 38pF
L = 36 104 38 1012 # 13, 68H

Loai day ong truc. Khi tn hieu truyen qua day co thi gian tre t ( s) =
1m V ( m /s)
V: toc o truyen tn hieu, vi V = 1/ L C , L, C la ien cam va ien dung cua cap ong truc.
1- Loi polyetilene 2- Day kim loai xoan oc 3- Lp cach ien 4- Day dan ngoai 5- Vo boc bao ve
Hnh 10.21: Cau tao cua day ong truc V du 10.5: Cap ong truc co L = 10H ; C = 40pF. Xac nh t Giai: Thi gian tre t cua tn hieu truyen qua day
t = 1/V = 1/(1/ L C ) = L C = 4 106 = 2 108 sec = 0, 02 sec

Do o toc o truyen tn hieu: V =
1
LC
1 2 10
8
= 0, 5 108 m /s
327
10.7 NG DUNG CUA DAO ONG KY

10.7.1 o bien o va chu ky o bien o: Phu thuoc vao nut phan tam o (theo n v Volt/Div).
V du 10.6: Nh hnh 10.22 bien o nh cua cac tn hieu:
A : VA = 450mV (p-p); B : VB = 200mV(p-p) o chu ky: phu thuoc vao nut chu ky cua tn hieu quet rang ca (n v sec /di v) . Chu ky cua tn hieu A:
2TA = 8, 8di v 0,5 msec/di v = 4,4msec TA = 2, 2m sec

Chu ky cua tn hieu B: VA = (4,5DIV) 100mV/DIV; VB = (2DIV) 100mV/DIV 2TA = (8,8DIV) 0,5ms/DIV; 6TA = (8,8DIV) 0,5ms/DIV
Hnh 10.22: Cach tnh bien o va chu ky cua tn hieu quan sat
6TB = 8,8div 0,5msec/div = 4,4msec
TB = 4, 4 m sec / 6 = 0,73m sec
328
CHNG 10
10.7.2 o s lech pha gia hai tn hieu (H.10.23)
Hnh 10.23: Cach tnh s lech pha gia hai tn hieu A va B
Tn hieu A va B co s lech pha c tnh theo truc thi gian:

t /T = 1, 4 di v/ 8di v = 0,7/ 4 ma T = 2 radian = 360 suy ra goc lech pha
tng ng vi t :
t 0,7 360 = 360 = 63 T 4
Dung hnh Lissajous e o s chenh lech pha gia hai tn hieu (H.10.24). Tn hieu A a vao ngo quet doc, tn hieu B a vao ngo quet ngang. A, B cung pha: hnh Lissajous la ng thang (H.10.24c). A, B trai pha (H.10.24d) A, B lech pha 90 (H.10.24e). A, B lech pha bat ky hnh elip (H.10.24f, g). sin = 2 B 2 A
329
Hnh 10.24: Dung hnh Lissajous e o s lech pha
gia hai tn hieu
330
CHNG 10
V du: 2A = 6div, 2B = 4div, sin = 2 3 (trng hp hnh elip ve pha phai).
= 418
= 1318 (trng hp elip ve pha trai)
Hnh 10.25: Cach tnh tr, tf
10.7.3 o thi gian len tr cua xung: theo nh ngha t 10% bien o en 90 % bien o
t r = 0, 5di v 5s/di v = 2, 5 sec

Va thi gian xuong t f = 0, 6di v 5sec = 3sec Con toc o ap ng cua xung canh len.
V 3, 6di v 2V /di v = = 2,9vo n /sec tr 2, 5 sec

