Application Note

TAN 1003
Earthing guide
for surge protection
Synopsis
This publication discusses the major aspects of
earthing surge protection devices (SPDs). The
relationship between SPD earths and the earthing
of associated instrumentation or other equipment
with which the devices are used is also considered.
MTL Surge Technologies
Application Notes from MTL Surge Technologies
MTL Surge Technologies publish an increasing number of Application Notes providing easily understood information on various aspects of lightning and
surge protection. At the date of publication of this Application Note, the list included:
TAN1001 Lightning surge protection for electronic equipment a practical guide
A relatively brief and easy to understand introduction to the subject an excellent starting point.
TAN1002 Lightning and surge protection basic principles
A more detailed account of the mechanism of lightning strikes and the measures needed to achieve an adequate level of
protection.
TAN1003 Earthing guide for surge protection
A detailed analysis of the subject of earthing for surge suppression purposes, this is both an easily understood exposition
and a valuable reference document.
TAN1004 Surge protection for intrinsically safe systems
A description of the best methods of combining surge protection and intrinsically safe systems.
TAN1005 Surge protection for Zone 0 locations
A detailed analysis of this particular aspect of surge suppression in hazardous areas; complements TAN1004.
TAN1006 Surge protection for weighing systems
Discusses, in some detail, the application of surge suppression to load-cell weighing systems.
TAN1007 Surge protection for Local Area Networks
Discusses ways in which Local Area Networks can be damaged by lightning induced transients and how they can be protected
economically.
TAN1009 Surge protection for electrical power installations
Discusses aspects of how to protect and install mains devices, with information on earthing and mains systems. A guide to
simple maintenance techniques for surge protection devices is included.
About MTL Surge Technologies
MTL Surge Technologies, the surge protection division of the MTL Instruments Group Plc, designs and manufactures a vast range of protection solutions
for all your system surge protection requirements. Comprising of two independent but closely linked companies, Telematic and Atlantic Scientific
Corporation, MTL Surge Technologies has a combined experience of nearly 50 years within the surge protection industry. MTL Surge Tecnologies supplies
a wide range of Telematic and Atlantic Scientific surge protection devices offering solutions for all AC power, data and signal, telecom, network and wireless
and HF systems.
The MTL Instruments Group has a strong and well respected presence within the Industrial Process market. This, combined with Telematics close
association with the Water Industry and Atlantic Scientifics presence in the Networks and Wireless Infrastructure market, means that MTL Surge
Technologies is well placed to support a wide range of industries around the world.
CONTENTS Page
1 EARTHING FOR SURGE PROTECTION OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Practical aspects of surge protection earthing summary .............................................................................................................................................. 1
2 LIGHTNING AND THE NEED FOR SURGE PROTECTION .............................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 The threat from lightning transients ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
2.2 How lightning interacts with electronic systems...................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.3 Lightning surges how big.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.4 What do we mean by earth?........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.5 Earthing problems basic questions............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.6 Complete protection box it!............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.7 An idealised earthing system next best thing to a metal box......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.8 A less than ideal system..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.9 Recapitulation the threat from lightning................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
3 SURGES AND SURGE PROTECTION......................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Common and difference mode surges.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 How surges damage equipment ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Surge protection devices (SPDs) how they work.................................................................................................................................................................. 5
3.4 What equipment needs protecting?............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Case study telephones, answering machines and modems ........................................................................................................................................... 6
4 EARTHING FOR SURGE PROTECTION IN THE REAL WORLD....................................................................................................................................... 6
4.1 Introduction earth impedance and position............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
5 SURGE EARTH IMPEDANCE ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.1 Inductance and resistance ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
5.2 A note on skin depth ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Inductance and surges another angle ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.4 Surges on cables some real measurement ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.5 Inductance recapitulation ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
6 SURGE EARTH POSITION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
6.1 The trouble with a high impedance surge earth ...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
6.2 Re-positioning the earth connection to lower the limiting voltage ................................................................................................................................... 9
6.3 Using a surge link when the earth connection cannot be repositioned ..................................................................................................................... 10
7 EARTHING SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS AND INSTALLATION ..................................................................................................................................... 10
7.1 Star-point earthing ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
7.2 Implementing a star-point earthing system ............................................................................................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Surge earths and protective earths .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
7.4 Surge protection for external connections ................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
7.5 Cable layout problems associated with cables entering a building at separate points ......................................................................................... 13
7.6 Ground electrodes, ground impedance and surges ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
7.7 Connection to the structural lightning protection system .................................................................................................................................................. 15
7.8 The other end of the cable ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
8 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
8.1 Shielded cables and earth loops ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
8.2 Protecting baseband transmission systems using co-axial cable .................................................................................................................................... 17
8.3 Protecting high-frequency co-axial cable systems (e.g. antenna feeds and CCTV) ................................................................................................. 17
8.4 Protecting the mains supply .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
8.5 Surge earths and telecommunications functional earths ................................................................................................................................................... 19
8.6 Integrated earthing for process systems ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
8.7 Hazardous areas earthing for lightning protection ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
9 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
9.A Appendix A Ground electrode resistance and surge current sharing, a simple model ..................................................................................... 21
9.B Appendix B Glossary .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
9.C Appendix C Further reading .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
EARTHING GUIDE FOR SURGE PROTECTION
1 EARTHING FOR SURGE PROTECTION OF
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
1.1 Introduction
At MTL Surge Technologies, we believe it is possible to provide economic
and practical surge protection for virtually all electronic systems. However,
the protection provided depends crucially on the quality of the installation
the best surge protection device is of no use if incorrectly installed.
Installation and more specifically earthing is the subject of many
technical queries.
This Application Note is an attempt to share the expertise on earthing and
installation built up over the years to assist you in specifying or installing
systems requiring lightning protection. Much of our experience has been
gained in co-operation with customers, to whom we are grateful, and we
are only too pleased to take note of your views and comments to improve
future editions of this publication.
We have tried to be as clear as possible and to de-mystify a subject
regarded as a black art by many. In fact, a good understanding can be
gained using concepts from basic electrical theory only. It is appreciated
that you may well encounter practical difficulties outside the scope of this
publication (in which case, our technical consultancy service may prove of
value) but we also believe that knowledge of the underlying principles is
always helpful for tackling real-life problems.
To make sure the specialist terminology used in surge protection is
understood a short glossary is included as Appendix B.
1.2 Practical aspects of surge
protection earthing summary
This section briefly summarises what needs to be done
to earth surge protection devices effectively while the
rest of the publication explains why.
1.2.1 Structural protection
Make sure the building housing the equipment is
provided with structural lightning protection in
accordance with national standards (in the UK, these
are established by BS6651).
1.2.2 Cable routeing
If possible, bring all services (i.e. electricity, telephone,
LAN cables, antenna cables, metallic water and gas
pipes) into the building at one point.
1.2.3 Bonding and earthing
Bond the following services to an earth terminal at one
point (preferably the main distribution board for the
mains electrical supply where applicable) using as short
a bond cable length as possible, to keep them as close as
possible to the same potential:
N Metallic water and gas pipes
N Antenna cable
Bond this earth terminal to the building structural
lightning protection as close to the ground as possible.
1.2.4 Surge protection
Fit, as close to the earth terminal as possible, appropriate
surge protection devices (SPDs) on ALL incoming cables,
where applicable, for the following services:
N Electricity
N Telephone
N Local Area Network
N Antenna
N Video (security) camera
Bond the SPDs to the earth terminal with the shortest
possible length of cable with a minimum cross section of
2.5mm
2
. Better still, use several cables, spaced apart and
connected electrically in parallel.
Best of all, use sheet metalwork rather than cables.
If you own the entire cable link, fit another SPD at the
remote end.
1.2.5 Diverse cables which cannot be
rerouted
Fit appropriate SPDs close to the most strategically
important equipment (e.g. fax machines, modems, etc.)
Bond the SPDs to the equipment earth (e.g. chassis or mains
protective earth) with the shortest possible length of cable
with a minimum cross section of 2.5mm
2
. Better still, use
several cables, spaced apart and connected electrically in
parallel. Best of all, use sheet metalwork rather than cables.
1
2 LIGHTNING AND THE NEED FOR SURGE
PROTECTION
2.1 The threat from lightning transients
Lightning is a fascinating natural phenomenon which we can discuss only
briefly in this publication. However, Appendix C, Further Reading lists some
excellent sources of more information.
Briefly, a lightning flash is caused by an electrical current flowing in the
atmosphere. Moist air currents interacting with ice particles within a
cloud lead to the formation of concentrations of electric charges at
different heights. Very large voltage differences, of the order of many
millions of volts, develop between the charge concentrations and the
base of the cloud and the surface of the earth. When this voltage
difference becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric resistance, a
lightning stroke occurs. Most lightning strokes take place cloud-to-cloud
but some are cloud-to-ground.
In the UK, it is believed that 98% of direct cloud-to-ground strokes carry a
current of 200kA or less, with a median of around 30kA.
2.2 How lightning interacts with electronic systems
There are a number of ways in which lightning can interact with electronic
equipment:
a) By a direct strike from a cloud-to-ground lightning stroke, sometimes
referred to by the archaic-sounding description of direct attachment
(see 2.2.1)
b) Electric/magnetic coupling, also referred to as capacitive/inductive
coupling, from cloud-to-cloud or cloud-to ground lightning (see 2.2.2).
c) Ground potential surges caused by a cloud-to-ground strike and
sometimes referred to as resistive coupling (see 2.2.3).
In practice, during a cloud-to-ground strike, various combinations of these
coupling mechanisms may occur simultaneously.
2.1 Direct attachment
This describes a direct strike to the equipment or, more usually, the building
or plant housing it (figure 1). The effects of this can be devastating, due to
the enormous currents and energies involved. Where there is a significant
risk of a direct strike, external structural protection based on lightning
conductors and earth rods is essential to provide a relatively easy path for
lightning current to flow into the ground without entering the building.
Without external protection, equipment housed in the building may provide
the easiest path to earth for lightning currents via side-flashing where the
lightning arcs across from the outside to the inside, damaging the
structure in the process. However, even well-protected structures pose
problems for internal equipment as the lightning currents passing into the
ground may create ground potential surges (see 2.2.3).
2.2.2 Electric/magnetic (capacitive/inductive) coupling
A highly-charged thundercloud sets up a very large electric field to ground.
When a lightning discharge occurs, this electric field changes very rapidly and
can couple a voltage spike into equipment cables due to cloud-to-cable
capacitance. Simultaneously, huge currents (tens to hundreds of kiloamps) flow,
which can couple transient currents into cables through mutual inductance.
However, field induction is the weakest of the coupling mechanisms and is not
generally regarded as a significant source of damage.
Note 1: When the lightning current flows, an electromagnetic field is set
up, producing crackles, particularly on long and medium wave radios. Some
organisations monitor lightning activity with radio techniques which can be
used to record the location and severity of strikes.
2.2.3 Resistive coupling and ground potential surges
When lightning strikes the ground (figure 1), the current disperses through
the soil. Because the ground is not a perfect conductor, high voltages can
develop. Two buildings, and the equipment which they contain, can
therefore be at very different local ground potentials. If cables, buried or
not, link them, the equipment at each end will be subjected to this potential
difference. This is a common source of damage (see figure 2). The ground
potential surge will be most severe in the case of a direct strike (see 2.2.1).
Although direct strikes cause the most damage, the ground potential
surge poses the greatest threat to electronic equipment, because the
probability of it happening is much higher.
V
R
Cloud-to-cloud lightning
Strike to ground
Direct attachment
Figure 1 Ways in which lightning can affect buildings and contents
2
Lightning stroke
Ground
resistance
Building 1 ground
Cable, overhead
or buried
Building 1
Building 2
Potential difference
(perhaps hundreds KV)
between ends of cable
Building 2 ground
2.3 Lightning surges how big?
Fortunately, in the vast majority of cases, only a fraction of the full effects
of a direct lightning strike affect equipment cables. Experience suggests
that most surge protection devices will be effective if they can cope,
repeatedly, with the following orders of magnitude:
a) Voltage: kilovolts to tens of kV
b) Current: kiloamps to low tens of kA
c) Duration: 10 to several hundred microseconds
Before covering the threat from lightning in more detail, we need to sort
out a few terms and definitions concerning earths (section 2.4).
2.4 What do we mean by earth?
Earthing can seem a bewildering subject partly because even in the
restricted electrical sense of the word, it can mean different things to
different people. Even without considering all the extremes, here are
just a few:
a) Process plant clean earth
b) A copper (0V) track on a printed circuit board
c) Supply earth
d) Earth pin of a mains plug
e) Common negative
f) Antenna earth system (e.g. a set of buried radials)
g) Distribution earth
h) Surge earth
i) Intrinsic safety earth
j) Busbar in a panel or cubicle
k) A connection to test equipment (e.g. oscilloscope) front panel
l) A conductive rod driven into the ground
2.4.1 EARTH a simple working definition
In this Application Note, earth is defined as the zero volt reference for an
electrical/electronic system.
Note 1: There is no such thing as true earth, i.e. a universal zero volt reference.
Note 2: In this publication, the term ground is applied to the surface of the
planet, i.e. soil and rock. As sometimes happens with terminology, what is
referred to as earth in the UK is referred to as ground in North America
and vice-versa.
Note 3: Many real-world systems need a connection to the ground. Mains
power is an example. Lightning being an interaction between the atmosphere
and the ground, these systems may need protection.
Note 4: Self-contained electronic products such as battery- or solar-powered
devices such as radios, calculators and personal cassette players are
isolated from ground and for them, therefore, the issue of earthing is
irrelevant.
Note 5: Earth has also been defined as the place to which electrons go
at the end of their useful lives. In fact, old electrons never die most
having been around since the early universe. They are thus extremely aged
and deserve our utmost respect.
2.5 Earthing problems basic questions
Earthing problems can seem impenetrable at first sight but this need not
be so provided two basic questions are borne in mind at each stage:
a) Where will current flow?
b) What voltage (or potential difference) will develop when it does?
Answering these questions is the object of much of this publication.
Remember also that:
c) Lightning-induced current will ultimately flow to ground, i.e.
into the soil.
d) When tackling a new installation, a diagram or sketch is
usually valuable.
2.6 Complete protection box it!
If the entire electronic system can be enclosed in an electrically conducting
(e.g. metal) box, unwanted currents flowing round the outside of the box
will not generate any potentials inside (see figure 3). This is the principle of
the so-called Faraday cage. Electronic equipment inside such a box will
survive even a direct strike.
Figure 2 Mechanism of ground potential surge caused by a cloud-to-ground strike
3
Current
I
I
Metal box
Figure 3 A metal box used as a Faraday cage.
Although at first sight this concept may seem trivial, in aviation it is very
important. Aircraft designers strive to make airframes as closely approximate
to closed metal boxes as possible. In regular service, passenger aircraft
expect to be struck by lightning at least once a year on average. A great deal of
modelling and testing is undertaken to make sure avionic equipment survives
lightning strikes unscathed.
A word to the wise this shielding effect of a metal enclosure means it is safer
to remain within a metal-bodied car during a thunderstorm than to leave it.
2.7 An idealised earthing system next best thing
to a metal box
When confronted with a real-life lightning protection problem, it is helpful to
bear an ideal next best thing to a metal box solution in mind, in order to
reach the closest practical approximation to this.
This ideal system, which virtually eliminates problems with surges is shown
in figure 4. Salient points are:
a) All equipment is metal-cased.
b) All equipment sits directly on a metal sheet to which it is electrically
bonded. Everything shares the same low-impedance zero volt reference.
c) For good measure, the metal earth plane is at ground level and
connected to ground by a system of rods driven into the soil so
that it is at local ground potential.
d) There is no connection to other electronic systems.
e) The system is physically small, a few square metres at most, so
making the likelihood of a direct strike negligible.
Equipment
METAL EARTH PLANE
(All equipment bonded to it)
Ground Rods
The purpose of the metal earth plane sheet is to provide a low impedance
to any induced currents which flow, resulting in very small induced voltages.
Such an area of zero or minimal potential differences is sometimes referred
to as an equipotential zone
It is worth explaining what is meant by low impedance. This is a loose term
and the meaning depends a great deal on the context and application. With
lightning-induced surges, currents of the order of 1 kiloamp may be involved,
developing a potential difference of 1 kilovolt across each ohm of
impedance for each kiloamp of current which flows.
The lowest impedance is provided by a sheet of high-conductivity metal
which, strictly, should be non-ferrous because of the skin effect which is more
pronounced in ferro-magnetic alloys and which forces transient or high-
frequency currents to flow through smaller conductor areas. Skin effect is
also mentioned in section 5.2 with reference to surge earth impedance.
For a 50-60Hz electrical supply, the purpose of the protective earth
conductor is to provide a low impedance to supply frequency fault currents,
so that voltages developed across a length of cable are insufficient to cause
a serious electric shock to any people within the installation. Metal plumbing
and heating pipes are bonded to the protective earth conductor system to
create a safe equipotential zone. However, as we shall see, this system,
though adequate at the supply frequency, cannot be considered a low
impedance equipotential zone for lightning-induced transients.
2.8 A less than ideal system
We still have our excellent grounded earth plane, but, as in figure 5, our
equipotential zone is now breached by cables coming in from outside. These
could be for:
a) Mains power
b) Telephone
c) Telemetry
d) Antennas
e) Computer network
f) External lighting power cables
Now that we have a system of cables, we do need to worry about lightning-
induced transients and it is time to evaluate in more detail (see section 3)
the way in which cables can pass transients to our equipment and the
means by which surge protection devices operate.
2.9 Recapitulation the threat from lightning
a) Lightning strikes to ground involve large currents (averaging tens
of kiloamps (kA).
b) Because the ground (i.e. soil and rock) is not a perfect conductor,
lightning current flowing through the ground resistance develops
very large voltages (hundreds of kilovolt (kV) or more) between
points on the Earths surface.
Figure 4 The perfect earth!
4
Antenna Feeder
Telephone cable
Mains power cable
Computer network
(LAN) cable
Figure 5 A less than ideal system
c) Such points could be two buildings containing electrical installations
and linked by cables; a strike close to one (say within 1km) raises
the potential of the ground and a large potential difference develops
between the two installations.
d) A surge has been created; if current flows (as it generally will when
there is an enormous potential difference between the two
installations), the ultimate damaging current path is between the
ground connections of the two installations.
3 SURGES AND SURGE PROTECTION
3.1 Common and difference mode surges
Cables consist of more than one conductor. During a surge, all conductors
will tend to move together in potential relative to local ground. This is
referred to as common mode (figure 6).
However, a difference in voltage can also develop between the conductors.
This is referred to as difference mode (also known as transverse or
series mode) (figure 7).
Both can damage equipment. Common mode surges tend to be bigger, but
equipment tends to be more vulnerable to difference mode. However,
Telematic protectors limit both types of surge.
3.2 How surges damage equipment
Before a surge can damage electronic equipment, several conditions need
to be fulfilled:
With respect to a
local voltage
reference point,
the voltage shift
is the same for
both conductors

