Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Robust Design
!
(a) (b)
2
L 2L
!
FIGURE 16.1 A simple example of robust design. (a) Location of two
mounting holes on a sheet-metal bracket, where the deviation of the
top and bottom surfaces of the bracket from being perfectly horizon-
tal is . (b) New location of holes in a robust design, whereby the
deviation is reduced to /2.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Demings 14 Points
1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service.
2. Adopt the new philosophy.
3. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve
quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost.
6. Institute training for the requirements of a particular task, and document it for
future training.
7. Institute leadership, as opposed to supervision.
8. Drive out fear so that everyone can work eectively.
9. Break down barriers between departments.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for zero defects and new levels of pro-
ductivity.
11. Eliminate quotas and management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute lead-
ership.
12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of pride of workmanship.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.
TABLE 16.2 Demings fourteen points.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Available Shapes of Materials
Material Available as
Aluminum B, F, I, P, S, T, W
Ceramics B, p, s, T
Copper and brass B, f, I, P, s, T, W
Elastomers b, P, T
Glass B, P, s, T, W
Graphite B, P, s, T, W
Magnesium B, I, P, S, T, w
Plastics B, f, P, T, w
Precious metals B, F, I, P, t, W
Steels and stainless steels B, I, P, S, T, W
Zinc F, I, P, W
Note: B=bar and rod; F=foil; I=ingots; P=plate and sheet; S = structural shapes;
T=tubing; W=wire.
Lowercase letters indicate limited availability. Most of the metals are also available
in powder form, including prealloyed powders.
TABLE 16.3 Commercially available forms of materials.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Materials Selection Considerations
Gold 60,000 Carbon steel 1
Silver 600 Magnesium alloys 2-4
Molybdenum alloys 200-250 Aluminum alloys 2-3
Nickel 35 Gray cast iron 1.2
Titanium alloys 20-40 Nylons, acetals, and silicon 1.1-2
Copper alloys 5-6 Rubber

0.2-1
Stainless steels 2-9 Other plastics and elastomers

0.2-2
High-strength low-alloy steels 1.4

As molding compounds.
Note: Costs vary signicantly with the quantity of purchase, supply and demand,
size and shape, and various other factors.
Process Scrap (%) Process Scrap (%)
Machining 10-60 Permanent-mold casting 10
Closed-die forging, hot 20-25 Powder metallurgy < 5
Sheet-metal forming 10-25 Rolling and ring rolling < 1
Extrusion, hot 15
TABLE 16.5 Typical scrap produced in various manufacturing processes.
TABLE 16.4 Approximate cost per
unit volume for wrought metals and
plastics relative to the cost of carbon
steel.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Material Replacement
FIGURE 16.2 Advanced materials used on the Lockheed
C-5A transport aircraft. (FRP is ber-reinforced plastic.)
Aluminum honeycomb
Metal-to-metal
FRPaluminum honeycomb
FRP structure
Titanium-faced honeycomb
Item C-5A material C-5B material Reason for change
Wing panels 7075-T6511 7175-T73511 Durability
Main frame forgings 7075-F 7049-01 Stress-corrosion resistance
Machined frames 7075-T6 7049-T73
Frame straps 7075-T6 plate 7050-T7651 plate
Fuselage skin 7079-T6 7475-T61 Material availability
Fuselage under-oor end ttings 7075-T6 forging 7049-T73 forging Stress-corrosion resistance
Wing/pylon attach tting 4340 alloy steel PH13-8Mo Corrosion prevention
Aft ramps lock hooks D6-AC PH13-8Mo Corrosion prevention
Hydraulic lines AM350 stainless steel 21-6-9 stainless steel Improved eld repair
Fuselage fail-safe straps Ti-6Al-4V 7475-T61 aluminum Titanium strap debonding
TABLE 16.6 Changes in materials from C-5A to C-5B military cargo aircraft.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Process Capability
FIGURE 16.3 Minimum part dimensions obtainable by various manufacturing processes.
Source: After J.A. Schey.
S
a
n
d
c
a
s
tin
g
(
s
te
e
l)
S
h
e
ll c
a
s
tin
g
(s
te
e
l)
h
1
50 100 150 200 250 300
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1
0.1
0
0.2
0.3
0.4
2
3
4
5
m
m
M
i
n
i
m
u
m