10.7.4. Ve ac tuyen V-I cua linh kien ien t Ve ac tuyen Id = f(Vd) (H.10.26a) Mach c phan cc bi tn hieu rang ca hoac tn hieu sin, ien ap hai au ien tr R1 vao ngo doc Y, co ien ap hai au diod a vao ngo quet ngang X (iem 0 noi mass cua dao ong ky). ac tuyen Id = f(Vd) c xuat hien tren man anh dao ong ky (H.10.26b)
331
d)
Hnh 10.26: Mach ve ac tuyen Id = f(Vd) va Ic = f(VCE)
cua diod va transistor a) Mach ve ac tuyen V - I cua diod b) ac tuyen V - I cua diod tren man hnh dao ong ky c) Mach ve ac tuyen VCF - IC cua transistor BJI theo thong so IB d) ac tuyen VCF - IC tren man hnh dao ong ky Ve ac tuyen IC = f(VCE). Cc nen c phan cc bi ien ap mot chieu VR thay oi, A- ke theo doi dong phan cc IB. ien ap cua tn hieu rang ca c cung cap cho cc C-E cua transistor (co the cung cap bi tn hieu sin nhng phai mac noi tiep vi diod chnh lu ban ky dng cung cap cho mach).
332
CHNG 10
10.8 VON KE T GHI KET QUA (Voltmeter Recorder)

Nguyen ly hoat ong: Dung phng phap o ien ap bang bien tr t can bang (self balancing potentiometer) (xem hnh 10.27).
Hnh 10.27: Mach nguyen ly cua may ve X - Y
Vc = Vi KE 0 se c khuech ai bi A, ieu khien ong c servo M

quay theo chieu kim ong ho neu V > 0 hoac quay ngc lai neu V < 0 , qua he thong truyen ong c hoc se lam dch chuyen con chay cua bien tr o lng R v e ieu chnh ien ap KE cho en khi V = 0 th ong c dng lai. ong thi cung lam dch chuyen but ghi ket qua o Vi tren bang giay. S o khoi cua von ke t ghi ket qua o: S o khoi c dien ta bi hnh 10.28 Von ke t ghi co ac iem nh sau: - ap ng vi nhng tn hieu Vi thay oi co tan so thap (do ap ng tan so cua he thong c hoc). - S tuyen tnh phu thuoc vao o tuyen tnh cua bien tr o lng. - o c nhng ien ap khoang millivon (millivon-ke t ghi), khong phu thuoc vao noi tr cua nguon ien ap o.
333
Hnh 10.28: Von-ke t ghi ket qua tren giay theo thi gian
10.9 MAY GHI TREN HE TRUC X - Y (X - Y recorder)
Hnh 10.29: S o khoi cua may ghi X Y
May ghi X - Y gom co hai khoi hoat ong tren nguyen ly bien tr t can bang. But ghi V di chuyen trt tren thanh H khi ien ap vao X thay oi. Thanh H di chuyen theo tn hieu vao Y trt tren thanh S. Ham truyen cua tn hieu y theo x c but ghi ve tren giay kho A4 at tren ban ve D.
334
E THI
PHU LUC 1. E THI KY THUAT O - LP DD 96 HOC KY 2/99 Cau 1: a) Giai thch tai sao phai dung he so dang kf va he so nh kp trong von-ke ien t o ien ap A.C.? b) Cho biet quan he tn hieu ra cua mach tch phan hai o doc trong bien oi A/D cua von-ke ch th so theo ien ap o VIN, ien ap chuan Er, thi gian nap t1 va thi gian xa t2 ? Cau 2: a) Cho biet s chnh xac cua phan t o dung cau o phu thuoc vao yeu to g cua cac phan t trong cau o?
Hnh 1
b) Vi mach cau o hnh 1, hay tnh Lx, Rx va Q cua cuon day can o theo cac phan t con lai cua cau khi cau can bang. Cau 3: Ve mach o cong suat tac dung, cong suat phan khang va cos cho tai ba pha dung watt-ke ba pha, var-ke ba pha loai 2,5 phan t va Cos -ke ba pha ket hp vi bien dong. Phan t chon (SV lam phan A hoac B) Phan A Cau 4a: Cho mot von-ke ien ong co thang o DC va AC trung nhau tai tan so fo a) Hay ve mach tng ng cho von-ke tren b) Tnh sai so tng oi VAC VDC VAC 100% theo cac thanh phan tng ng R va L khi o ien ap AC tai tan so f1. c) Ap dung khi fo = 50Hz; f1 = 1kHz; L = 100mH; R = 1k .
335
Cau 5a: Cho mach o nh hnh 2
Hnh 2
a) Xac nh R, Zi (tong tr vao). b) Tr so tam o V2, V3, khi tam o V1=0,1V, R1= 900k , R2 = 90k ,
R3 = 10k ; IFS = 50A ; RG = 1k