Local voltage
reference point
Pair of signal conductors
The voltage
difference occurs
between the
conductors, i.e. one
conductor shifts in
voltage with respect
to the other
Pair of signal conductors
Figure 6 Common mode voltage
Figure 7 Difference mode voltage
3.2.1 Voltage/current relationship
Sufficient voltage must be present between two vulnerable points on the
equipment to cause significant current to flow. The vulnerable points are
usually signal or power supply inputs or outputs, and the equipments zero
voltage reference point which is commonly the casing or chassis
connected to the mains supply earth. The voltage above which significant
current starts to flow is often called the breakdown voltage (or potential).
3.2.2 Time/energy relationship
The current must flow for sufficient time to deposit enough energy within
electronic components to cause damage commonly the melting down of
some part of the device.
3.3 Surge protection devices (SPDs) how they work
Surge protection devices (see the glossary Appendix B for other
commonly-used terms for these) limit the transient voltage to a level which
is safe for the equipment they protect by conducting the large surge
current safely to ground through the earth conductor system. Current
flows past, rather than through, the protected equipment and the SPD
thereby diverts the surge (see figure 8).
The SPD limits both common and difference mode voltages to the equipment.
The voltage which the equipment receives during a surge is called the
limiting or let-through voltage.
One way of regarding a surge protection device is as an earth connection
(figure 9) which is only present during a surge.
SPD
Difference mode
limiting voltage

