Cave-dwelling Bats of Nort h e rn Mexico

T heir val ue an d con ser va ti on need s

Merlin D. Tuttle
and

Arnulfo Moreno

Copyright 2005 by Bat Conservation International, Inc. ISBN # 0-9742379-5-7 All rights reserved Printed in Mexico Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Bat Conservation International, P.O. Box 162603, Austin, Texas 78716.

Ack n owl e d ge m e n t s
This book would not have been possible without the enthusiastic encouragement and financial assistance of Eugenio Clariond Reyes, Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Grupo IMSA. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service International Program provided additional funding for this publication, and the Disney Wildlife C o n s e rv ation Fund and Bat Conservation International supported essential field re s e a rc h . The authors also gratefully acknowledge the invaluable collaboration and/or financial assistance of Fondo Mexicano, PRONATURA, the Instituto Tecnologico de Ciudad Victoria and the Museo de Historia Natural de Tamaulipas. Their collaboration continues to play an essential role in our efforts to conserve the bats of northern Mexico. We also thank Travis and Bettina Mathis for their continued support of this project. Robert Locke edited and designed the publication. Dave Waldien provided extensive review and project oversight. A. Nelly Correa Sandoval of the Instituto Tecnolgico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey provided logistical support, and XXXXXXXX translated the original manuscript from English to Spanish.

Fondo Mexicano para la Conservacin de la Naturaleza

C o n te n t s
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Bats as Essential Allies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Why Bats are Feared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Threats to Bat Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 Investing in Bat Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Where Bats Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Lives of Cave-dwelling Bats Selecting Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Finding a Mate and Rearing Young . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Navigating in the Dark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Traveling Long Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Finding Food Special Adaptations for Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Co-evolving with Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Understanding the Diverse Faces of Cave-dwelling Bats . . . . . . . . . .32 Bat Caves as Sustainable Resources Guano Extraction for Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 Wildlife Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Appendices Appendix I: Controlling Vampire Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 Appendix II: Recognizing Former Bat Roosts in Caves . . . . . . . .44 Appendix III: Guidelines for Conserving Cave-dwelling Bats . . .46 Appendix IV: Precautions for Sustainable Guano Harvesting . . .47 Suggested Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Cave-dwelling Bats

Some 4 million Mexican free-tailed bats emerge from a Borderlands cave to spend the night hunting insects. 4

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I n t ro d u c t i o n
Bats have lived in North America since the age of dinosaurs, and Mexico is home to 137 species, among the worlds most diverse assemblages of bats. Caves of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States shelter the worlds largest populations of bats. Single colonies number up to 20 million and constitute the largest communities of mammals on Earth. Several species have continuously occupied caves of northern Mexico for thousands of years. Over such long periods, they have come to play key roles in maintaining the balance of nature and the health of human economies. Our goal with this publication is to introduce the many values of bats and their conservation needs. We emphasize species that form the largest, most conspicuous populations in caves only because they are typically the most vulnerable and most in need of help. The combined impact of bats that live alone or in smaller, widely dispersed groups, however, is also substantial and should not be ignored.

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Bats as Essential Allies

Cave-dwelling Bats

ats are primary predators of beetles, moths, leafhoppers and other insects that are extremely costly to farmers and foresters and they also catch mosquitoes in our backyards. Just one Mexican freetailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) can eat enough corn earw o rm moths in a single night to prevent 20,000 eggs from being laid. And that means a farm e r can avoid spraying several acres of c rops with costly pesticides. Imagine the value of a bat colony that can catch tons of insects nightly! The 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats from Bracken Cave in Texas consume about 200 tons of insects on an average summer night, including billions of corn earw o rm and arm y w o rm moths that cost U.S. farmers a billion dollars a year.

Because bats have been traditionally unpopular, they rank among our planets least-studied mammals. Recent research, however, clearly documents their immense contributions to agriculture in nort h e rn Mexico and the southwestern United States. Scientists are still calculating the total economic value of Mexican free-tailed bats, but it is already apparent that the continued loss of these bats could seriously jeopardize cro p s and increase demands for pesticides that threaten human health and safety. A large colony of free-tailed bats can help protect crops 80 kilometers or more away. In Georgia, a pecan g rower who attracted thousands of free-tailed bats to bat houses in his orc h a rds, now produces crops without pesticides in an area where other

Researchers (left to right) Jason Lee, John Westbrook and Gary McCracken prepare to launch a balloon that carries a bat detector and other instruments high into the night sky.The project showed that Mexican free-tailed bats fly as high as 3,000 meters to track down damaging insects that migrate at that altitude. 8

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g rowers spray six times per season. Many insects listen for the echolocation sounds that bats emit to hunt and navigate, then flee are a s w h e re bats are detected. Scientists in the United States are testing devices that produce bat-like hunting sounds to scare pests away from cro p s . Other types of bats pollinate flowers and disperse seeds that sustain whole ecosystems. More than 60 species of agave plants, including those from which tequila is made, re l y on these bats as primary pollinators. Long-nosed bats are also important seed dispersers for giant cacti. The o rgan pipe cactus, which produces the lucrative pitayo fruit, relies on these bats for both pollination and seed dispersal.

