The Unofficial LEGO
Advanced Building
Techniques Guide
8
The master builders tips and tricks book
Contents
Introduction 3
Vocabulary and geometry about LEGO plates and bricks 4
Chapter 1 !tuds "ot On the #op $!"O#% &
Chapter ' O((seting 1)
Chapter 3 Letterings ''
Chapter 4 *iagonal striping '+
Chapter , -icro.striping 31
Chapter & !tuds "ot In a /o0 $!"I/% 33
Chapter ) -i1ed cylinder cur2ing 3,
Credits 3&
Introduction
What makes a building technique to be advanced? There is no easy answer, advanced is just
the way we, adults, feel some building techniques because they do not appeared, at least do not
appeared widely, in the officials LE!" building instructions# $ost of these techniques are
discovered and then used and developed by adults fan of LE! %&'!Ls( or by LE! designer in the
LE!L&)*+ parks# These techniques generally results in a wide array of interesting design and
offer a details resolution which was unavailable previously using classical building# ,ake $c-ee
precise, in his book .etting started with LE! Trains/, that advanced building techniques .enables
not only the creation of speciali0ed shapes and angles, but also various non standard dimensions/ and
.add a wealth of 1###2designs#/
This late assertion alone is far enough to justify to make a compilation of all these advanced
building techniques# That3s the goal of this document# The author goal is not to appropriate to himself
these techniques 4 you are encouraged to check the credits page at the end of the document 4 but to
make a comprehensive collection of tips and tricks, which are widely available on the internet, but
which are also, unfortunately, widely scattered and, due to this spreading, mostly unknown and
endlessly and uselessly re4discovered#
5667, *idier Enjary
Vocabulary and geometry
about LEGO plates and bricks.
The following illustration presents the 589 brick3s top and bottom and the :89 brick3s bottom# The top
is covered by studs %referring to some patents, it could be also named knobs(# The bottom is filled by
tubes or bars depending of the brick si0e
:
#
;lates are thin bricks# Technic+ bricks present passing through holes in their side and the studs is
scooped out < we talk then about hollow studs#
=onventionally, a LE! >nit %L( equals the :8n parts width< :L?@mm
5
# The L is commonly avoided#
We will also use a subdivision of the LE! >nit that we call L*>
A
< 56 L*> ? :L#
:
Bome transparents parts are not filled at all#
5
@mm equals 6#A:C inches which is sometimes appro8imated to CD:E %6#A:5C(
A
L*> stands for L*raw >nit# L*raw is a standard used in =&* applications to describe LE! parts# !ne
L*>equal 6#9mm and can be appro8imated by :DE9 inches http<DDwww#brickwiki#orgDinde8#phpDL*>
Bome people are also used to talk in term of .stud/ instead of LE! >nit# This can lead to confusion
as the diameter of a stud is 6#E FstudF# !thers will use FbrickF in this same place# Gence, when talking
about geometry of parts, L*> should be prefered as it allows to deal with whole numbers and not
fractions, and doesn3t lead to confusion with any idiomatic vocabulary#
$easuring a :8n brick, we see the ratio between height
9
%59L*>( and width %56L*>( is :#5 %EDC(# The
plate height %@L*>( is a third brick height %59L*>(#
The stud diameter and tube %outer( diameter is :5 L*> and is height is a bit higher than 9 L*># That
are also the si0e of inner diameter of Technic brick a8le holes#
Hars3 diameter is @ L*># That3s the same of the inner diameter of hollow stud#
9
)ot taking into account the studs
Chapter 1
!O"
General !O"
B)!T# IsnJt that word funny? In fact not a word but an acronym standing for .Btud )ot in the Top/#
The LE! building toy use a building process which consist in stacking parts of various si0es and
shapes on top of each other, vertically# B)!T is the name we give to any building tip resulting in the
studs of parts not pointing up# B)!T techniques represent a large part of advanced building
techniques#
B)!T is made possible thanks to the C<5 B)!T ratio and to B)!T parts#
The C<5 B)!T ratio is a direct consequence of the bricks and plates geometry <
C plates height %C8@?96 L*>( equal 5 LE! units width %5L?96L*>(
!ne can guess this relationship is not a simple coincidence but a will from the LE! parts designers#