Protected
equipment
Common-
mode
limiting
voltage
Figure 8 Path of surge diversion through an SPD
5
Surge protection device (SPD)
Cable
To equipment
Normal
Surge
Figure 9 SPD acting as an earth connection
3.4 What equipment needs protecting?
In principle, wherever a cable enters an equipotential zone, equipment connected
to that cable is exposed to possibly damaging surges. The degree of risk depends
on factors such as:
a) Cable length.
b) Frequency of occurrence of lightning.
c) Exposure of the site to lightning and the degree of isolation.
d) Whether cables run above ground or underground.
It is essential to protect ALL cables which introduce a significant
risk, as will be seen later.
Consider again our system on its earth plane, but now with all incoming
cables (figure 10) feeding equipment through suitable SPDs. Because of
the low impedance earth plane, this will still be close to an ideal system.
Note 1: Small, self-contained, isolated pieces of equipment, e.g. multimeters,
transistor radios and cassette players, do not, in general, need protecting,
because they do not have a ground connection.
3.5 Case study telephones, answering machines
and modems
This case study illustrates points made in the previous sections in part 3. While
it is based on UK practice, the points it makes have a general application.
For decades until quite recently, the only communication device in the home
was the telephone, connected to the public telephone network (PTN) by a
wire-pair. A telephone was powered from the network and had no electrical
connection to the house. Being electrically isolated, it was therefore not
Antenna feeder
SPD
SPD
SPD
SPD
Computer network
(LAN) cable
Mains power cable
Telephone cable
Figure 10 SPDs on incoming cables protect associated equipment
vulnerable (apart from rare direct strikes to the house) to common mode
transients on the telephone wires. Protection from difference mode
transients was given by a gas-discharge tube (GDT) fitted in the house line-
box. Although the limiting voltage of the GDT can be several hundred volts
for the first microsecond or so of the transient, this was generally
adequate difference mode voltages of up to 180V or so can occur during
normal operation.
Next came answering machines and, more recently still, modems linking
personal computers to the Internet through the telephone connection.
These are powered from the house electrical mains. They are isolated up
to a point by the primary to secondary insulation in the power supply
transformer. However, a lightning transient can create a common mode
voltage sufficient to break down this insulation and the circuit components.
A current path is created between the telephone line and the mains supply,
and damage to the answering machine or modem is the result.
Note that even though double insulation is normally used, with no direct
connection to the mains protective earth conductor, this is of little
consequence when a transient voltage of several kilovolt occurs. In any case,
neutral and earth conductors are bonded at some point on the supply (in
modern installations at the point where the mains supply enters the building).
To recapitulate, damage is caused by the presence of a voltage difference
between the telephone wires and local earth, in this case the electrical
mains, which is sufficient to overcome the breakdown potentials of the
power supply and the equipment. Current flows through the telephone line,
equipment and power supply to the mains supply for sufficiently long to
deposit enough energy within the components to cause damage.
Ultimately, the current flows into the ground where the mains supply has
its connection with the soil.
4 EARTHING FOR SURGE PROTECTION IN THE
REAL WORLD
4.1 Introduction earth impedance and position
In reality, very few systems are bonded to an earth plane or mat. Real
earthing is done with cables. Think of the all-important two questions:
a) Where will the surge current flow?
b) What voltage (potential difference) will develop when it does?
The answer to these questions in any particular case depends on the
position and impedance of the surge earth.
4.1.1 Example
The use of separate connections to ground, such as separate ground rods,
can cause unwanted voltages to be developed across the ground impedance
(figure 11). These can be appreciable.
6
Inductance is more complicated than resistance. The formula for the
inductance of a straight piece of wire is:
L = 0.2l{log
e
2.l/
r
1} H
where l = length and r = radius (both in m)
Note: In most cases, the wire will be much longer than it is thick, and its
inductance decreases only slightly as the diameter increases. However, the
inductance goes up even faster than the length, as table 1 shows. This is
based on a peak surge current of 1kA, with a maximum rate of rise of
100A/s, flowing through copper cable. This represents a result that can
happen in practice and is by no means an extreme case.
Table 1
Note: The peak resistive and inductive voltages are not added together to
give a total voltage, because they do not occur at the same time. The
resistive voltage peaks with the current. However the inductive voltage
peaks when the rate of rise of current is maximum. At the peak of the
current waveform, the rate of rise of current (by definition) is zero and so
is the inductive voltage.
A number of important points emerge from table 1:
a) The inductive voltage dwarfs the resistive voltage.
b) Resistance is proportional to length; but inductance grows at a
somewhat faster rate (e.g. a 10m wire has more than 10 times
the inductance of a 1m wire).
c) Wire diameter has a relatively small effect on the inductance. For
instance, increasing wire size from 2.5 to 10mm
2
(doubling the
diameter) reduces inductance by less than 10%. The larger cable
is much more difficult to bend, strip and install. However, if the
mechanical strength of a larger cable is needed, use it.
In conclusion keep all surge earth cables as short as possible!
We usually recommend cable of 2.5mm
2
minimum cross-section for the
surge earth. This is large enough not to overheat or melt during any likely
surge (and is unlikely to be the weak link in any case), yet it is convenient to
handle and install. However, as noted elsewhere, mechanical strength or
other circumstances may favour the use of thicker cables.
Note : As a rule of thumb, for cables up to a few metres in length; at least
100V is developed per metre of surge earth cable, per kiloamp of lightning-
induced surge current; i.e. 100V/m/kA. This is based on a rate of rise of
current of 100A/s. Calculation based on a 1m length of 2.5mm2 cable
and the 8/20s current pulse test waveform (see section 5.4) gives
200V/kA.
Note: The inductive voltage transients are common-mode. Telematic
surge protection devices have very low internal inductance values which
means that difference-mode transients are limited effectively regardless of
the earth cable.
Assume an SPD with a limiting voltage of 16V is connected as shown in
figure 12 and that the impedance from the body of the SPD to the
equipment earth, via the ground, is 10. Depending upon the soil and
other circumstances, this can be a credible low value.
A 100A peak surge current flowing through the ground impedance will
develop 1000V through the ground. The SPD will limit the voltage across
itself to 16V and the equipment will be subjected to 1016V instead of the
required 16V. Damage to the equipment is inevitable! Fortunately, it is
possible to improve on this as we shall see after studying impedance a
little more closely.
5 SURGE EARTH IMPEDANCE
5.1 Inductance and resistance
Conductors possess resistance and inductance [see reference 4]. The
effects of these (figure 12) are additive as they appear in series.
The voltage drop along this cable is given by:
V = IR + L
dI
/
dt
where V = voltage, I = current, R = resistance, L = inductance and
dI
/
dt
= rate of change of current.
For low frequencies, such as 50Hz mains supplies, inductance is usually
negligible in practice and only resistance needs be considered.
Resistance depends on the material used for the conductor. For any given
material of uniform cross section, it is proportional to length and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area, i.e.:
R =
rl
/
A
where R = resistance in W, r = resistivity in W.m, l = length in m and
A = cross sectional area (m
2
).
For lightning surges, and even more so for electrostatic discharges (ESD),
which have extremely fast edges, inductance dominates. An earth which is
adequate for the normal mains supply frequency, may not be so for lightning
surge protection.
R L
Inductance Resistance
V
SPD Protected
equipment
Ground
Voltage developed across ground impedance
Ground impedance
Figure 11 Voltage developed between separate ground connections
Figure 12 Resistance and inductance
Peak Peak
Cross resistive inductive
Length section Resistance Inductance voltage voltage
(m) (mm
2
) () (H) (V) (V)
1 1 0.017 1.4 17 144
1 2.5 0.0068 1.3 6.8 134
1 10 0.0017 1.2 1.7 120
10 1 0.17 19 170 1895
10 2.5 0.068 18 68 1803
10 10 0.017 16.6 17 1664
7
Table 3 shows the voltage across three conductors 1m in length.
Table 3
*Note: Each of the 10 conductors consists of 7 strands of 0.2mm
diameter wire. Total conductor cross section = 2.2mm
2
Figure 14 illustrates the point made earlier about inductive voltage and
current by reproducing an oscilloscope plot of the two waveforms.
Table 4 shows the effect of electrically-parallelling 1m lengths of 2.5mm
2
cable, looped between the surge generator terminals.
Table 4
From these results, it can be concluded that two or more cables taking
separate paths will provide a lower limiting voltage than a single large diameter
cable. Even a small separation between the conductors improves matters
considerably. The further apart the cables can be run without making them
excessively lengthy, the less magnetic coupling there is between them and the
lower the overall inductance.
Conductor type Peak surge voltage (V)
Single cable 250
2 cables on similar paths 170
4 cables, similar paths 130
4 cables, differing paths 80
5.2 A note on skin depth
High frequency current flowing through a conductor generates an
electromagnetic field, one effect of which is to confine the current towards
the outside of the conductor. This is known as the skin effect while the
thickness of the layer to which most of the current is restricted is the skin
depth. The higher the frequency, the smaller the depth. Consequently,
because not all of the conductors cross section is carrying its fair share of
current, the resistance is higher than its direct current value.
For a copper conductor at 50Hz, skin depth is of the order of 10mm, so is
seldom a problem. However, lightning transients induced on cables have
considerably higher frequency components (up to the order of tens of kHz)
in which case the skin depth which is proportional to the square root of
the inverse of the frequency in copper is less than 1mm.
The skin effect will cause the resistive voltages to be greater than those
shown in table 1. However, we believe this will less than double the resistive
voltage. Since this is still dwarfed by inductance, the argument that length
is more important than diameter holds good and, in fact, is reinforced. The
skin effect simply means that some of the benefit of increasing the
diameter of a conductor is lost.
5.3 Inductance and surges another angle
Inductors store energy in the form of a magnetic field. If the voltage transient
is large enough to cause surge current to flow in the equipment, this energy
is released to cause damage. The energy (E) stored in an inductor of
inductance L, is given by:
E = L . I
2
/2
where I is the peak current.
If we again consider the case of 1kA peak current and the inductance of a
2.5mm
2
cable obtained from table 1, we find the results shown in table 2:
Table 2
The energy is ample to damage many electronic components. Semiconductor
junctions, for example, can be damaged by energy of the order of microjoules
(1 microjoule [J] = 10
6
J).
Note: An energy level of 1 joule (J) is approximately the energy needed
to raise an average-sized apple 1m. If you catch an apple dropped from
a height of 1m, the impact on your hand represents about 1J of energy.
Note: So far, we have assumed the wiring is straight. Bends in cables
increase inductance: the reason why coils of wire are commonly used
as inductors.
5.4 Surges on cables some real measurements
This section describes results from measurements using simulated lightning
surges and the conclusions that can be drawn from these.
Surge testing is done using standard waveforms. The one shown in the
oscilloscope trace reproduced in figure 13, which was used throughout
these tests, is the so-called 8/20 waveform since it rises to peak current
in 8s, and falls to half the peak after 20s.
Note: This waveform definition is not strictly precise as the waveform is
defined mathematically but is adequate in practice. The plot in figure 13
is a close approximation produced by a real generator.
To achieve the result shown in figure 13, a peak current of slightly more than
1kA was used. For reference, a copper sheet was placed across the surge
generator terminals which were 10cm apart. A peak voltage of 5V was
developed. Replacing the copper sheet with 10cm of 16 swg (standard wire
gauge) wire produced 27V. The rest of the measurements were done using
1m long loops placed across the terminals.
Voltage waveform Current waveform
Timebase = 1s/division
Figure 14 Plot showing inductive voltage and current waveforms
Length Inductance Stored energy
(m) (H) (J)
1 1.3 0.65
10 18 9
Conductor type Peak inductive
transient voltage (V)
2.5mm
2
cable 250
10mm
2
cable 200
10mm
2
90A braid 200
10-way ribbon cable * 170
8
Timebase = 5s/division
Figure 13 Plot of surge current waveform
5.5 Inductance recapitulation
a) Where possible, take advantage of available sheet metalwork, e.g.
panels or enclosures.
b) For circular cross-section conductors, increasing the cable diameter
gives a relatively poor improvement for the extra installation difficulty.
c) For a given cross-sectional area, flat conductors are better than
round ones.
d) Running several cables electrically in parallel and physically spaced
apart by several centimetres gives a worthwhile improvement.
e) A device which has many straight, flat, parallel conducting paths is
called a metal sheet or panel!
6 SURGE EARTH POSITION
6.1 The trouble with a high impedance surge earth ...
Having considered surge earth inductance, we are in a better position to
understand the consequences of having too much of it. Figure 15 illustrates an
SPD connected between an incoming signal line, shown as a wire pair, and a piece
of equipment. The SPD is connected to the equipment earth conductor (typically
the protective earth conductor) which, in turn, is ultimately connected to ground.
This gives a relatively long path.
The cables can be represented by their equivalent impedances inductance
in series with resistance as shown in figure 16.
A common mode surge appearing on the cable indicates the presence of
a transient voltage between the cable and the ground connection. The SPD
operates and a rapidly increasing current starts to flow down the surge
earth. The voltage across the SPD is limited to its normal limiting voltage.
However, due to the relatively high impedance of the surge earth, a large
voltage appears across it. The equipment sees this voltage plus the SPD
limiting voltage and the transient voltages can be added to the diagram
(figure 17) while if there is a breakdown (usually destructive) within the
equipment, another current path is generated (figure 18).
Note that current now flows out through the protected or safe end of the
SPD. If the current path has a low enough impedance, the equipment and
the SPD output components can be damaged.
SPD Protected
equipment
Ground connection
Figure 15 SPD connected to equipment earth conductor
Protected
equipment
SPD
Figure 16 Cables shown as impedances between SPD, equipment,
and earth
V
T
i
T
i
T
i
T
V
C
+