Phan B Cau 4b: Ngi ta o mot ien tr co tr so danh nh la 20k bang von va ampe theo hai cach re dai va re ngan. Vi ampe co: noi tr RA = 1 ; von-ke co thang o 0 50V va o nhay 20k / V . a) Hay tnh gia tr ien tr o c t hai cach tren theo so ch cua von va ampe. b) Tnh gia tr sai so tng oi phan tram cua hai so lieu o tren. T o hay cho biet nen dung cach o nao th phu hp? Cau 5b: Cho mach o dong nh hnh 3. Biet rang khung quay t ien co IFS = 50A ,
RG = 2k ; VD ( RM S ) = 2 2 (V); I 1 ( RM S ) = 1, 00005 2 (A); I 2 ( RM S ) = 3, 00015 2 (A). Tn hieu o co k p = k f = 2.

a) Hay ve dang cua dong ien can o. b) Tnh cac tr so cua ien tr R1 va R2 theo tr hieu dung cua cac dong ien cho tren hnh 3. c) Neu dong ien o co dang sin th cac thang o mi se la bao nhieu neu cac ien tr nh cau b.
336
E THI
Hnh 3
2. E THI KY THUAT O - K95 NAM HOC 97-98 Cau 1: Cho biet nguyen ly hoat ong cua may o ien tr at dung t so ke t ien (H.1). Trong thc te dong I1, I2 va dong qua ien tr at la dong DC hay AC. ien ap E1, E2 la DC hay AC. Nh vay may o thc te co them bo phan g? Cau 2: Trong cau o (H.2) sinh vien hay cho biet cau o nao o cuon day Z co Q ln va cuon day Z co Q nho. Tnh LX, RX, Q cho hai dang cau o.
Hnh 1
Hnh 2
Cau 3: Tai sao tn hieu thi chuan (tn hieu quet ngang) trong dao ong ky co dang rang ca? Giai thch. Cau 4: Giai thch watt-ke 3 pha 2( 1 2 ) phan t c chuyen thanh var-ke o cong suat phan khang tai 3 pha thc hien nh the nao? Noi mach o (H.3) cho hp ly.
E THI
337
Hnh 3
Hnh 4
Cau 5: Khao sat tn hieu ra cua mach tch phan hai o doc (H.4). a) Cho biet t1, t2, Vo co ac iem g va phu thuoc vao yeu to nao cua mach o va dung lng cua bo em. b) Xac nh ien ap o (VI)MAX khi o doc ln nhat (KI)MAX = 1mV/msec. Cho biet dung lng bo em 2000 xung co chu ky T = 1msec. Cau 6: Khao sat mach o va dang tn hieu o (H.5). a) Xac nh ien tr R khi VD = 0,3V (RMS) C cau o M (IMAX = 50 A, RI = 1K ) He so dang kf = 1,155; He so nh kp = 1,732. b) Vi R a c xac nh cau a, th VO (hnh sin) co tr so bao nhieu? Biet kf = 1,11 ; kp = 1,414
Hnh 5
338
E THI
3. E THI MON KY THUAT O LP D95 Cau 1: Cho biet khac nhau cua nguyen ly o cua Ohm-ke thng va Ohm-ke ien t.
Hnh 1
Hnh 2
50A
Hnh 3
Hnh 4a
Cau 2: a) Cho mach o sau ay (H.1) xac nh LX, RX, he so Q cua cuon day. b) Cho biet tai sao phai dung Q-ke e o he so Q tan so cao. Cau 3: Giai thch nhiem vu cua tng khoi trong hnh 2. Cau 4: a) Cho biet u iem cua watt-ke 2,5 phan t so vi watt-ke hai phan t. b) Noi mach o hp ly cho hnh 3.
E THI
Mach theo ien ap
339
Phan t chon (Chon cau 5A hoac 5B) Cau 5a: Cho mach o sau (H.4a) a) Xac nh R1, R2, R3 khi ZI = 1M (tong tr vao) va V2 = 1V(DC), V3 = 10V(DC). b) Xac nh V1, V2, V3 (AC) khi them diod noi tiep vi c cau ch th co VD = 0,3 V (R1, R2, R3 van co tr so khong oi). Cau 5b: Cho mach tch phan hai o doc (H.4b). Xung vuong ieu khien co ban ky tng ng vi 1563 xung clock, biet rang xung clock co tan so 1MHz.