The corn earworm moth (Helicoverpa zea), a favorite food of Mexican free-tailed bats, is one of the most damaging agricultural pests in the Americas.

So many bats emerge from Texas caves that they often dominate weather radar images.The smaller image shows the Doppler radar one summer day at 6:15 p.m., as the bats were just beginning to leave their caves (on the left) to move toward the insect pests clustered over croplands (on the right).Twelve minutes later they had spread thickly over much of Central Texas, eating insects by the ton. 9

Cave-dwelling Bats

The lesser long-nosed bat plays a critical role in the desert ecosystem by pollinating and reseeding the cacti and agave on which it feeds.This bat, taking nectar from the flower of an organ pipe cactus, carries pollen from plant to plant.The long-nosed bat on the opposite page will disperse seeds from the organ pipe fruit that it is eating.

The droppings of cave-dwelling bats provide some of the worlds finest natural fertilizer. They also supply nutrients required by whole ecosystems of unique organisms that live only in caves. Bacteria from these systems have been used by major companies to improve detergents and other products of great value to humans. The loss of large colonies of cavedwelling bats can threaten the ecological or economic health of whole
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regions in both Mexico and the United States.

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Bats help keep the Sonoran Desert healthy. Long-nosed bats, which feed on the nectar of cacti and agaves, are the primary pollinators for many of these plants. 11

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Common vampire bat

Why Bats are Feared

ince bats are active only at night and are usually difficult to observe, they are often misunderstood. And it is only natural to fear most what we understand least. In the Pacific Islands, where giant flying foxes have wingspans of up to two meters but live out in the open like birds, people appreciate them just as they enjoy other wildlife. In Mexico, bats certainly have nothing to do with Chupacabra myths, and the vast majority do not bite other animals. For every vampire bat, there are literally millions of beneficial bats. But because helpful species live in much larger colonies and are far easier to see, millions at a time have been mistakenly killed. 12

Thousands of bat caves have been burned, dynamited or otherwise d e s t royed, in the erroneous belief that this would eliminate vampires, although vampires can survive just fine without caves. There are only three species of vampire bats in the world, and they live exclusively in tropical America, including Mexico. Only one, the common vampire (Desmodus rotundus), has been known to bite humans or livestock. And even this bat seldom bites humans, though it can harm cattle. Fortunately, it is easy to identify from all other bats and can be cont rolled without harming other species. (See Appendix I) Bats in general rank among the

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worlds most gentle animals. Like all mammals, an occasional individual can contract rabies, but even those rarely become aggressive or bite humans except in self-defense if handled. If bitten, have the animal tested for rabies and seek medical evaluation and possible vaccination as soon as possible. Like bird droppings, bat guano can contain a potentially infectious fungus (Histoplasma capsulatum). For humans who do not enter caves, there is little to fear. Those who explore caves or extract guano should minimize inhalation of dust in the cave. A lung infection, known as histoplasmosis, is typically no worse than flu,

but can be serious for those who carelessly inhale excessive amounts of spore-laden dust. Despite decades of bat research and being surrounded often by millions of bats in caves, the authors have never been attacked or contracted a disease from bats nor have we ever heard of a bat becoming entangled in anyones hair.

The common vampire is one of three species of vampire bat and the only one known to bite humans and livestock.

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Threats to Bat Survival

ats are especially vulnerable to decline because they re p roduce m o re slowly than any other mammal for their size and because a single cave can be critical to the survival of a large proportion of an entire species. In the state of Sonora, just one cave shelters more than 90 percent of the known breeding population of the endangered lesser longnosed bat (Leptonycteris curasoae). Protection of such key resources is vital.

Bats that form huge, conspicuous colonies in caves are extremely vulnerable to human disturbance and persecution. Many caves that once housed great numbers, even millions, of bats, no longer contain any. In 1990, a Bat Conservation Intern ational survey of the 10 largest bat caves known in nort h e rn Mexico found that half had already lost 95 to 100 percent of their bats. The single most important cause of decline was

Many cave-dwelling bats form huge colonies that number in the millions, like the Mexican free-tails that almost completely cover the ceiling and walls of this cave. In nursery areas, the pups are jammed tightly together in nursery areas. 14

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Caves shelter untold millions of bats, but such bats are at high risk from human disturbance and even intentional destruction, especially when their caves are conspicuous to people.