!f course, this ratio fits when multiplying < :6 plates height equals 9L parts length, :C plates height %C
bricks height( equals EL parts length and so on# Gence, the E<C ratio is a direct consequence of the C<5
ratio#
The E<C ratio
tud#out !O"
The C<5 B)!T ratio is quite useless if you canJt link efficiently the rotated group of parts# B)!T
techniques are all about this# Thankfully to specific parts, beginning with B)!T is not so intricate# 'or
instance it e8ist bricks with studs on their sides<
4 Hrick :8: with 5 studs on sides
4 Hrick :8: with 9 studs on sides
4 Hrick :89 with studs on side
4 Hrick 58985 with studs on sides
The basic B)!T scheme is then easily made# These parts with studs on their side are .B)!T parts/#
Hricks with studs on sides are not the only B)!T parts# It e8ists also a lot of modified parts, among
them brackets#
With a bit of curiosity, you will discover that some elementary buildings are efficient when dealing
with B)!T# 'or instance, the Technic :8: brick and the half stud pin come rapidly to an equivalent
%and unavailable( brick :8: with one stud on the side# In fact, every Technic brick equipped with half
pin is a potential B)!T part#
The half pin part is more than a strictly half pin# It3s a half pin at an end plus an hollow stud in the
other end# ¬her part allow a similar building, which is the Technic a8le A with stud but you will
notice a slight offset due to the a8le lip#
tud#in !O"
>ntil now, the B)!T we have presented is a .stud4out B)!T/# The stud is not on the top, the stud is
on the side# In a similar way, we can define a .stud4in B)!T/ where a tube, a hole or a socket
intended to receive a stud is placed on a side#
There are stud4in B)!T parts
&mong them, :8n Technic bricks allow stud4in B)!T with a lateral :6 L*> %half4stud( offset
C
but,
due to overlapping effect, only with smaller parts# The :8: Technic brick and :85 Technic brick with
5 holes %&K$E; Technic bricks( are noticeable e8ceptions#
The :898: fence does not present the offset nor the overlapping effect # The :8985 fence present an
une8pected 7 L*> negative offset#
C
!ffseting is the subject of =hapter 5#
!O" E$amples
B)!T is not only a subject of study for itself but has practical uses# The followings chapters will
covered some e8amples# !ne very frequently encountered B)!T building is the following, to create
letterings %see chapter A( or large windows for passenger trains# &s you can see, it uses both stud4out
and stud4in B)!T building <
Employ of the E<C ratio is represented by this train front bumper, original idea by ,ames $athis#
!O" 1%&
Bome parts e8ist both in the normal and inverted version# 'or instance slope bricks, even some arches#
Hut some design will need the use of an inverted part which does not e8ist#
>ntil now, B)!T has been limited to L6 degrees rotations# B)!T :@6 allows you to invert parts#
B)!T :@6 is then what you need#
' $ !O" (& ) !O" 1%&
B)!T :@6 is sometimes as simple as combining two B)!T <
Combining two stud-out SNOT < these e8amples are 59 L*> high %: brick(
Combining stud-in and stud-out SNOT
!O" 1%& parts
Bome parts geometry allow direct inverted building, presenting tubes or studs on two opposed faces#
Studded SNOT 180 parts
The 58985 brick with studs on sides is used on official LE! models for instance to create snotted
undercarriage in Banta 'e3s sets# It is 96 L*> high %C plates(# The others bricks with studs on sides in
the illustration are 56 L*> high
Two different type of :8: with clip e8ist# The left plate with clip, which is discontinued, is thinner
than the new one# When stacking plates on both sides, the resulting width is respectively 56 L*> %one
stud( and 59 L*> %one brick(#
Passing through holes parts
The Technic plates are passing through holes parts <
Technic bricks, lift arms, beams and =lickit
T$
ring are also e8amples of passing through holes parts
but their thickness %:5 and 56 L*>( is different from a multiple of a plate width#
The B)!T :@6 technique has been originally named -nob inversion by Bteve Harile# ,ames $athis
has designed these applications <
Train cab window <
!val train door window <
!O" 1%& connections
Bome parts are part of a link system different from the stud and tube system and can be combined in
an inverted way <
Hinges :