340
E THI
Thi gian T2 tng ng vi 1500 xung clock, khi ien ap can o Vi = 1V. Hay tnh tr gia nguon dong Ir khi R5 = 10k , C1 = 0,1 F. 4. E THI MON KY THUAT O HK1 1999-2000 Cau 1: a) Chng minh goc quay cua khung quay ien ong t le thuan vi cong suat tac dung cua tai xoay chieu. b) Trnh bay tat ca cac phng phap o cong suat tac dung cua tai ba pha bang watt-ke mot pha. Cau 2: Mot ohm-ke co mach o nh hnh 1. Cho biet c cau o co noi tr Rm = 5k , dong I FS = 100A , nguon V1 = 3,2V, khi RX = 6k kim lech na thang o. Tm gia tr cua R1 va R2 (biet R1 ln hn R2 ). Cau 3: Cho mach o hnh 2a va dang ien ap nh hnh 2b. a) Tnh gia tr ien tr R. Biet rang khung quay co I FS = 50A ,
Rm = 1k
Tn hieu o co he so dang K f = 2
3 ; he so nh K a = 3
b) T gia tr R va tnh, neu tn hieu o co he so dang K f = 2 2 ; he so nh K a = 2 hay tnh gia tr hieu dung ln nhat cua tn hieu nay ma may o c. Sinh vien chon mot trong hai phan sau:
Hnh 1
Hnh 2a
Hnh 2b
Phan A Cau 4: ng dung cac dang ellip lissajour e lay mau tan so mot may phat tn hieu dang song sin. Cau 5: Phng phap tron song e o L hoac C. Cau 6: Trnh bay ro phng phap nac thang trong von-ke so. Cau 7: Mach bien oi dang tn hieu tam giac sang dang sin. Phan B
E THI
341
Cau 8: Ve s o khoi cua tang ong bo trong dao ong ky tia am cc. Dang song sau moi khoi? Nguyen tac e tao song rang ca mach quet? Cau 9: Nguyen tac hoat ong cua Q ke? Cach o L va C bang Q ke? Cau 10: Phng phap tch phan hai o doc (s o, dang song, bieu thc tnh). 5. E THI MON KY THUAT O HK2/ 1999-2000 LP BT98 CN T VT Cau 1: Cho biet nguyen ly phan tam o cua ampe ke thng va ampe ke ien t, giai thch? Cau 2: Cho biet tai sao co hien tng khong ong bo cua tn hieu quan sat tren dao ong ky? Lam the nao e co s ong bo? Cau 3: Viet phng trnh can bang cua cau o (H.1).
Hnh 3
Hnh 1
Hnh 2
342
E THI
Xac nh ZX = RX + jX (X la cam hoac dung khang) e sao cho tr so cua phan t o khong phu thuoc vao tan so va tnh he so Q (hoac D) cua phan t o? Cau 4: Ve mach o cong suat tac dung va phan khang cua tai ba pha vi wattke ba phan t va var-ke 2,5 phan t theo hnh 2. Cau 5: Cho mach o sau ay (H.3): Mach o co cho sai sot, hay ve lai cho ung; bo ch th co
I max = 50A va Rm = R = 1k. Xac nh R1 e cho tr so Rx.max = 100 tam
o X1. Khi thay oi tam o (X10, X100...) th R1 co tr so nh the nao? Phu luc: Dang tn hieu va he so dang K f he so nh K p
Tr hieu dung RMS Tr trung bnh MAD He so dang RMS Kf = MAD He so nh Kp
Dang tn hieu
Song sin
Vm 2
0,707 Vm
2 Vm
0,637 Vm
=1,111 2 2
2 =1,414
Xung vuong oi xng Song tam giac hoac rang ca Chuoi xung
Vm
Vm
Vm 3
Vm 2
2 =1,155 3
3 =1,732
1 0,25 0,0625 0,0156 0,01
o rong
Vm
Vm
Vm
Vm
1 2 4 8 10
1 2 4 8 10
Be rong xung
0,3333 0,0667 0,0159 0,0101
0,5Vm
0,25Vm 0,125Vm
0,25Vm
0,0625Vm 0,0156Vm
0,1Vm
0,01Vm
343
Tai lieu tham khao