intentional burning or dynamiting. C a reless human disturbance of bat roosts in caves can seriously reduce a mothers ability to rear her young in summer or cause bats to waste limited fat re s e rves in winter. Sometimes entrances are closed out of fear of vampire bats or new shafts are dug for guano mining, forcing bats to abandon their cave because of altered air flows and roost temperat u res. Campfires in cave entrances can s u ffocate bats when smoke enters their roost or, even worse, they can start a guano fire that can burn for months. Occasionally, something as simple as partial blockage of a cave entrance by trees or shrubs can intolerably increase the risk of bats being injure d or caught by predators, which can also drive them from their roost. F ree-tailed bats have suff e red seriously from pesticides used on cro p s ,
15

especially from organochlorines such as DDT. Organochlorine, org a n ophosphate and carbamate insecticides pose serious threats to bats, and synthetic pyre t h roids may, as well. Long-nosed bats, meanwhile, are t h reatened with starvation because they depend on the nectar of agave flowers, and agaves are being depleted rapidly. The continuing loss of food and shelter puts Mexicos long-nosed bats (Leptonycteris curasoae and L. nivalis) at increasing risk.

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Investing in Bat Conservation

ave-dwelling bats form conspicuous, slowly reproducing colonies in relatively few caves w h e re they are exceptionally vulnerable to humans who misunderstand, fear and persecute them. They are, as a result, among our most rapidly

declining and endangered wildlife. Their survival and our own well being depend on our ability to overcome unfounded fears and to respect and protect them as allies. Success can be an invaluable investment in human health and secur i t y.

Bats provide many beneficial services to the environment and to humans. Among other things, they help control many troublesome, often expensive, pests. Pallid bats even dine on scorpions.

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Conserving bats on large tracts of private land is often simple, although it can be extremely difficult where caves are easily reached on lands open to the public. Private landowners can reestablish millions of bats in long-abandoned caves by simply protecting them from disturbance, clearing overgrown vegetation from entrances, plugging artificial mining shafts, or opening closed entrances.

See Appendix II for tips on recognizing former bat caves in need of restoration and Appendix III for guidelines on conserving and restoring them.

Bat caves can be a lucrative part of any property fortunate enough to have one. Besides hunting vast numbers of insects, as this bat flight is doing, the bats evening emergences can be a powerful attraction for tourists.When caves are protected, bats can often be drawn back to sites they abandoned in the past. 17

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Where Bats Live

ats of northern Mexico live in a wide variety of homes: tree foliage, Spanish moss, cliff-face crevices, in woodpecker holes or beneath loose bark on old snags. A few even live in erosion crevices or beneath large rocks. As natural roosts have been lost, several of the more adaptable species have sought shelter

in human-made structures, such as bridges, road culverts and buildings. Each species, however, has its own unique requirements. Red and yellow bats, for example, cannot live in caves, while free-tailed bats cannot live in tree foliage. Bats that live alone or in small colonies often have the most options

Some bat species need very little room to find a home.These western pipistrelles (Pipistrellus hesperus) found snug shelter in a slender rock crevice.

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A silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) peers out of its roost in the hollow of an old tree (left), while the spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) emerges from a comfortable opening in a rock wall (below).

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and are least noticed. Those that form very large colonies in caves are typically the most vulnerable if their traditional roosts are threatened. Often, only a few caves meet large-colony needs, and these have been used for thousands of years. They are now vital to survival. Bats are part of a complex ecological system that includes numerous caves and whole ecosystems from the southwestern United States to central and southern Mexico. We simply do not know what would happen if either the bats or an important plant species were to disappear, though the potential for widespread ecological and economic harm is sobering.
These lesser long-nosed bats (top) are perched in a cave, their faces covered with pollen of the plants from which they took nectar. Even Spanish moss can provide a home for this western yellow bat (Lasiurus xanthinus).

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Eastern red bats (Lasiurus borealis) roost in the foliage of trees, where their distinctive color disguises them as dead leaves or pine cones.

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Lives of Cave-dwelling Bats

Selecting Homes

ven in regions where thousands of caves exist, relatively few make good homes for more than small numbers of bats. In general, the largest bat colonies are found in caves with extra large entrances and passages. The risk of a bats being caught by a snake, owl, raccoon or other predator is highest when it must pass through an entrance that is small or partially blocked by vegetation. Unfortunately, the largest caves also attract the most humans. Mother bats rearing pups must find caves with ceilings that are rough enough for babies to cling to and more than two meters above the floor to avoid jumping predators. Dome-

shaped ceilings are often essential because they trap the bats body heat, which helps babies grow faster. The cooler the climate, the more difficult it is for bats to find roosts that are warm enough for rearing young, but larger colonies can warm roosts with their body heat. Male bats normally separate into bachelor groups in summer, living in different caves than the nursery colonies. Living in separate caves reduces competition for food at a time when mothers must nearly double their consumption in order to nurse their young. In general, caves with more than one entrance are most likely to trap

A cave must meet certain conditions to accommodate Mexican free-tailed bats, but when they find the right cave, vast numbers of these bats will often move in. 22