V
T
V
C
L R
Transient
current
SPD
Protected
equipment
V = protector common -
mode limiting voltage
T
V = V = voltage
stress on equipment
C T
V = transient
voltage = L d i + R i
T
T
dt
T
Figure 17 Relationship of surge earth currents to SPD limiting voltage
6.2 Re-positioning the earth connection to reduce
the limiting voltage
The limiting voltage can be lowered by re-positioning the earth connection.
Locating the equipment earth (i.e. its zero-volt reference) at the SPD earth
point produces the configuration shown in figure 19.
Figure 20 adds the currents and voltages to figure 19. The equipment is now
subjected to an inductive voltage transient across the earth cable. There is
still a large transient voltage developing between the ground point and the
SPD, but this not appear across the equipment which receives only the limiting
voltage of the SPD which is as it should be. In section 7 we will see how, in
practice, the SPD can be positioned to satisfy the configuration depicted in
figures 19 and 20.
9
i
T
i
T
- i
e
i
e
i
T
SPD
Protected
equipment
i
e = current
flowing through
equipment
Figure 18 Voltage surges when a destructive breakdown occurs
SPD Protected
equipment
Figure 19 Locating the equipment earth at the SPD earth point
i
T
i
T
V
C
SPD
Protected
equipment
Figure 20 The effects of current and voltage when the equipment earth
is located at the SPD earth point
6.3 Using a surge link when the earth connection
cannot be re-positioned
There are bound to be circumstances in which an SPD and the protected
equipment are obliged to be some distance from the common earth point
(figure 21). If the SPD and equipment can be located close to each other,
the limiting voltage can be reduced by bonding the two with as short a
length of cable as possible. This is known as a surge link. Surge current is
now shared between the SPD and equipment earths. The inductive
transient voltage between them is reduced to that across the surge link.
Having emphasized the need to keep cables short to minimise inductance,
with a surge link installed as in figure 21, it is apparent that it is an
advantage for the equipment earth cable to have a high surge impedance
relative to that of the SPD (which can be done by making it from longer
coiled wire). Less surge current will then flow through the surge link and
the limiting voltage will be lower.
Note: Resistance MUST NOT be added to the equipment earth as this can
prejudice safety.
7 EARTHING SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS AND
INSTALLATION
7.1 Star-point earthing
A typical installation includes a number of items of equipment or devices,
each with its own connection. If these are all connected to a common
point, from which a cable runs to ground, the result is a star-point earth
system (figure 22).
i