The resulting building is 59 L*> high# The same building is possible with plate and brick click hinges
but then you will face respectively a :5 and 5@ L*> height#
Clip and Bars :
Timothy ould3s building <
!O" 1%& with "echnic parts
!les
This building work only for bricks bigger than :8n bricks#
Hal" pins
which are respectively 9@ L*> high %5 bricks( and :E L*> %5 plates( high %or :@ L*> if using the
half pins studs and not the Technic plate ones(#
With a A9 L*> height#
Pins : with a 5@ L*> height
with a C6 L*> height
Others !O" 1%& buildings
;late inversion with levers %control stick( is the thinnest B)!T :@6 building with a :E L*> height#
This building is limited to large plates# It can be reinforced by increasing the number of stick# It can
also be improved using cut Technic tubing#
*ony ear techni+ue and "o*LEs
The pony ear technique is a very particular B)!T building technique in this way that it applies to thin
parts %plates, tiles( and requires no B)!T parts#
The original pony4ear technique consists in placing a :85 plate
vertically between the studs of a 589 plates# This building is used in
classic official castle sets to represent ears of brick built horses#
&s the plate is rotated to a vertical plan, itJs a B)!T technique even
though it does not use specific B)!T parts# The pony4ear technique
is quite limited by his definition and applications# The following
To;LEBs technique is a natural enhancement#
To;LEBs stands for Tile or ;late Located between Enough Btuds# To;LEBs is an advanced building
technique that has been developed directly from the pony ear technique# It has been theori0ed by Erik
&m0allag# The following is entirely based on its presentation he made during a 'rench &'!L meeting
on 5669#
To;LEBs has appeared in official sets such A::, E6L and E:A# In these
official LE! set, the use of this technique is very limited< only one or two
plates or tiles are concerned# &dult fans use this technique to create thin
walls, fences, ladders, beams, etc and more heavily as mechanical structure
%footbridge, roller coaster(#
To;LEBs is subdivided into ;4LEBs and T4LEBs, where ; stands for ;late
and T for Tile#
;4LEBs present a major drawback# &s studs are a bit thicker than 9L*>, the
;4LEBs stacking is in theory impossible due to overlapping effect# In
practice, there are two situations# Whether the number of overlapping studs
is low %for instance in the pony4ear technique( and then it cause no trouble,
whether the overlapping studs is consequent and then it cause the plates to
be bended# This drawback at least as one major advantage < the connection
is very tight#
We can bring with two solution to the ;4LEBs drawback <
4 !ffseting < the studs are no more facing but alternate, so there is
no more overlapping#
4 T4LEBs < tiles are stud less plates, so there is no more overlapping#
and the connection is still tough#
Various !O"
#SNOT
The in B)!T is for ary %$cIntire(, the inventor of this building# &t least, click hinge bricks have
finally find a use#
=ombining three B)!T <
$SNOT
*B)!T is based on the hinge top part# The building is tight and allow rotation with friction# 'urther
buildings could be imagined using hinge top part with other hollow stud part# &s for B)!T, *B)!T
term has been coined by ,on ;almer and stands for *idier B)!T#
Chapter '
Offseting
,-.E*
The following is partly based on Meinhard .Hen/ Heneke presentation he has made during HrickWest
566A#
&K$E; is a german acronym %aus 0wei mach eins ;lNttchen( for the half stud offset# That3s, with
B)!T, the second most important advanced building technique# &s for B)!T, it e8ists dedicated
parts < &K$E; parts#
&mong them, the most popular is certainly the jumper plate# Bo popular it has several names < center
plate, jumper plate, jumper, :85 plate with one stud###
If we compare the jumper plate with the common :85 plate, we can see <
a( the top presents only one stud, which is centred< this allow &K$E; %half4stud offset( stacking#
b( this stud is hollowed < this allow regular stacking#
c( the underside is unchanged < the jumper plate behave this side like a regular :85 plate#
Megular and &K$E; stacking
!thers tricks and parts allow to create &K$E; buildings <
Stud-to-tube tri%& < Mather than stacking the underside tubes between the studs in a classical way, you