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warmer or cooler outside air. Those that slope upward tend to trap warm e r air, while the reverse is true for caves that slope down. Because most of nort h e rn Mexico is relatively warm, few caves are known to be cool enough for bats to h i b e rnate in winter. However, many of the regions bats do spend the winter in cooler caves, where their body t e m p e r a t u refalls and they enter a lowmetabolism state called torpor to cons e rve fat supplies during severe weather. If true hibernation caves exist in Mexico, they are likely to be found at high elevations, and they could be critically important to many bats. Most bat colonies must move among several caves through an annual cycle. Even nursery colonies almost always move seasonally. Up to half a dozen or more caves may be required by a single large colony. Bat colonies of northern Mexico that number over 150,000 are almost always Mexican free-tailed bats. Colonies of several thousand

to100,000 are more likely to be longnosed bats or cave myotis (Myotis velifer), species that are less adaptable and especially vulnerable. Cave myotis numbers appear to have declined alarmingly in many areas, though there is little documentation of its current status. Approximately a dozen of northern Mexicos bat species form colonies of from less than 10 to several hundred individuals. These are the bats most often found in smaller caves with smaller entrances. Because they can occupy caves that are less attractive to humans, they tend to be less threatened.

Free-tailed bats emerge each summer evening from Bracken Cave in Texas to spend the night hunting flying insects.

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Finding a Mate and Rearing Young

ot much is known with certainty about bats courting behavior, but their approaches to attracting mates seem to be quite varied. In some species, males simply guard a good cavity in a cave ceiling, and females select him according to the quality of home he o ffers. Among Mexican free-tailed bats, males claim special chambers in cave ceilings and also sing to lure prospective mates. As with other animals, some males are unable to win the attention of any female, while others others attract several. Most mating appears to occur

in March. Babies are born in June or early July. One pup per year is born to freetailed bat mothers. Pups are born pink, naked and about a third of their mothers size. They quickly join dense clusters of other pups, as many as 5,380 per square meter, hanging from cave ceilings. Mothers find and nurse their own pups, despite having to search among tons of baby bats. Each mother remembers where she left her pup, as well as its unique voice and odor. A free-tailed mother produces more than four times as much milk, relative to her body size, as a

An average of more than 5,000 baby Mexican free-tailed bats are packed into a square meter of cave ceiling, but each mother manages to find her own pup. 24

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Jersey cow. Pups grow rapidly, reaching adult size and learning to fly and feed independently in just four to six weeks. Imagine the difficulty of learning to fly in total darkness, navigating with sound alone amidst thousands of other beginners in a traffic jam where several potentially fatal collisions per second must be avoided!

Female bats nursing their young, like this Mexican free-tail (top) and red bat, must roughly double their food intake to produce enough milk for their rapidly growing offspring.

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Navigating in the Dark

ontrary to popular misconceptions, all bats have eyes and can see as well as other

nocturnal animals. In addition, however, bats can also navigate in the total darkness of caves by relying on a sonar-like system known as echolocation. Pulses of sound are emitted through the mouth or nose, and returning echoes are analyzed to detect objects as fine as a human hair. Relying on these echoes, a bat can also find and capture more than one tiny insect in a single second, sometimes more than 1,000 in an hour!

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Traveling Long Distances

oth free-tailed and long-nosed bats are long-distance travelers. Many of them migrate far to the north each spring and return southward in the fall. Insect-eating bats like the freetails time their annual cycles to coincide with insect abundance along their migration route, while longnosed species follow a complex nectar trail of sequentially flowering plants in both spring and fall (see Finding Food and Co-evolving with Plants). Mexican free-tailed bats are masters of long-distance travel. Each night, they climb to just the right altitude, sometimes thousands of meters above ground, to find tail winds that speed them to feeding areas more than 80 kilometers from their caves. In the fall, when they must travel much longer distances, they wait to ride storm-front winds that can help
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carry them more than 800 kilometers in a night. They travel in large flocks, apparently relying on older, experienced individuals to find their way between caves hundreds of kilo-

meters apart. How they locate traditionally used caves from thousands of meters above ground remains a mystery. Little is known about the exact details of individual trips, but it is clear that stop-over caves, including many in northern Mexico, are essential for migrating bats.

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Finding Food

SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS FOR HUNTING

pecies that form huge colonies and require many tons of insects nightly must be expert long-distance hunters. Scientists have recently discovered that the largest colonies of free-tailed bats live in locations where they can most easily intercept migrating moths that pass each spring and fall. They also rely on long, narrow wings and find tail winds to facilitate their travel, sometimes intercepting vast numbers of migrating insects literally thousands of meters above ground. Free-tailed bats apparently scout large areas and have excellent memories and means of communication, because they also are expert at suddenly appearing in large numbers to take advantage of moths that are either migrating or hatching from a single cornfield. In an attempt to avoid capture, such moths have evolved special hearing to detect approaching bats. However, as they fly high above ground to move among crops, or to migrate long distances, they are extremely vulnerable to fast flying bats like free-tails. Other bats have a wide variety of adaptations for coping with insect hearing. California leaf-nosed bats (Macrotus californ i c u s) normally form
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This pallid bat just caught a katydid.