-

i
1
i
1
i
i

-

i
1
Surge current
Protected
equipment
Surge link
SPD

Figure 21 The use of a surge link

Equipment
Equipment Equipment
Equipment Equipment
Figure 22 Star-point earth system
10
The individual devices are generally also linked by other cables but these
have been omitted in figure 22 to avoid cluttering the diagram.
Bearing in mind that the purpose of an earthing system is to keep all
equipment within it at the same potential, we should now investigate what
happens when current flows through the earth connection of just one
device see figure 23. The current i develops a voltage V across the
impedance Z of its earth connection and this potential difference exists
between this device and the others. Typically, a much larger voltage will be
developed across the common ground connection but this does not affect
the potential difference between the devices which can be thought of as
moving together in potential.
}
i
Z
V
i
i
V
1
Z
1
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment Equipment
Figure 23 Current flow through one device in a star-point earth system
i
Z
4
Z
1
Z
2
i
i
Z
3
i
V = i(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
)
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Figure 24 Vagaries of an earth system with variable connections to a
common earth connection
The benefit of the star-point system is evident when compared to an earth
system in which various devices are connected at various points along a
common earth connection (figure 24). This illustrates the worst-case
condition in which the current flowing down the earth conductor leaves
each device at a different potential.
7.2 Implementing a star-point earthing system
7.2.1 Basic principles
In a typical installation, there will be a protective earth system such as
that provided by the mains protective earth conductor. Ideally, interaction
between the SPD earth and the protective earth should be minimised by
star-pointing them together. How?
First, find the point on the protective earth system which is electrically
closest to ground. In a factory or office, this is likely to be the earth
terminal of the main distribution board where connections are made to
the incoming electricity supply. This provides the star-point to which all
SPDs should be earthed, using connections which are as short and direct
as possible. Surge currents can then flow to ground without flowing
through the protective earth system within the building. As we have seen,
these currents will generate a voltage between the earth terminal and the
connection into the ground. The whole earthing system will rise in
potential relative to the ground connection but minimal potential
differences will be generated between devices within the installation.
Fitting SPDs for various devices at the main earthing terminal does call for
all affected signal lines to be run close to this point this is best practice
for surge protection and should be done more often than it actually is.
7.2.2 Star-point system installation summary
N Locate the point on the protective earth system within the installation
which is electrically closest to ground (e.g. the earth terminal on the
main distribution board) this will be the star-point connection between
SPD earths and the supply protective earth.
N Route all signal cables to run as close to this point as possible.
N Fit SPDs on all signal lines as close to the star-point as possible.
N Connect the SPD earths to the star-point using connections which
are as short and direct as possible.
7.2.3 Practical connections
If possible, make use of system metalwork, such as may be present at the
main distribution board and mount the SPDs on metal panels to minimise the
inductance of their earth connections, taking care that any paint or grease is
first removed.
7.3 Surge earths and protective earths
Having introduced connections between surge protection devices and the
mains supply system of the particular building, it is advisable to review what
these are for.
7.3.1 Surge protection earths
The purpose of the surge protection earth is to carry transient currents to
ground by as direct and low-impedance a path as possible to minimise
common-mode limiting voltage and to provide the best equipment protection.
For this we recommend the use of 2.5mm
2
minimum cross-section cable
where necessary (i.e. where metal panels cannot be used).
7.3.2 Mains protective earths
The purpose of a mains protective earth conductor is to carry supply
frequency fault currents for long enough to allow current-limiting devices such
as fuses and circuit-breakers to operate. The size of this conductor is
determined by its ability to carry prospective electricity supply fault currents.
The prospective current is the current which the circuit can deliver into a
short-circuit fault.
7.3.3 Other aspects
If, for any reason, a conductor is used for both purposes, it MUST, at all costs,
be capable of carrying the prospective fault current and sized accordingly
remember, SAFETY FIRST!
In some circumstances, the surge and protective earth conductors are in
parallel. Provided there is always an adequate protective earth conductor
and good surge earthing practice is followed, it does not matter if surge
and fault currents are shared between the two paths.
11
To make sure the correct size and type of mains protective earth conductors
are used, consult the appropriate regulations. In the UK, this is the IEE Wiring
Regulations (BS7671:1992: IEE Wiring Regulations, 16th edition).
7.4 Surge protection for external connections
Manufacturers of surge protection devices (including Telematic) recommend
fitting SPDs to each cable which enters an installation from outside the
building why? Is this simply a ploy to sell more products?
The answer is NO, for two reasons:
a) Each cable provides an opportunity for surges to enter the building.
b) Failure to protect all cables may allow a surge on one to couple
to another.
7.4.1 Surges entering a building
To illustrate the first point a), consider a device with two cables, both of
which come from points remote from the installation and only one of which
is fitted with an SPD (figure 25). If, during a thunderstorm, there is a
lightning strike to ground near the remote end of the unprotected cable, the
device will suffer from a surge on the unprotected line. Breakdown
(probably destructive) occurs and current flows to ground, either through
the device or through its protected port and the output side of the SPD. In
the latter case, both the device and the SPD may be damaged (figure 26).
Equipment
Signal line 1
Signal line 2
SPD
Figure 25 Equipment with one unprotected signal line
Surge current
Equipment
SPD
Figure 26 Breakdown paths caused by a surge on an unprotected signal line
7.4.2 Surges coupling from one cable to another
For surge coupling, consider the simple system shown by figure 27 which
depicts a signal cable and an item of mains-powered equipment.
During a surge, the SPD on the signal line operates correctly and transient
current flows to ground through the earth conductor. However, the
inductive voltage across the earth conductor appears between the other
mains supply conductors (figure 28). The neutral-earth voltage depends on
the distance to the bond between them. If the SPD is at the main earth
terminal of the distribution board, where the neutral-earth bond is situated,
there will be little or no neutral earth transient and the inductive voltage will
appear between the live and the other two conductors. An SPD on the
mains supply (figure 29) will limit this surge to a safe level.
SPD Equipment
Signal line
Neutral
earth
bond
E
N
L
Power
supply
Figure 27 Configuration in which surge coupling can occur
Surge current
i
SPD
Equipment
Power
supply
Signal line
Neural
earth
bond
E
N
L
Inductive transient
i
Figure 28 The effect of surge coupling
12
Figure 31 illustrates an optimum installation in a slightly more practical
configuration.
7.5 Cable layout problems associated with cables
entering a building at separate points
In practice, signal cables frequently enter buildings at points remote from
the main distribution board earth terminal which is the earth reference
point for earthed equipment in the building. What then? SPDs are fitted
on both the signal line and the mains supply (as described in section 7.4) to
provide protection to the equipment served by the cable. However, there is
i
SPD
Equipment
Power
supply
Signal line
Neural
earth
bond
E
N
L
Inductive transient
Mains
SPD
i
Figure 29 Preventing surge coupling having adverse effects
Outside building
Inside building
Mains distribution board
SPD
To protected
equipment
To protected
equipment
Mains
SPD
Mains earth terminal
Building ground
NB: Mount SPDs
on earthed
metalwork, if
possible, for
minimal earth
impedance
L
N
L
N
E
Figure 30 Optimum installation
a very long cable path back to the earth terminal. How can we mitigate the
effects of this? There are several possibilities:
a) Equipment relatively isolated: no signal cable links to other equipment
in the building; earth cable not shared with other equipment see
section 7.5.1.
b) No internal signal cables: but shared earth path (more likely) see
section 7.5.2.
c) Internal cables: earth path not shared see section 7.5.3.
d) Internal cables: with shared earth paths section 7.5.4
7.5.1 Equipment relatively isolated
A typical example of a device which is relatively isolated is a telephone or fax
machine (figure 31). A lightning surge lifts the potential of the cable relative
to the local ground. The SPD operates and surge current passes down the
surge earth protector. An inductive transient develops across the earth
conductor. However, the fact that the equipment is isolated, protected and
does not share surge current with other equipment, means alls well.
7.5.2 No internal signal cables (with shared earth path)
Again, the equipment could be a fax machine (figure 32) but one which this
time shares an earth as part of the mains earth system (e.g. a ring main).
Note that the quality of surge protection has improved. The fax machine
will survive. Had it not been protected, the surge current would have
damaged the fax machine and a mains transient would still have occurred.
7.5.3 Internal cables (no shared earth path)
An example of an internal cable with no shared earth path, figure 33, could
be a modem serving a personal computer (PC). At least some of the surge
voltage developed across the earth cable may appear on the link to the PC,
so there is still the possibility of damage to the PC. If the surge earth path
cannot be shortened in practice, the modem with its SPD should be moved
closer to the PC and all earthed together.
7.5.4 Internal cables (shared earth paths)
This combines the cases discussed in 7.5.2 and 7.5.3. Transients on internal
cables and the mains supply are possible.
7.5.5 Summary
There is no easy way of handling the situation when cables enter a building
at points remote from the main earth terminal. If possible, the cables should
be re-routed. If not, SPDs should be fitted to the devices terminating the
cables. Where this equipment is linked electrically to vulnerable or
strategically-important items of equipment elsewhere in the system, surge
protection can be considered for these. Poor cable layout should not be
used as an excuse for omitting surge protection which can still reduce
significantly the risk and/or severity of damage.
i
SPD
E N L
i
Building's main
earth terminals
Earth conductors serving the
rest of the installation
Mains
SPD
Fax
Machine
Surge current
Figure 31 An example of relatively isolated equipment
13
i
SPD
Inductive
transient
Building's
main earth
terminals
Surge current
Modem PC
N L
(only earth conductor
shown - for clarity)
N
L
Mains
SPD
V
i
i
SPD
Fax
machine
Mains
SPD
E
N
L
To other parts of the
installation
Inductive
transient
Building's
main earth
terminals
Surge current
i
N L
Figure 32 Fax machine sharing an earth path
Figure 33 Internal cables with no shared earth path
7.6 Ground electrodes, ground impedance and surges
7.6.1 General
As we have seen earlier, lightning discharges to ground set up large transient
voltages, with respect to local ground, on incoming cables. So far, in dealing
with surge protection, we have assumed a connection to ground without
considering the detailed implications. There are questions worth asking.
Why have a connection to ground at all? Why not just insulate the system
and stop surge currents flowing at all, rather than bothering with low
inductance star-point earths and the like?
The answers stem from the huge voltages and currents involved in lightning
discharges. The voltage is so great that stroke current can be regarded as
coming from a constant current generator. In other words, the current will
