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Chq)ter 1 Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching
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Because of the complexity of teaching and individual variation among students, effective
, ..teaching is .not "one size fits all" (Diaz, 1997). Tea<::h~r_ll1JlsUlt<!1iter a variety of per-
spectives and strategies and be flexible in their application. This requires two key ingre-
dients: (1) professional knowledge and skills and (2) commitment and motivation.
0-
'I'
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- Professional Knowledge and Skills
Effectiveteachers have good command of their subject matter and a solid
core of teaching skills. They have excellent instructional strategies sup-
ported by methods of goal setting, instructional planning, and classroom
management. They know how to motivate, communicate, and work
effectivelywith students who have different levels of skills and come from
culturally diverse backgrounds. Effectiveteachers also understand how to
use appropriate levels of technology in the classroom.
A Good Teacher
Mike, Grade 2:
A good teacher is a teacher that does stuff
that catches your interest. Sometimes you st~rt
learning and you don,'t even realize it. A good
teacher is a teacher lnaf does stuff that 7l1akes
you think. (Nikola-Lisa & Burnaford, 1994)
Subject Matter Competence In their wish lists of teacher characteris-
tics, secondary school students increasingly_l1ave mentioned "teacher
knowledge of their subjects" (NASSP,1997). Having a thoughtful, flexible,
conceptual understanding of subject matter is indispensable for being an
effective teacher. Of course, knowledge of subject matter includes more
than just facts, terms, and general concepts. It also includes knowledge about organizing
ideas, connections among ideas, ways of thinking and arguing, patterns of change within
a discipline, beliefs about a discipline, and the ability to carry ideas from one discipline
to another. Clearly, having a deep understanding of the subject matter is an important
aspect of being a competent teacher (Ellis,2007; Peters &Stout, 2006;Van de Walle,2007).
Instructional Strategies At a broad level, two major approaches characterize how
teachers teach: constructivist and direct instruction. The constructivist approach was
at the center of William James' and John Dewey's philosophies of education. The
direct instruction approach l1as more in common with E. 1. Thorndike's view.
The constructivist approach is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the
importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding
with guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not
attempt to simply pour information into children's minds. Rather, children should
be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically
with careful, monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Eby, Herrell, &
Jordan, 2006; Halpern, 2006; Kafai, 2006). Constructivists argue that for too long
children have been required to sit still, be passive learners, and rotely memorize irrel-
evant as well as relevant information (Henson, 2004; Silberman, 2006).
Today,constructivism may include -an emphasis on collaboration-children
working with each other in their efforts to know and understand (Bodrova &Leong,
2007; Hyson, Copple, & Jones, 2006). A teacher with a constructivist instructional
philosophy would not have children memorize information rotely but would give
them opportunities to meaningfully construct knowledge and understand the mate-
rial while guiding their learning (Ornstein, Lasley, & Mindes, 2005).
By contrast, the direct instruction approach is a structured, teacher-centered
approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for
students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts
by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum. An important goal in the direct
instruction approach is maximizing student learning time (Stevenson, 2000).
constructivist approach Alearner-
centered approach to learning that
emphasizesthe importance of individuals
actively constructing knowledge and
understanding with guidance from the
teacher.
direct instruction approach Astruc-
tured, teacher-centered approachcharac-
terized by teacher direction and control,
high teacher expectations for students'
progress,maximum time spent by stu-
dents on academic tasks,and efforts by
the teacher to keepnegative affect to a
minimum.
~ww.m~he.com/santedu3e
Some experts in ~~ucatioI'lal psyc]:l.o.logy.~mphasize that
nany effective teachers use both a constructivist and a direct
nstruction approach rather than either exclusively (Darling-
-Iammond & Bransford, 2005; Schwartz & others, 1999). Further,
orne circumstances may call more for a constructivist approach,
)thers for a direct instruction approach. For example, experts
ncreasingly recommend an explicit, intellectually engaging direct
nstruction approach when teaching students with a reading or a
~riting disability (Berninger, 2006). Whether you teach more
rom a constructivist approach or more from a direct instruction
IPproach, you can be an effective teacher.
30al Setti'1g am Instructional-Planning5kills -Whether con-
;tructivist or more traditional, effective teachers set high goals for
heir teaching and organize plans for reaching those goals (Blu-
nenfeld, Mark, & Harris, 2006; Meece, Anderman, & Anderman,
W06). They also develop specific criteria for success, spending con-
;iderable time in instructional planning, organizing their lessons to
naximize students' learning (Posner & Rudnitsky, 2006). As they
)lan, effective teachers reflect and think about how they can make
.earning both challenging and interesting. Good planning
i
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Effective Teaching
7
...
What characterizes constructivist and direct instruction
approaches to educating students?
requires consideration of the kinds of information, demonstrations, models, inquiry
opportunities, discussion, and practice students need over time to understand particular
concepts and develop particular skills. Although research has found that all of these
features can support learning, the process of instructional design requires that teachers
figure out which things students should do when, in what order, and how (Darling-
Hammond & others, 2005, p. 186).
Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practices Competent teachers have a good
understanding of children's development and know how to create instruction mate-
rials appropriate for their developmental levels (Darling-Hammond & Bransford,
2005; Horowitz & others, 2005). U.S. schools are organized by grade and to some
degree by age, but these are not always good predictors of children's development.
At any grade level, there is usually a two- or three-year span of ages with an even
wider span of skills, abilities, and developmental stages. Understanding developmental
pathways and progressions is extremely important for teaching in ways that are optimal
for each child (Horowitz & others, 2005, p. 93).
Throughout this text we call attention to developmental aspects of educating
children and provide examples of teaching and learning that take into account a
child's developmental level. Chapter 2, "Cognitive and Language Development," and
chapter 3, Social Contexts and Socioemotional Development, are devoted exclusively
to development.
Classroom r\/anagcment Skills An important aspect of being an effective teacher
is keeping the class as a whole working togetherand.oriented toward classroom tasks.
Effective teachers establish and maintain an environment in which learning can
occur. To create this optimal learning environment, teachers need a repertoire of
strategies for establishing rules and procedures, organizing groups, monitoring and
pacing classroom activities, and handling misbehavior (Evertson, Emmer, &Worsham,
2006; Kaufmann & others, 2006).
Motivational ~kihs Effectiveteachershavegoodstrategiesfor helpingstudentsbecome
self-motivated and take responsibility for their learning (Anderman & Wolters, 2006;
Blumenfeld, Krajcik, & Kempler, 2006; Wigfield, Byrnes, and Eccles, 2006; Wigfield &
others, 2006). Educational psychologists increasingly stress that this is best accomplished
by providing n'al-world learning opportunities of optimal difficulty and novelty for each
.
-' -_..
---------...
"My mom told me to tell you that I am
the educational challenge you were told
about in college."
Reprinted by permission of Heiser Zedonek.
8
Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching
"".----.-..
-'-,-~--_.
."
:ed instruction Involvesree-
ividual variations in students'
'eadiness,interests,and other
:s, and taking these differ-
:count when planning cur-
engaging in instruction.
student (Brophy,2004).Studentsare motivated whentheycanmakechoicesin linewith
tilelfpersonal-'mtetests:-Effectiveteachers give them the opportunity to think creatively
and deeply about projects (Blumenfeld, Kempler, & Krajcik, 2006; Starko, 2005).
),InaCldition to guiding students to become self-motivated learners, the impor-
tance of establishing high expectations for students' achievement is increasingly being
recognized (Wigfield & others, 2006). High expectations for children's achievements
neeQs to come from teachers and parents. Too often children are rewarded for in-
ferior or mediocre performance with the result that they do not reach their full
.-~potential.~When-high-expectations are created, a key aspecLoLeducation is to pro-
vide chilqren-especially low-achieving children-effective instruction and support
to meet these expectations. Chapter 13 covers the topic of motivation in detail.
'='C.Jl.!llDLl!ni~liQJ:L:iKi~._Also il1Qispensable to teaching are skiUs in speaking, listen-
ing, overcoming barriers to verbal communication, tuning in to students' nonverbal
communication, and constructively, resolving conflicts. Communication skills are
critical not only in teaching but also in interacting with parents. Effective teachers
use good communication skills when they talk "with" rather than "to" students, par-
ents, administrators, and others; keep criticism at a minimum; and have an assertive
rather than aggressive, manipulative, or passive communication style (Alberti &
Emmons, 2001; Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2006). Effective teachers work to
improve students' communication skills as well (Powell & Caseau, 2004). This is espe-
cially important because communication skills have been rated as the skills most
sought after by to day's employers (Collins, 1996).
Paying More Than Lip Service to Individual Variations Virtually every teacher
knows that it is important to take individual variations into account when teaching,
but this is not always easy to do. Your students will have varying levels of intelligence,
use different thinking and learning styles, and have different temperaments and per-
sonality traits. You also are likely to have some gifted students and others with dif-
ferent types of disabilities (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006; Winner, 2006).
Effectively teaching a class of students with such diverse characteristics requires
much thought and effort. Differentiated instruction involves recognizing individual
variations in students' knowledge, readiness, interests, and other characteristics, and
taking these differences into account in planning curriculum and engaging in instruc-
tion (Tomlinson, 2001). Differentiated instruction emphasizes tailoring assignments
to meet students' needs and abilities. It is unlikely that a teacher can generate 20 to
3ifdlffer'enflesson plans to address the needs of each student in a classroom. How-
ever, differentiated instruction advocates discovering "zones" or "ballparks" in which
students in a classroom cluster, thus providing three or four types!levels of instruc-
tion rather than 20 to 30. In chapter 4, "Individual Variations," and chapter 6,
"Learners Who Are Exceptional," we provide strategies to help you guide students
with different levels of skills and different characteristics to learn effectively.