colonies of just dozens to hundreds of individuals in caves and rely on short , broad wings that enable helicopterlike flight. By living in smaller numbers and being more maneuverable, they can occupy much smaller caves than free-tails and do not have to travel far to find sufficient food. By avoiding the need for long, high-speed travel, they can rely on catching sleeping insects directly from the g round or vegetation in a manner that would be impossible for less maneuverable free-tails. They also have extra l a rge eyes and superb night vision that enables them to see insects only 4 mm long without having to inadvert e n t l y warn of their approach by emitting echolocation sounds. In fact, these and pallid bats (A n t rozous pallidus) have hearing so sensitive that they can detect even the faint sounds of a walking cricket or katydid. They rely on their hearing rather than on echolocation for their final approach. Many insect-eating bats have intermediate strategies. Cave myotis have wings that resemble neither jets

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nor helicopters, meaning they can travel farther than leaf-nosed bats, but not nearly as far as free-tails. They can pursue insects faster than leafnosed bats, but arent as good at hovering to pluck them directly from foliage. Cave myotis typically hunt insects near trees and shrubs where its easier to surprise their prey. By hunting close to cover, they avoid detection, just as police radar surprises motorists better when hidden behind hills or around corners. Bats also have very different adaptations for dealing with specific kinds of prey. Pallid bats, for example are immune even to the deadly stings of scorpions and centipedes. They also

have larger wings for lifting, enabling them to feed on a wide array of larger p rey for which other bats cannot compete.

A centipede is about to become a meal for this pallid bat.These bats pluck almost all their prey from the ground.

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CO-EVOLVING WITH PLANTS t is difficult to determine exactly how bats originally began to feed on nectar and fruit, but they most likely were first attracted to plant-visiting insects. Pallid bats, which are mostly insect-eaters, visit cactus and agave flowers to also feed on nectar, and insect-eating California leaf-nosed bats eat cactus fruits, as well. Long-nosed bats and Mexican long-tongued bats (Choeronycteris mexicana), however, feed almost exclusively on the nectar of agave and giant cactus plants. Over thousands of years, these bats and the plants they visit have co-evolved to become highly interdependent, so much so that loss of either could now seriously jeopardize the other.

Agaves have developed a mutually beneficial relationship with bats.The plants depend heavily on bats for pollination, while Mexican long-tongued bats (this page) and lesser long-nosed bats (opposite page) feed on the nectar of agave flowers.

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In nort h e rn Mexico, organ pipe, s a g u a ro and cardon cactus the l a rgest and often the most ecologically important plants in their regions stagger flowering and fruiting times to coincide with the nort h w a rd migration and re p roduction of bats. The bats re t u rnthe favor through superior pollination and seed dispersal for the cactus community. Later in the season, many species of agave plants bloom in a reverse sequence that creates the nectar trail, which supports the bats with a continuously blooming food supply as they move southward into central and s o u t h e rnMexico. Along the way, the bats are essential pollinators and seed dispersers for those plant communities. This is clearly a complex, inter31

related system involving numero u s caves and whole ecosystems from the southwestern United States to central and southern Mexico. We simply do not know what would happen if the bats or an important plant species were to disappear, but the potential for widespread ecological and economic harm is sobering.

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Understanding
the Diverse Faces of Cave-dwelling Bats

C AV E

MYOTIS

Myotis velifer Myotis bats are noted for their rather plain, unspecialized faces. Several species enter caves of northern Mexico, but only the cave myotis forms colonies numbering in the tens of thousands.

CALIFORNIA LEAF-NOSED BAT Macrotus californicus Huge ears enable bats to hear the faintest of sounds, even the footsteps of a walking cricket or the munching mandibles of a feeding caterpillar. Some bats have leaf-like noses they use to transmit echolocation sounds through their noses. Extra-large eyes enable this bat to navigate and hunt by vision alone on all but the darkest nights, when it must rely on echolocation.

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B AT Nyctinomops macrotis These bats large, laterally flattened ears help provide lift for their heads while flying at high speed. For their body size, they have some of the narrowest wings of any bat, which permits almost jet-like flight. Long facial hairs probably help them feel their way in narrow rock crevices. These bats, like other very large free-tailed bats, normally roost high on cliff faces, from which they drop to begin flying. They are found only in caves that provide high cavities above extra large entrances.

LARGE

F R E E - TA I L E D

MEXICAN

L O N G - T O N G U E D B AT

Choeronycteris mexicana Long, slender noses and small ears help nectar-feeding bats fit their heads deep into the flowers from which they feed. Long whiskers help them feel their way into the flower, and large eyes help orient the bats to their favored blooms.