flow. Our only hope is to control its path. To protect the structure of a
building we might try to make it emulate an aircraft by enclosing it in a metal
skin and placing it on insulating stilts (back to our ideal metal box?). But,
apart from amusing us, nothing would be gained for two reasons:
a) The aircraft works because it has absolutely no connection to ground
(apart from the atmosphere), unlike a building where, for example,
there is often a connection to ground through the mains supply.
b) It would be hideously expensive.
Having accepted that our building is irredeemably anchored to the ground,
do we need to bother about ground impedance? Suppose we are
responsible for a remote monitoring outstation. There is one incoming
cable from a transducer and a radio telemetry transmitter which is solar
powered with no mains supply connection. This is an approximation to the
isolated telephone or fax machine considered in section 7.5.1 and a ground
connection may not be necessary. However, there are two reasons why
sinking a ground rod at the outstation may still be worthwhile.
c) If the transducer cable is long, there may be sufficient voltage
caused by a ground potential surge to cause flashover from the
cable, through the telemetry equipment, to the fabric of the building.
d) There is also a risk, albeit slight, that someone in the outstation,
with feet at local ground potential, might receive a shock from
touching the equipment during a storm.
These possibilities can be avoided or alleviated by sinking a ground rod at
the outstation and fitting an SPD, as shown in figure 34, with the SPD earth
as the star-point.
Provided star-point earthing is used, ground impedance is NOT critical for
surge protection of electronic equipment.
Note : What is generally measured, and referred to, is ground resistance.
In this publication, ground impedance is preferred as a reminder that there
will still be some inductance in series with the resistance.
There is little point struggling to achieve, say, a 1 ground impedance (the type
of figure associated with large plant such as power stations). That is why
relatively little tends to be said about ground impedance when surge protection
of electronic equipment is considered. The advantage of a relatively low ground
impedance is illustrated by figure 35. The equipment shown has two signal
cables, each protected, with a further SPD on the mains electricity supply. The
equipment is therefore well-protected and will not be damaged. However,
surge current travelling down one signal cable passes through the ground
impedance, developing a voltage across it. This voltage will be seen at the
remote end of the other signal cable. The higher the ground impedance, the
more the surge can be viewed as being passed on. See Appendix A for a
simple model illustrating the effect of ground electrode resistance.
7.6.2 Recapitulation
N For protecting a single installation, a very low ground impedance is
not necessary.
N A multi-installation as a whole will benefit from low ground impedance.
N There is no magic figure for an acceptable level of ground impedance.
N The ground impedance achieved will in many cases be determined
by the characteristics of the ground and available time and funds.
See Appendix C for further reading on this subject.
7.7 Connection to the structural lightning
protection system
As may be apparent from section 7.6, structural lightning protection is
provided on the assumptions that:
a) The building WILL be struck.
b) When it is, the consequent damage from the large currents
involved can be considerable.
Its purpose is to define a path for lightning current to flow to ground as directly
as possible. The voltages developed between lightning conductors and the
electrical system, if isolated from each other, can be enormous enough to
cause destructive flashover. For instance, 50kA flowing through 20 develops
1 million volts! It is therefore safer to bond the two systems. The preferred
method is by a cable from the main earth terminal (the system star-point) by
as direct a route as possible to a point on the down conductor system close
to the soil or below, such as at the earth mat itself. See figure 36.
14
SPD
Transducer
Ground rod
Cable
SPD
Telemetry
transmitter
Outstation
Ground rod
Solar panel
Figure 34 Outstation installation with ground rod
Equipment
Power
supply
Signal cable 1 Signal cable 2
SPD 1
Mains SPD
SPD 2
Voltage
transient
Ground rod or mat
E N L
Mains supply
i
Ground
Carries
voltage
transient
developed
across earth
impedance
by current i
flowing
through
SPD1
i
Surge
current
Air terminations
Building
SPD
Mains earth
terminal
Bond
Bond
Ground rod
Service pipe (e.g. water)
Mains electricity
supply
N/E
Figure 35 Advantages of low ground impedance
This is no more than a brief summary and is intended to raise awareness.
To avoid straying beyond the scope of this publication, we recommend
consulting an appropriate standard which, in the UK, is BS6651: 1999
Protection of Structures Against Lightning.
7.8 The other end of the cable
If you are responsible for protecting equipment at both ends of a cable (e.g. an
installation involving more than one building or a telemetry link with a remote
sensor), then treat both ends of the link in the same way. Equipment at each
end is connected by the cable to the local ground at the other end (in fact,
SPDs make sure this is the case). Without protection, a lightning surge can
cause a large potential difference to form between these ground connections.
Figure 36 Bonding a structural lightning protection system to the
system star-point
Fit an SPD at each end. Surge current can then flow harmlessly between
the two ground points through the SPDs, rather than destructively through
the equipment (figure 37). As always, keep the surge earth cables short
or, where necessary, fit a surge link.
15
Nearby
strike
Equipment
Surge
current
SPD
SPD
Equipment
Ground
currents
Figure 37 Bonding a structural lightning protection system to the system star-point
8 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
8.1 Shielded cables and earth loops
To prevent unwanted pick-up of stray electric fields, cables carrying low-
frequency low-level signals often use an overall screen. Single-point earthing is
usually favoured to break hum loops. In situations where SPDs are not
necessary, the simplest method of achieving a single-point signal earth is
simply to connect the screen at one end of the cable only (figure 38). However,
where SPDs are fitted, more than one earth/ground connection is a
necessity. Is there a conflict?
Generally, the answer is no. The SPD only provides a low impedance path to
ground when it actually operates to protect the system (during which time no
one is likely to be upset by a hum loop!). The rest of the time, its capacitive
impedance is high enough to break a hum loop.
Note: Most SPDs have a line-to-ground capacitance of a few nanofarads at
the most, and, in some cases, only tens of picofarads at 50Hz mains
frequency, a 10nF capacitor has a reactance of more than 300k.
When SPDs are included in the system it is usually physically convenient to
provide the break in the screen circuit at one of the SPDs see figure 39.
This diagram shows the ideal earth positions for lightning protection, but
often the real situation will be more like that shown in figure 40, in which
case the need for the SPDs to be mounted as close as possible to the
transmitter and receiver will be appreciated.
Figure 38 Earthing a cable screen at one point only
Note: In figure 40, if the screen shown as optional at the left-hand side of
the diagram has a total conductor cross-section of 2.5mm
2
or more, it can
be used as the surge earth.
Another situation likely to be encountered is illustrated by figure 41. In this
case, there is an appreciable length of cable connecting the SPD and the
equipment to the star-point earth with the possibility of large transient
voltages. In this case, the cable screen can serve as a surge link to reduce
the transient. This, however, creates a loop which can cause problems,
depending upon the system. Minimising the loop area by running the surge
earth cable close to the screen may be helpful.
Screen break
SPD SPD
Figure 39 Earthing a screen circuit at an SPD
(Optional)
SPD SPD
Surge earth -
keep short
Screen
break
Surge earth -
keep short
Figure 40 An earth set-up for a cable screen where the SPD is
connected to a star-point earth
16
Note that the cable screen break should be made with the screen clearly
separated from metalwork, such as the SPD, which may be at a different
potential. A 10mm separation, especially if the screen is well insulated,
should normally be adequate. Alternatively, it may be an advantage for the
surge current to pass down the screen, with its higher current capacity,
rather than the inner conductors alone. This can be done by connecting
the screen to one side of an SPD as shown in figure 42. The SPD
maintains a break in any hum loop as described earlier.
SPD
Area of hum loop
minimised
Surge earth
Star-point earth
SPDs
SPD
Figure 41 Using a cable screen to pass a surge current
Figure 42 Using a cable screen to pass a surge current
For further reading on this subject, see Appendix C.
8.2 Protecting baseband transmission systems
using co-axial cable
The term baseband refers to relatively low-frequency signals (up to several
tens of MHz) as distinct from signals transmitted on higher frequency
carriers (e.g. cable TV).
Network and video SPDs (ZoneBarrier and VP Series) are available for this
purpose. They are available in versions designed to cope with the differing
requirements of computer networks and video circuits respectively. Both
types are effective in breaking hum loops, due to their very high screen to
earth impedance. The ZoneBarrier, in addition, has a simple earthing option by
which the co-axial cable screen can be either directly earthed or isolated.
Earthing for protection follows the same general rules set out elsewhere in
this publication.
8.3 Protecting high-frequency co-axial cable
systems (e.g. antenna feeds and CATV)
For frequencies of tens of megahertz (MHz) and above, an SPD must have
very low capacitance. Transmitting applications also require high voltage
operation. Wideband co-axial SPDs, such as the Telematic CA Series, based
on gas discharge tube protection elements in special housings, are designed
for the purpose. Insert an SPD close to vulnerable equipment where there
is the best available ground point. The installation rules for these are exactly
the same as for all other SPDs. The only differences are the very low
capacitance of these devices and their symmetry (i.e. they can be mounted
either way round). See figure 43 for a typical installation.
The co-axial cable shield should be bonded to the base of the antenna tower,
as shown, to avoid direct strike current flowing down the feeder into the
building. If the tower is tall, the cable should be bonded to the tower every
10m or so to avoid flashover between the tower and the cable. Having more
than one earth connection is not normally a problem in this type of system
Antenna
Tower
Bond every 10m
Co-axial
cable SPD
To Transmitter/
Receiver
Main
distribution
board
Main earth
terminal
Figure 43 Protection for a high-frequency co-axial antenna cable system
17
as the signal frequencies are well removed from mains hum-loop frequency
and, at the signal frequency, the cable provides effective screening.
8.4 Protecting the mains supply
Transients can be introduced into a system by the mains supply (as with any
other cable) and, as we saw earlier, can be caused when surge currents pass
down signal lines and into the mains earth conductor. In general, mains
transients are less damaging than at first sight one might expect, because
one side of the supply (earth/neutral) is used to define the earth (i.e. zero volt
reference) for an installation, which therefore sees only the difference or
transverse mode surges. These, however, do commonly cause malfunctions.
The mains supply is also likely to carry disturbances within or close to a
site, caused by the switching of heavy current devices such as motors.
The optimum protection scheme is a combined one deploying heavy duty
transient suppression at the distribution board and progressively lighter
duty transient suppression down to individual devices which, in the case of
Telematic devices, also incorporate radio frequency filtering.
Figure 44 illustrates, by way of an example, a combined protection system
for a modern office based on the use of various Telematic SPDs. This does
not of course provide a universal solution. Telematic staff are fully qualified
to recommend solutions for individual situations.
MA05/10 MA05/10 MA05/10
Personal
computer
Personal
computer
Personal
computer