stack them directly on the studs# This technique works fine only if the plate you stack is bigger than
the one she is piled on, because of edge effects#
Tube to hollow stud tri%& < This trick is very similar to the previous one and can be applied to narrower
parts# It consists in stacking underside bars directly in the stud# Thank to Technic parts and some
Bystem parts, the hollow stud is widely available#
'()P Te%hni% bri%&s < In most Technic bricks, a8le holes are placed, on the side, between the studs#
That3s not the case in the two &K$E; Technic bricks where they are aligned, allowing &K$E;
buildings <
'()P bar*arm and %lip <
'()P hinge <
&K$E; is a tool to switch between the odd and even si0es in the LE! building, for instance to
create 74wide trains or C4wide cars#
"enths#stud offset
&K$E; is a half4stud offset %:6 L*>( and is made possible by specific parts# It3s the most commonly
used offset, but could we imagine a smaller si0e offset? !thers parts present odd dimensional
characteristics with E or 9 L*> offset# &mong them, these B)!T parts#
These offsets and stud4out B)!T allow tenths4stud %5 L*>( offset# ,ason Mailton has listed an
e8haustive buildings collection similar to this one <
The jumper plate provides a :6 L*> offset, B)!Tted plates provide an @ L*> offset and the
headlight brick provide a 9 L*> offset# The following illustration will help you in building the
increasing offset#
The original building by ,ason Mailton uses hinges and brackets#
Continue offset
>ntil then, we have dealt with discrete %in the mathematical meaning( offsets < half4stud, tenths4stud#
Even though LE! is mainly based on discrete system, some parts allow continue offsets <
Bars * rms and Clips Te%hni% !les and Bri%&s
.arakoeschtra/s wall
Meal brick built walls present a typical pattern where bricks alternate with thin joints# =ould we
recreate this pattern with LE! parts ? The combination of B)!T and continue offset leads to an
elegant %and parts consumingO( solution <
The :85 tile have this specificity they don3t have underside tube# They can freely slip on the studs,
allowing a continue offset# This specificity is used for this wall, where the tiles are stacked on the
studs with an offset of C or :6 L*># The vertical joints are C L*> when hori0ontal ones are 9 L*>
thick#
<ernative buildings <
Chapter 0
Letterings
Introduction
Pou may need to put some brand, name %short te8t( or graffiti on the sides of your rolling stocks,
coaches or engines, shuttles and fighters or buildings# LetJs study some of the various ways to perform
such decoration#
tud#out mosaics
Pou can use a .stud4out/ mosaic technique# The LE! =ompany proposes a font based in such
technique on the 55E idea book#
Bmaller font based on this technique can be achieved# They are easy to use and all the letters and
figures can be represented# Hut this font is not really small# 'or instance, the following font is :66L*>
high and the bars of letters are 56L*> wide# This technique is not an advanced one#
100LDU sized upper case letters and figures
In some case, you could satisfy yourself with smaller letters and figures<
@6L*> si0ed upper case letters and figures
E6L*> si0ed lower case letters
E6L*> si0ed upper case letters
These latter e8amples show some E6L*> si0ed letters can be achieved but are not really aesthetically
satisfying# Then, we need to scale down the building#
Btud#up mosaic
Btud4up %classical way of stacking plates and bricks( mosaics letters are smaller# %96 L*>(
The structure of this font is identical to the previous :66L*> stud4out font#
The hori0ontal bars of the letters are @L*> wide instead of 56# The vertical bar of letters is still
56L*> wide# &s a consequence, letters may look wider than tall or bolded#
Hoth stud4out and stud4up fonts particularly fit well with non4rounded and non4diagonal letters such <
E,',G,I,L and T but also with figures and rounded letters which can be squared %&,=,,,,!,;,B,>(#
Bome good looking results can be achieved with diagonal letters such ) and Q#
Btud4up letters are smaller, but itJs not a great advantage because they are only vertically shortened#
That does not allow in practice a better %smoother( dithering# Gowever, this is sufficient to apply into
some LE! creations#
,ames $athis3 BHH pattern and ='' pattern on Bwiss Me99 engine#