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COMMON VAMPIRE BAT Desmodus rotundus The pit-like shapes on this bats nose are heat sensors that detect areas on an animal where rich capillary systems are near the skin. There the vampire can bite and obtain a meal

with the least pain to the victim. Large eyes also help the bat avoid being harmed by the creatures it bites. This bats saliva contains a special anticoagulant that ensures a steady flow of blood. An entire meal typically consists of just 20-30 milliliters.

F U N N E L - E A R E D B AT Natalus stramineus This bats funnel-shaped ears undoubtedly are part of a highly specialized echolocation system. Tiny eyes suggest a heavy reliance on non-visual navigation.
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P E T E R S S G H O S T- FA C E D B AT Mormoops megalophylla Strange faces and small eyes are often associated with highly sophisticated echolocation systems. No one knows why these bats eyes appear to be located in their ears. The extra flaps of skin around their lips are used to form a horn shape during flight that helps focus echolocation sounds transmitted through the mouth.

T O W N S E N D S B I G - E A R E D B AT Corynorhinus townsendii This bats big ears can pick up very faint insect sounds, but they may also help regulate body temperature. When at rest in a cave, the bat often curls its ears into a shape resembling a rams horns. Extending those long ears increases the bats surface area and could help dissipate heat.
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Bags filled with bat guano harvested from this Mexican cave are piled into huge stacks.This valuable resource is an outstanding natural fertilizer that is continually renewable if the bats and their cave are protected. 36

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Bat Caves as Sustainable Resources

Guano Extraction for Fertilizer

or as far back as records extend, Mexican free-tailed bat guano has been extracted for fertilizer. Near San Antonio, Texas, thousands of tons have been extracted fro m Bracken Cave alone, including 200 tons in 2002 and 254 tons in 2004. Surveys conducted by Bat Conservation International in 2003 and 2004 confirm that guano continues to be harvested where sufficiently large bat colonies remain. Current retail sales range from 2.86 to 12.10 U.S. dollars per kilo. Guano harvesting can be done on a sustainable basis, especially at caves where the bats normally migrate elsewhere for a part of each year. It is

important, however, to keep in mind that careless disturbance of the bats that produce the guano can quickly terminate guano production. To be sustainable, harvests must be made when the fewest possible numbers of bats are present, never when mothers are rearing young in late spring and summer. For details of the dos and donts of sustainable guano harvesting, see Appendix IV.

When millions of bats live on the ceilings and walls of a cave, they become almost a factory for the production of guano in commercial quantities. 37

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Wildlife Tourism

ildlife watching is a rapidly growing industry. People come from all over North America to experience the spectacular emergences of 20 million Mexican free-tailed bats at Bracken Cave, near San Antonio, Texas. And the evening flights of 1,500,000 of these bats from crevices beneath the Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas, add more than 8 million tourist dollars to the citys economy each summer. Bat Conservation International, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and The Nature Conservancy of Texas all offer highly popular bat-watching opportunities at protected locations. And in the private sector, an increasing number of ranches in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico are adding to their revenues by attracting wildlife-watching visitors. The spectacle of an evening bat emergence can be a valuable boost for attracting tourists.

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Wildlife is becoming increasingly popular as a tourist attraction, and few things in nature compare in spectacle to the emergence of millions of bats from a cave (above) or from beneath an urban bridge (left) in downtown Austin,Texas. Both these sites are powerful magnets for tourists. 39

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Appendices
Appendix I

Controlling Vampire Bats

o not burn, poison, dynamite or o t h e rwise harm bat caves in hopes of controlling vampire bats. Such destructive actions are counterp roductive, since vampires

Vampires (below) are easily distinguished from beneficial insect-eating bats (right).

dont need caves to survive and beneficial bats are far more likely to be killed. Large-scale control is best achieved by corralling livestock for several nights before setting mist nets around the enclosure and capturing incoming vampires. Paste the bats with a mixture of Vaseline and Chloro p h a c i n o n e and allow them to return

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Controlling vampire bats begins with capturing them with mist nets placed near livestock.The bats should then be coated with poison and set free to spread the poison. Roosts used by vampires are readily identified by the dark, tar-like droppings of these bats, as opposed to the pellets or powder that is characteristic of other bats.

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Common vampire

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Ranchers (left) paste a toxic mixture of Vaseline and Chlorophacinone on a captured vampire bat.They will release the bat to return to its roost to poison as many as 40 other bats as they help groom the pasted bat.Vampires (above) make a tiny wound that the victim often does not even feel, then chemicals in the bats saliva increase the flow of blood.

to their roosts, where each vampire can poison up to 40 others as they help groom toxins from the pasted bats fur. Captured vampires must be treated and released not killed or the procedure will fail. To eliminate harm to individual domestic animals, paste their vampire-bite wounds with the same mixt u re in late afternoon or early evening. Returning vampires will be poisoned, since they typically try to reopen previous wounds to feed. Small numbers of pigs, chickens
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and other domestic animals may be most easily protected by simply providing them with vampire-proof enclosures. These should contain no openings of more than a centimeter in diameter. For detailed advice, visit Bat C o n s e rvation Internationals online catalog www.batcatalog.com and order a copy of the Control del Murcilago Vampiro y la Rabia Bovina video.