LAN
File Server
Local network to
adjacent building
MA05/10
Fax/Modem
NetShield
MA3000
Mains Distribution
Board
M
a
i
n
s

p
o
w
e
r
T
e
l
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

L
i
n
e
s
MA05/10
MA05/10
PABX
Fax/Modem
SDPSTN
SDPSTN
SDPSTN
SDPSTN
DP200
ZoneBarrier ZoneBarrier
Figure 44 Block diagram of a protection system for an office building
18
8.5 Surge earths and telecommunications
functional earths
Telecommunications practice has developed along somewhat independent
lines in different countries. This section applies to UK practice only.
BS6701 is the source document on this subject. Section 6.10 of that
publication differentiates between protective earthing (which should be in
accordance with the IEE Wiring Regulations) and functional earthing. The
use of a functional earth includes over-voltage surge suppression, in other
words what we have so far called a surge earth is a functional earth in
telecommunications parlance. The functional earth (FE) should not be used
as a protective earth (PE).
According to BS6701, the functional earth conductor should only be
connected to earth either at the consumers main earthing terminal, i.e.,
our star-point earth, or at a buried ground electrode system. In the latter
case, the ground electrode should be bonded to the main earth terminal.
So far there is no conflict between the Standard and this publication. Where
some conflict may occur is with the statement; Connections between the PE
and the FE should be avoided other than the connection at earth.
In principle, this is exactly in line with our recommendations to fit SPDs at
the star-point. However, when this is simply not practical, the requirement
for lightning protection may dictate the use of a surge link between the SPD
and the equipment. The Standard calls for the functional earth conductor
sheath to be cream-coloured and to be continuously embossed with the
words Telecomms Functional Earth. As this publication stresses, the
best protection is provided by a direct metalwork connection at the star-
point, without the use of a cable. We do not think this conflicts with the
Standard particularly if the SPD earth connection at the star-point
carries a permanent label or tag ... with the words Telecomms Earth Do
Not Remove, as is described in section 6.10.3.3 of the Standard.
Note: Flow of electrons is independent of the colour of the cable insulation!
For further reading, see Appendix C.
8.6 Integrated earthing for process systems
8.6.1 Introduction
The earthing arrangement for a single SPD and equipment is logical and
easy to apply. However, the earthing arrangements for a process system
can become daunting when faced with the need to consider all the required
separate earths for noise rejection, intrinsic safety (see also section 8.7)
and electrical safety. This section suggests a practical solution, well-proven
on many industrial plants, which can be applied to most process plant
design, either at the pre-construction stage (engineering) or, in some
cases, during plant modifications and updates.
8.6.2 Preferred earthing philosophy for control systems
For an SPD to provide optimum protection, there needs to be a coherent
earthing philosophy. Figure 45 illustrates the philosophy.
Surge currents, whether caused by direct strikes or by changes in local earth
potential, need a low impedance path to earth. Such currents entering the
marshalling cabinet through the instrument cabling are diverted to earth by
the SPD and its own earth busbar from which current should flow to the
system earth without flowing through any other earth connection. All other
earths should be connected to the SPD earth busbar at one point only.
The instrumentation earth should be isolated from the electrical earth and
cabinet. Leakage current from the electrical earth will cause a noise voltage
to be added to the SPD busbar potential. However, since the instrumentation
earth is referenced to the SPD busbar and not the system earth, this voltage
is not seen by the instrumentation; it is merely a common-mode voltage.
Figure 46 shows the earthing system applied to a number of cabinets. All
connections from the SPD busbar are made to a star-point earth on the
sub-system earth busbar to minimise the shift in SPD busbar potential
when they are daisy-chained together. Links between cabinets and sub-
system busbars should be no more than 3m in order to keep the
maximum surge-induced voltage across them below the insulation
specifications for the instruments.
8.7 Hazardous areas earthing for lightning protection
The subject of the use of electrical/electronic equipment in potentially explosive
atmospheres is large and complex, and this publication can therefore only
address the earthing of SPDs used in these systems. For more details about
surge protection in hazardous areas, consult TAN1004 and TAN1005.
Instances inevitably arise in which a cable links hazardous and safe areas and
where there is a chance of an ignition hazard due to flashover in systems
where shunt-diode safety barriers are installed (or even galvanic isolators if
the local ground potential differences are large enough). See figure 47. The
source document for guidance on the subject of hazardous areas in the UK
is BS5345. Publications available from Measurement Technology Ltd deal
with earthing of intrinsically safe systems.
Marshalling cabinet
System
connection
cable
System cabinet
Isolated instrument rail
Isolated instrument rail
Electrical earth
Electrical earth
Floor void
System earth
To plant/neutral star point
Frame connection
SPD
Figure 45 Preferred earthing philosophy
19
Remote plant
Lightning strike to ground causes
a ground potential surge
Plant earth
Potentially
explosive
flashover to
local ground
Cable
Large surge voltage V
Control room
IS barrier
OV
Process
monitoring
and control
equipment
Main power system
earth point
Plant earth
V
Transducer
Remote plant
Transducer
Lightning strike to ground causes
a ground potential surge
Plant earth
KEEP SHORT! KEEP SHORT!
Process monitoring
and control equipment
Main power system
earth point
Plant earth
Large surge voltage V
SPD
Cable
SPD
IS barrier
OV
Control room
Marshalling cabinets System cabinets
System earth bar
in basement