1. David A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, Prentice Hall International Edition. Larry D. Jones and Foster Chin, Electronic Instruments and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, xuat ban lan 1, 1987; Practice Hall International, H. S. Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation, Ta Ta Mc Grawhill Publishing Company Limited - New Delhi, 1995. Clyde F. Coombs Jr. Edition Chief, Electronic Instrument Handbook, Mc GrawHill Inc, 1995. V. Bopov, Electrical Measurements, Mir Publisher - Moscow, 1982. Georges ASCH ef collaborateurs, Les Capteurs en instrumentation industrielle, Dunod edition, xuat ban lan 3, 1998.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.

Ky Thuat Do 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ky Thuat Do 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH TRNG AI HOC BACH KHOA

Nguyen Ngoc Tan - Ngo Van Ky

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

10 2- ai lng ien thu ong

1.2 CHC NANG VA AC TNH CUA THIET B O LNG

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

1.3 CHUAN HOA TRONG O LNG

1.4 CHAT LNG CUA O LNG

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

e - sai so tuyet oi;

| Sai so tng oi (tnh theo %): er =

o chnh xac tnh theo %:

o chnh xac: A = 10,02 = 0,98, a = 98% = 100% 2%

X n - tr so trung bnh cua n lan o.

X n = 101,1 tr so trung bnh cua 10 lan o

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

16 ap ng ong bac zero (bac khong)

xo - tn hieu ra cua thiet b o;

ap ng ong bac nhat

Phng trnh tren c rut gon lai: ( vi: n =

ao/a2 - tan so khong em t nhien, radian/thi gian

trong o: x - tr trung bnh; xn - tr so x lan o th n; n - so lan o.

o lech lan o th 1: o lech lan o th 2: o lech lan o th n:

............................... V du: x1 = 50,1; x2 = 49,7; x3 = 49,6; x4 = 50,2 Y ngha so hoc:

50,1 + 49,7 + 49, 6 + 50, 2 199, 6 = = 49, 9 4 4

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

o lech chuan cho n lan o: = [

2 2 2 d1 + d2 + ... + dn ]1 2 (so lan o n

V du: o lech chuan cua cac so o cu the tren

( 0, 2)2 + ( 0, 2)2 + ( 0, 3)2 + ( 0, 3)2 1 2 ] = 4 1

Tr trung bnh cua ien tr: R = o lech cua cac lan o:

d1 = 1,6; d2 = 0,4; d3 = 0,7; d4 = 0,8 d5 = 0,4; d6 = 0,6; d7 = 0,0; d8 = 0,3

Sai so ngau nhien cua cac ket qua o

( 1, 6)2 + ... + ( 0, 3)2 = 0,19 0,2 87

1.5 NHNG PHAN T TRONG THIET B O IEN T

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

1.6 LI CH THIET THC CUA IEN T TRONG O LNG

1.7 S CHON LA, TNH CAN THAN VA CACH DUNG THIET B O

1.8 HE THONG O LNG

Thiet b ieu khien

S dung ket qua

Man anh Thiet b oc

Hnh 1.1: He thong o lng tng ong

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

f10 MOD MOD MOD MOD

Bo che bien tn hieu Tn hieu o i Xi Bo che bien tn hieu CB XN CB

f2m f2m im ffim

Phan kenh theo tan so

Giai ieu che

Hnh 1.2: He thong o lng tng ong nhieu kenh

1.8.2 He thong o lng dang so (Digital) (H.1.3).

Cam bien Tn hieu vat ly

Bo ieu khien logic

DAC May ghi (in)

Thiet b ieu khien

Hnh 1.3: He thong o lng so ket hp vi P

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

Bo ieu che Bo ieu che Bo ieu che

Bo phan chon kenh t on g

Giao tiep RS232

Giao tiep RS232 Giao tiep RS232

Hnh 1.4: He thong thu nhan va x ly d lieu

dung mach giao tiep RS232