Cave-dwelling Bats

Recognizing Former Bat Roosts in Caves

Appendix II

hen looking for old bat roosts, first check caves with large (especially more than three-meter) entrances and interior dimensions. These typically shelter the largest bat colonies. Inside a cave, look for clues bats leave behind after long use of the site. Dark-brown or rusty-red stains on limestone surfaces, especially on domed, heat-trapping ceilings, indicate where bats have roosted. Examine the floors beneath domes, especially stained ones, for evidence of old bat droppings. These may still be pellets, but could also remain only in powder form. Bat

droppings, unlike those of rats or mice, are easily crushed and sparkle when lit due to shiny fragments of insect wings and bodies. Reddish to nearly black, tar-like droppings (never in pellets) are left only by vampires (see page 41). Nectar bats tend to leave yellowish splats on walls. You can estimate former numbers by measuring the number of square meters that were probably covered by roosting bats (based on stained limestone and/or droppings) and multiplying the area times 2,000 bats per square meter. Thats roughly the average roosting density of adult freetailed and myotis bats in northern

This thick coating of guano on the floor of a cave provides unmistakable proof that bats are using or have used the cave for some time. 44

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Mexico. R e p o rt bat caves that need help to Bat Conservation International, Mexico Program Coordinator, Dr. A rnulfo Moreno (leptonycteris2000 @yahoo.com.mx), or visit BCI online at www. b a t c o n . o rg. Mailing address: Bat C o n s e rv ation International, PO Box 162603, Austin, Texas 78716 USA.

The rusty-red stain on the ceiling and walls of this cave was caused by many years of roosting by countless bats. Most abandoned the cave long ago, but many are returning after Bat Conservation International removed brush from the entrance. 45

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Appendix III

Guidelines for Conserving Cave-dwelling Bats

ere are some critical guidelines for protecting bats that use caves: Avoid repeated or prolonged disturbance of roosting bats, especially in spring and summer. Prevent fires or the use of fireworks in or near cave entrances. Never allow use of internal-combustion engines inside caves. Do not enlarge or reduce cave entrances or dig new openings without first consulting a bat expert. Trim encroaching trees or other vegetation from cave entrances. Route heavily used roads away from cave entrances. Minimize use of pesticides at times and places were they are most likely to harm bats, especially in areas where bats feed. Spraying crops at dawn is least likely to contaminate insects that are eaten by bats. Organochlorine, organophosphate

and carbamate insecticides can pose serious threats to bats, and synthetic pyrethroids may. Entrance gates can help protect bats f rom human disturbance, but Mexicos largest bat colonies are unlikely to accept them unless a space at least 2 to 3 meters tall can be left open above the gate so bats can enter and exit freely along the entrance ceilings. (For gating details contact Bat Conservation International.) Posted fences may be useful in some instances if they do not obstruct the bats flight path.

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Appendix IV

Precautions for Sustainable Guano Harvesting

uano can be harvested profitably without harming the bats that provide this valuable resource, if you: Permit guano extraction only when few or no bats are present, typically in winter. Avoid obstructing cave entrances or digging shafts. Obstructions can greatly increase risks from predators, while new shafts or changes in entrance size can change roost temperatures. Either result can force bats to abandon the cave. Never permit fire in or near cave entrances. Smoke can enter and suffocate bats, and the guano can catch fire and burn for months. Never use intern a l - c o m b u s t i o n engines or kerosene torches in bat caves. Oxygen can be depleted, and

fumes can kill bats and humans in the enclosed space. Reduce health risks to workers by providing respirators capable of filtering dust particles down to one micron in diameter and changing filters daily. Always keep extracted guano dry. Wet guano may lose its commercial value. Avoid being defrauded by unscrupulous guano miners/buyers. Check references and proof of required government permits before signing contracts. Collaborate with other guano cave owners to identify problems and ensure better pricing. Bat Conservation International is preparing a list of owners and buyers and is available to assist. Prior to allowing removal of guano from premises, ensure that payment is guaranteed and that all extraction equipment and trash is removed f rom the cave and surrounding property (including scaff o l d i n g , wires or other possible obstructions to bat flight).

With a little care, guano harvesting can continue at caves like this one long into the future, although blocking a passage, as seen here, can force bats to abandon the cave.