w
e
b

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

h

(
i
n
.
)
Minimum dimension of web, w (in.)
mm
6
7
8
9
10
Thermoplastic polymers
Cold rolling
Hot rolling
Die casting (Zn)
Forging (steel)
Die casting (Al)
P
la
s
te
r-m
old, investm
ent (steel), die casting (Cu)
F
o
rg
in
g
(A
l, M
g): casting (Al, cast iron)
Thermosetting polymers
w
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ashby Chart for Process Selection
FIGURE 16.4 A plot of achievable
dimensional tolerance versus surface
roughness for various manufacturing
operations; the dashed lines indicate cost
factors. An increase in precision
corresponding to the separation of two
neighboring lines corresponds to a two-fold
increase in cost. Source: M.F. Ashby, Materials
Selection in Design, 3d ed., Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2005.
T
o
l
e
r
a
n
c
e

(
m
m
)
RMS surface roughness (m)
10
1
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
1 10 100
Polymer molding,
composite forming
B
lo
w
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n
L
a
y
-
u
p

m
e
t
h
o
d
s
Composite molding
F
ila
m
e
n
t w
in
d
in
g
Shell
In
v
e
s
tm
e
n
t
Deformation
Casting
H
o
t

w
o
r
k
in
g
Cold working
S
a
n
d
Die
casting
Lapping
Grinding
Turning,
milling
Microfabrication
methods
Machining and
finishing
Increasing
cost
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Production Time vs. Surface Finish
FIGURE 16.5 Relationship between relative manufacturing cost and dimensional tolerance.
Note how rapidly cost increases as tolerance decreases.
0
0.025
2
4
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

t
i
m
e
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
1
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25 50
4 16 32 125 500 2000
in.
Surface finish (m)
Cylindrical grinding
Surface grinding
End milling
Reaming
Shaping
and planing
Drilling
Peripheral
milling
Turning
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cost vs. Tolerance
FIGURE 16.6 Relative production time as a function of surface nish obtained by various manufacturing
processes. See also Fig. 9.41. Source: American Machinist.
0
1
2
3
5
11
17
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Tolerance (in. x 10
-3
)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

c
o
s
t
mm
0.25 0.5 0.75
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Material Applications
Carbon Alloy Stainless Tool and Aluminum Magnesium Copper Nickel Titanium Refractory
steels steels steels die steels alloys alloys alloys alloys alloys alloys
Casting
Sand A A A B A A A A B A
Plaster - - - - A A A - - -
Ceramic A A A A B B A A B A
Investment A A A - A B A A A A
Permanent B B - - A A A - - -
Die - - - - A A A - - -
Forging, hot A A A A A A A A A A
Extrusion
Hot A A A B A A A A A A
Cold A B A - A - A B - -
Impact - - - - A A A - - -
Rolling A A A - A A A A A B
Powder metals A A A A A A A A A A
Sheet-metal A A A - A A A A A B
forming
Machining A A A A - A A A B A
Chemical A B A B A A A B B B
ECM - A B A - - B A A A
EDM - B B A B - B B B B
Grinding A A A A A A A A A A
Welding A A A - A A A A A A
Note: (A) Generally processed by this method; (B) can be processed by this method, but may present some diculties; (-) usually
not processed by this method. Product quality and productivity depend greatly on the techniques and equipment used, operator
skill, and proper control of processing variables.
TABLE 16.7 General applications of manufacturing processes for various metals and alloys.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Machinery Prices
Type of machinery Price range ($000) Type of machinery Price range ($000)
Broaching 10-300 Machining center 50-1000
Drilling 10-100 Mechanical press 20-250
Electrical discharge 30-150 Milling 10-250
Electromagnetic 50-150 Ring rolling >500
Extruder 30-80 Robot 20-200
Fused deposition modeling 40-200 Roll forming 5-100
Gear shaping 100-200 Rubber forming 50-500
Grinding Stereolithography 80-500
Cylindrical 40-150 Stretch forming 400 - > 1000
Surface 20-100 Transfer line 100 - > 1000
Headers 100-150 Welding
Injection molding 30-200 Electron beam 75-1000
Jig boring 50-150 Gas tungsten arc 1-5
Horizontal boring mill 100-400 Laser beam 60-1000
Flexible manufacturing system > 1000 Resistance, spot 20-50
Lathe 10-100 Ultrasonic 50-200
Automatic 30-250
Vertical turret 100-400
Note: Prices vary signicantly, depending on size, capacity, options, and level of automation
and computer controls.
TABLE 16.8 Approximate ranges of machinery base prices.