!O"i1ed mosaic letters
This kind of font consists of a L6R rotated stud4up mosaic letters# *ue to the rotation, the hori0ontal
bar of the letters are then 56L*> wide and the vertical ones @L*> wide# The font is @6L*> tall# &s
you can see in the pictures below, this lettering implies the use of B)!T Techniques# In fact, thatJs a
direct application of the basic B)!T techniques#
.athis letters
The $athis letters are an improvement to the B)!Ti0ed letters, which lead to a CEL*> tall font#
$athis improvement consists of creating up and down @L*> thick lines without adding B)!T
building difficulties#
E8amples of $athis letters
$athis font pros are the small si0e and thin bars of the letters# Hut the font is not complete, for
instance you canJt reali0e the letters with mid level bars such the H, ' , G, ;, M or & and E# Bo our
goal is not totally achieved#
!O" font
These letters present both vertical and hori0ontal @L*> thick bars but are harder to build# B)!T skills
are required# The great advantage with B)!T building is that letters with mid4level bars can be easily
represented contrary to $athis letters# The building structure is based on the C<5 fundamental B)!T
geometry ratio# & drawback to B)!T lettering is that the letters are, at least, 5L deep# This may
prevent you from using such a technique in E4wide train applications or internally detailed models# &t
least this technique is well appreciated by adult builders<
=hips trailer by ,eff San Widen
B)!T Letters table
Chapter 2
3iagonal striping
Meal locomotives, rolling stock, trucks present a great variety of liveries# To recreate this colour
scheme in LE! models is challenging# 'ocusing on diagonal striping, using slope bricks is an
answer at first glance# They are available in large variety of colours, and with their inverted
counterparts in various angle values#
lope bricks striping
One plate height +8 ,$-. o""set/
>nfortunately, normal and inverted slopes can not be placed side by side in the classical way, because
of an overlapping effect# The commonly used answer to the overlapping effect is the use of one plate
height offset# Bome rapid theoretical calculations show that the gaps between slope bricks vary from
A#E to :#5 L*># They are reasonably good for LE! models#
!ne plate height offsets
Hal"-stud o""set
If the two slope bricks are placed side by side with a half4stud offset, the gaps are different#
In the case of the :858: slopes the gap is higher,
in the case of the :8A8: slopes, the gap is reduced and negligible,
in the case of the :858A slopes the gap is higher but allows the placement of a :89 tile#
This technique first seen on the TS locomotive by Qavier Siallefont has the main advantage of
allowing three colours scheme andDor fine diagonal striping#
This technique has also been used to build Tudor style house decorative walls by Lenny Goffman# The
:89 tile is floating but you can use two 585 tiles and attached them in the back#
& similar technique, using the free space between parts to fill it with floating tiles, has been developed
by ,ames Hrink to create five wide windows, again, in the Tudor style#
Chapter 4
.icro#striping
$icro4striping techniques allow to create stripe coloured shape with a width of less than the height of
one plate, i#e# less than @ L*># $icro4striping is an original idea from Bteve Harile on 5665 developed
by ,ames $athis in the LE! Trains theme#
The micro4striping is possible thanks to parts with thin component# $icro4striping then will often
require B)!T orDand offset mounting# Thin parts are components of < flags, brick hinges top, brackets,
fences, panels and baseplates# $ost of them are 9 L*> thin# Hrick hinges top are 5 L*> thin, the
fences are E L*>#
Thin parts
.icro#striping e$amples
Top hinges bri%& mi%ro-striping : That3s the simplest micro4striping technique, with no B)!T or offset
building# He careful that the lowest stripe is only 55 L*> high instead of 59#
SNOT mounted 1!0-1!1 bra%&et mi%ro-striping < This building requires B)!T, the lower stripe is 56
L*> high and there is a little front offset# This micro4striping building3s length is at least a multiple of
9L#
SNOT mounted 1!0-0!0 bra%&et mi%ro-striping < This building is easier and his length is a multiple of