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Suggested Reading and Resources

Alvarez, T. The Recent Mammals of Tamaulipas, Mxico, University of Kansas Publications. Museum of Natural History: Lawrence, Kansas (1963). 14:363-473. Arita, H.T. Conservation Biology of the Cave Bats of Mexico, Journal of Mammalogy (1993). 74:693-702. Arita, H.T. y Martinez del Ro. Interaccon Flor-Murcilago: Un Enfoque Zoocntrico, Publicaciones Especiales del Instituto de Biologa. Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (1990). 4:1-35. Arroyo, J.C., y T. Alvarez Restos Oseos de Murcilagos. Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia: Mxico, D.F. (1990). Baker, R.H. Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico, University of Kansas Publications. Museum of Natural History: Lawrence, Kansas (1956). 9:125-335. Brunet, A.K., and R.A. Medelln 2001. The Species Area Relationship in Bat Assemblages of Tropical Caves, Journal of Mammalogy (2001). 73:365-378. Clark, D.R., Jr., A. Moreno-Valdez and M.A. Mora. Organochlorine Residues in Bat Guano from Nine Mexican Cave Roosts, 1991, Ecotoxicology (1995). 4:258-265. Cockrum, E.L. Migration in the Guano Bat, Tadarida brasiliensis, Miscellaneous Publications. Museum of Natural History: Lawrence, Kansas (1991). 51:303-336. Cockrum, E.L. Seasonal Distribution of Northwestern Populations of the Long-nosed Bats, Leptonycteris sanborni family Phyllostomidae, Anales del Instituto de Biologa, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (1991). 62:181-202. Des Marais, D.J., J.M. Mitchell, W.G. Meinschein and J.M. Hayes. 1980. The Carbon Isotope Biogeochemistry of the Individual Hydrocarbons in Bat Guano and the Ecology of the Insectivorous Bats in the Region of Carlsbad, New Mexico, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta (1980). 44:2075-2086. Fleming, T.H., A.A. Nelson and V.M. Dalton. 1998. Roosting Behavior of the Lesser Long-nosed Bat, Leptonycteris curasoae, Journal of Mammology (1998). Geluso, K.N., J.S. Altenbach and D.E. Wilson. 1976. Bat Mortality: Pesticide Poisoning and Migratory Stress, Science (1976). 194:184-186. Glass, B.P. Seasonal Movements of Mexican free-tail bats Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana Banded in the Great Plains, Southwestern Naturalist (1982). 27:127-133. Hall, E.R., and W.W. Dalquest. The Mammals of Veracruz, University of Kansas Publications . Museum of Natural History: Lawrence, Kansas (1963). 14:125-335. McNab, B.K. Energetics and the Distribution of Vampires, Journal of Mammalogy (1973). 54:131-144. McCracken, G.F. 1986. Why are We Losing our Mexican Free-tail Bats?, BATS (1986). 3(3):1-4. McCracken, G.F., and J.K. Westbrook. Bat Patrol: Scientists Discover that High-flying Mammals are Bad News for Bugs, National Geographic (2002). 201(4):114-123. Medelln, R.A., H.T. Arita y O.H. Sanchez. 1997. Identificacin de los Murcilagos de Mxico. Associacion Mexicana de Matozoologia, A.C.: Mexico, D.F. (1997). Mizutani, H., D.A. McFarlane and Y. Kabaya. Nitrogen and Carbon Isotope Study of Bat Guano Core from Eagle Creek Cave, Arizona, U.S.A., Mass Spectroscopy (1992). 40:57-65. Mizutani, H. Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopic Signatures of Bat Guanos as Record of Past Environments, Mass Spectroscopy (1992). 40:67-82. Moreno-Valdez, A. Ecological Studies of the Mexican Long-nosed Bat ( Leptonycteris nivalis). Dissertation, Texas A&M University: College Station, Texas (2000). Moreno-Valdez, A. Murcilagos de Nuevo Leon: Nuestros Invaluables Aliados. Impresora Monterrey: Monterrey, Nuevo Leon (1996). Tuttle, M.D. The Lives of Mexican Free-tailed Bats, BATS (1994). 12(3):6-14. Villa, B., and E.L. Cockrum. Migration in the Guano Bat Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana, Journal of Mammology (1962). 43:43-64. Watkins, L.C., J.K. Jones and H.H. Genoways. Bats of Jalisco, Mexico, (Special Publications). The Museum, Texas Tech Press: Lubbock, Texas (1972). Wilson, D.E. Murcilagos Respuestas al Vuelo. Universidad Veracruzana, con licencia de Smithsonian Institution: Xalapa, Veracruz (2002).

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DR. MERLIN D. TUTTLE, Founder and President of Bat Conservation International, has been studying and protecting bats and their habitats for more than 40 years. His knowledge about these remarkable animals is unsurpassed. DR. ARNULFO MORENO, Associate Professor at Technological Institute of Ciudad Victoria in Tamaulipas, has studied the bats of northern Mexico for 15 years and is a leading authority on cave-dwelling bats of the region.

Bat Conservation International is the world leader in protecting bats and their habitats and in educating the public about the many benefits of these remarkable and misunderstood animals. Please join us in this effort. Visit our website, www.batcon.org, for information or to become a BCI member. PO Box 162603 Austin, Texas USA 78716 512.327-9721

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