3m
3m
3m
Instrument earth (isolated)
Surge protection earth busbar
Electrical earth connected to cabinet frame
Sub-system earth busbar
Figure 46 Marshalling and system cabinet earthing
Good lightning protection practice demands an SPD at each end of the
cable with good star-point earths, as in figure 48.
However, according to EN 60079, intrinsically safe circuits should be:
a) Insulated from earth, or
b) earthed at a single point, or
c) incorporate galvanic isolation where there is more than one earth
point, or
d) in cases where galvanic isolation is not employed, the earths should
be bonded using 4mm
2
or greater cross-section insulated cable.
The system, with lightning protection, is shown in figure 49. Note that the
bonding cable is unlikely to serve any useful lightning protection function
because of its length and consequent impedance.
Earthing is made much easier when, as is increasingly the case, metallic earth
mats are laid down. Note that SPDs must be mounted on their own busbar
and connection made straight to the star-point earth, otherwise common
impedance coupling could couple a surge into intrinsically safe equipment.
Where there is anything more than a negligible risk of lightning occurring
with consequential levels of energy vastly greater than those designed to be
present in a hazardous area then good lightning protection is of paramount
importance. The system designer should carefully document his earthing
strategy, and, where doubtful, seek the advice of a responsible authority,
which, in the UK, is the Health and Safety Executive.
For further reading on the subject, see Appendix C.
Hazardous area
Figure 47 An intrinsically safe installation showing potential flashover points
Figure 48 IS system with SPDs
Hazardous area Safe area
Safe area
20
Remote plant
Transducer
Lightning strike to ground causes
a ground potential surge
Plant ground
KEEP SHORT!
KEEP SHORT!
Process monitoring
and control
equipment
Main power system
earth point
Plant ground
Large surge voltage V
SPD
Cable
SPD
IS barrier
Control room
4mm
2
bond cable
Figure 49 Approved intrinsically safe system with SPDs
9 APPENDICES
9.A Appendix A Ground electrode resistance and
surge current sharing, a simple model
Although a considerable over-simplification, this model provides useful insight
without getting too bogged down in mathematics.
Consider two installations, 1 and 2, linked by a cable, each with a ground
electrode system and with one fed from a remote cable (figure 50). A lightning
strike causes a surge on the cable relative to local grounds 1 and 2. Installation
1 has an SPD fitted which, in this simple model, is assumed to provide a short
circuit for the surge.
The situation can be represented by the circuit diagram reproduced in
figure 51. In this, V is the transient voltage source and R is the source
resistance (including the resistance of the cable). R
g
and r
g
are the ground
electrode resistances of installations 1 and 2 respectively and r is the
resistance of the interconnecting cable. For the sake of simplicity, only
resistance and not reactance is considered.
Source resistance
(including cables)
Cable resistance
Impulse
voltage
source
R
Protector
(short
circuit)
R
g
r
Surge
voltage
across
equipment
at
installation
2
v
r
g
Installation 1 Installation 2
v = V R
g

R + R
g
Figure 51 Circuit diagram of model
Installation 1
Installation 2
Equipment
SPD
Cable 1
Surge voltage
Ground electrode resistances
r
g
SPD
(if fitted)
Cable 2
SPD
(if fitted)
Equipment
Ground
r
g
Figure 50 Model system with two grounded and linked installations
Hazardous area Safe area
21
First, we assume that installation 2 is unprotected and calculate the surge
voltage it receives and then calculate the surge current when an SPD
(again acting as a perfect short circuit) is fitted.
From the diagram in figure 51, the received surge voltage is:
v = V x
Rg
/
R+Rg
When the SPD in installation 2 operates, it closely approximates to a short
circuit (figure 52).
From figure 53:
i = V x Rg
R(Rg+r+rg)+Rg(r+rg)
i = V x 1
R(1+[r+rg]/Rg)+(r+rg)
This looks a little obscure, so it is helpful to consider the two extreme cases
of no ground electrode and a perfect ground electrode.
No electrode:
Rg =
i = v
R+r+rg
Perfect electrode:
Rg = 0
i = 0
As might have been expected, the higher the ground resistance at installation 1,
the bigger the surge that installation 2 receives.
9.B Appendix B Glossary
Bonding
Making electrical connections, not necessarily for carrying current but
with the intention of ensuring a common potential
dc
Direct current in common usage used in dc voltage to describe a
uni-directional voltage
Equipotential zone
An area where people attempt, by providing electrical conductors, to keep
equipment at the same potential or voltage. In most practical cases it can
be approached but never reached since voltage differences appear
across conductors when current flows through them.
GDT
Gas discharge tube.
Impedance
The property of a conductor which inhibits the flow of current.
Inductance
The property of a conductor which inhibits changes in current, due to
the magnetic field created by the current.
kA
kiloamp; (1kA = 1000 amperes)
R
g
r
g
i
Short
circuit
protector
r R
V
Figure 52 Operation of SPD in installation 2
kV
kilovolt; (1kV = 1000 volts)
Limiting voltage
The transient safe voltage present at the output of a surge protection
device and to which the protected equipment is subjected (often known
as let-through voltage).
MOV
Metal oxide varistor.
SPD
Surge protection device.
Surge; transient; transient overvoltage
Terms used loosely and interchangeably to indicate the presence of an
abnormally high voltage which is present for a brief interval only. In the
context of this publication, we are generally referring to surges caused
by lightning activity.
Surge link
A short bonding conductor fitted to limit the voltage between the earth
connections of an SPD and the protected equipment.
Surge protector; surge protection device (SPD);
transient protector (see below)
Interchangeable terms for devices which are intended to prevent
damage caused by transient voltages.
Other terms for SPDs can be derived (on a pick and mix basis) by
combining any one of the words in the left-hand column with any one of
those in the right-hand column.
Surge arrestor
Transient barrier
Overvoltage suppressor
Lightning protector
Spike protection device
True earth
The point of zero voltage to which the voltage of any other point can be
referred. It doesnt exist!
9.C Appendix C Further reading
Lightning (section 2)
Martin A Uman, Lightning, Dover 0 486 64575 4, 1969
William C Hart and Edgar W Malone, Lightning and Lightning Protection,
Interference Control Technologies Inc, 1988
Code of practice for protection of structures against lightning Annex C
Ralph Morrison, Grounding and Shielding Techniques in Instrumentation,
Wiley Interscience, 0 471 83805 5, date 1986
Henry W Ott, Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems, Wiley
Interscience, 0 471 85068 3
Surge earths and telecommunications functional earths (section 8.5)
Installation of Apparatus Intended for Connection to Certain Telecommunications
Systems, Part 1: General Recommendations, BS6701: 1994
Hazardous areas earthing for lightning protection (section 8.7)
Surge protection for intrinsically safe systems, Application Note TAN1004,
Telematic Ltd
Surge protection for Zone 0 Locations, Application Note TAN1005,
Telematic Ltd
8
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