5# The lower stripe can be as low as @ L*> but the total height present an offset of 9 L*>#
Chapter 5
tuds !ot In a 6ow 7!I68
Large parts T baseplates for instance 4 have regularly spaced studs on their top, shaping an orthogonal
matri8# The space between the studs is :L# Two :8: parts placed side by side on a base plate just leave
a very small margin between them< the :8: parts placed side by side are prevent from being non4
orthogonally placed# !n B)IM techniques, parts are placed not simply side by side but in diagonal, to
obtain a row not in the classical way#
!I6 24
&ssuming the dimension of :8: part and stud diameter, individual :8: part in this matri8 can be non4
orthogonally placed, in any angle as shown in the followings illustrations# Bome figures <
4 The distance between two studs is :L,
4 the gap between two studs is 6#9L,
4 the diagonal dimension of a :8: part is :#9:9L %square root of 5L(#
, 9
The H shape is a new and innovative Btuds )ot In a Mow %B)IM( building technique# Bome perfect
vertically fitting and stud less upward side is possible using a :8: tile stacked on two :8: plates# The
three plates %two plates and one stud less plate 4 tile( are A86#9?:#5L high# It equal the tile width %:L(
added with a stud height %U6#5L(#
This technique has been originnally developped by Erik &m0allag#
!I6 ':
This B)IM technique has been developped by Meinhard Heneke# It allows to build a wall at an angle of
about 57R to the baseplate grid of studs# This angle is performed using jumper plate &K$E;
technique# The :8: elements which the wall are made of %here bricks( may also be slightly turned to
create of less regular shape#
Chapter :
.i$ed cylinder cur;ing
LE! parts are not meant to be used to create nicely curved surfaces and you will obtain a pi8elated
looking# !f course you could use special purpose parts T rounded ones T but with limited choices <
small diameter, colours restriction##
Larger smooth curved walls can be obtained, without
stress, by mi8ing small regular parts %:85 to :89( with
:8: round parts %plates or bricks(# Eric Hrok has coined
the .mi8ed cylinder curving/ name to this building
technique# This technique is very part consuming#
Thank to moulding tolerances, very big radius curved
walls can be obtained by stressing a bit walls made of
:85 parts#
Credits
Vocabulary and geometry about LEGO plates and bricks
"im Courtney< te;e 9liss< ,hui =errera< Sirtual LE!
Sarious authors, HrickWiki, http<DDwww#brickwiki#orgDinde8#phpDL*>
Kero !ffice =o#, LT*#, LE! Technic Hrick :V9V:<
http<DD6LA7#0ero4office#comDimgsD:94columnD66:DimgsDlegoWmodular#pdf
Chapter 1 # !O"
Erik ,m1allag< http<DDwww#iltco#orgDlibraryDdocsDT!;LEBBWH$5669#pdf
>ames .athis,Train B)!T, ILT=! library,
http<DDwww#iltco#orgDlibraryDdocsDTrainWB)!TW,$athisWHW6A#pdf
=olger .atthes, B)!T X =o, personal website<
http<DDwww#holgermatthes#deDbricksWusDinde8#htm?http<DDwww#holgermatthes#deDbricksWusDsnot#htm
>ason 6ailton, &dvanced B)!T, The Hrick Issue Y9, =hristmas 566A,
http<DDwww#brickish#orgDbiDbi9#;*'
>ason 6ailton, LE! B)!T, Hrick Issue YA,Bummer 566A< http<DDwww#brickish#orgDbiDbiA#pdf
?im "oll, Hrick$ath, ILT=! library< http<DDwww#iltco#orgDlibraryDdocsDHrickZ56$ath#pdf
Chapter ' @ Offseting
6einhard A9enB 9eneke, HrickBhelf gallery, LE! Trains in perfect si0e,
http<DDwww#brickshelf#comDcgi4binDgallery#cgi?f?79CAL
Chapter 0 # Letterings
Eric =arshbarger< http<DDwww#ericharshbarger#orgDlegoDfonts#html
Chapter 2 @ 3iagonal striping
Lenny =ofmann, &dvanced Tudor Btyle Instructions, =lassic =astle,
http<DDwww#classic4castle#comDhowtoDarticlesD&dvTudorGT$LDhtml
Chapter 4 @ .icro#striping
>ames .athis< Lugnet train newsgroup, http<DDnews#lugnet#comDtrainsD?n?:79:L
Sarious authors, HrickWiki, http<DDwww#brickwiki#orgDinde8#phpD$icroWstripingWtechniques
Chapter 5 @ tuds !ot In a 6ow 7!I68
Sarious authors, HrickWiki http<DDwww#brickwiki#orgDinde8#php?title?B)IMWtechniques
Erik ,m1allag, Lugnet post, & window using B)!T and B)IM techniques ,
http<DDnews#lugnet#comDannouceD?n?5EL5
6einhard 9eneke, HrickBhelf gallery, !ld fishermans house near the shore,
http<DDwww#brickshelf#comDcgi4binDgallery#cgi?f?EL7E6
Chapter : @ .i$ed cylinder cur;ingC
Eric 9rok, LE! on my mind, http<DDwww#ericbrok#comDlegomindDprojectsDbuildingsDcurvwall#htm
3isclaimer
LE