Working Effectively with Students from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds Today,
one of every five children in the United States is from an immigrant family, and
'2040'lme'-of--everrthree--tJ;S:"'"children is projected to fit this-description (Suarez-
I Orozco, 2002). Nearly 80 percent of the new immigrants are people of color from
Latin America, Asia, and the Caribbean. Approximately 75 percent of the new immi-
grants are of Spanish-speaking origin, although children speaking more than 100 dif-
ferent languages are entering U.S. schools (OBEMLA, 2000).
In today's world of increasing intercultural contact, effective teachers are knowl-
edgeableabout people from different cultural backgrounds and are sensitive to their
needs (Benn~tt, 2007; Diaz, Pelletier, & Provenzo, 2006; Okagaki, 2006; Spring,
:20Q6,?P07)"Effective teachers encourage students to have positive personal con-
tf;1.ctwgh.<iiversestlldents and think of ways to create such settings. They guide
students in thinking critically.about cultural and ethnic issues, forestall or reduce
-
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Effective Teaching
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What are some strategies effective teachers
use to help students become motivated?
What are some strategies effective teachers use regarding diversity issues?
bias, cultivate acceptance, and serve as cultural mediators (Banks, 2001, 2006;
- ~.Cushner, 2D06; Redman, 2007; Spencer, 2006). An effective teacher also needs to
be a broker, or middle person, between the culture of the school and the culture
of certain students, especially those who are unsuccessful academically (Diaz,
1997; Diaz, Pelletier, & Provenzo, 2006).
Here are cultural questions that competent teachers are sensitive to include
(Pang, 2005):
. Do I recognize the power and complexity of cultural influences on students?
. Are my expectations for my students culturally based or biased?
. Am I doing a good job of seeing life from the perspective of my students who
come from different cultures than mine?
. Am I teaching the skills students may need to talk in class if their culture is
one in which they have little opportunity to practice "public" talking?
We explore diversity issues throughout the book and in Diversity and Education
interludes. The one on page 10 further explores the cultural aspects of schools.
Assessment Skills Competent teachers also have good assessment skills. There are
many aspects to effectively using assessment in the classroom (Gronlund, 2006;
McMillan, 2007; Nitko & Brookhart, 2007; Reynolds, Livingston, & Willson, 2006).
You will need to decide what type of tests you want to use to document your stu-
dents' performance after instruction. You also will need to use assessment effectively
before and during instruction (McMillan, 2007). For example, before tea~h~g~a unit
on plate tectonics, you might decide to assess whether YOIiYstuoents-aretamiliar with
terms like continent, earthquake, and volcano.
During instruction, you might want to use ongoing observation and monitoring
to determine whether your instruction is at a level that challenges students and to
detect which students need your individual attention (Ercikan, 2006). You will need
to develop a grading system that communicates meaningful information about your
students' performance.
Other aspects of assessment you will be involved with include state-mandated tests
to assess students' achievement and teachers' knowledge and skills (Reynolds, Livingston,
& Willson, 2006). The federal government's No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation
requires states to test students annually in mathematics, English/language arts, and
science and holds states accountable for the success and failure of their students.
10
Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: ATool for Effective Teaching
-~ ---
~. .
DIVE-RSIT '-AND EDUCATION
The Cultural School
--- .. - -
Valerie Pang (2005), an expert on cultural issues in schools, believes that many
teachers don't adequately take into account the cultural context of the school and
cultural backgrounds students bring to the classroom. Teachers may not share their
students' cultural expe[iencesJJecause tbey live in neighborhoods far from the
school in which they teach. The teachers and students 'also may have grown up
in very different cultures. Pang (2005) says teachers should become more familiar
with the neighborhood in which the school is located if they live outside of it.
They might ShOP,21neig~~orhood stores, get to know the community leaders,
and read community newspapers. In this way, teachers can become more in tune
with their students' rhythm and culture. Pang also recommends that teachers bring
examples from the children's lives into their teaching.
An example of bringing local, cultural meaning to students involves a San
Diego high school social studies class whose teacher invited Dr. Dorothy Smith-
an African American college professor, community leader, and former chair of the
San Diego School Board-to speak to her class. Dr. Smith talked about issues the
students and parents were dealing with as citizens. She brought up many issues:
What does it mean to be an African American? How important is it to go to col-
lege? How can I make a contribution to my neighborhood?
In preparation, the students developed interview questions to ask Dr. Smith.
Also, one group of students videotaped her discussion so that the interview could
be shown to other classes. Another group took notes and wrote an article about
her talk for the student newspaper.
When students are given the opportunity to meet people like Dr. Smith, they
are provided not only with important cultural role models but also with con-
nections to the culture of their own neighborhood.
Because of NCLB, the extent to which instruction should be tied to standards,
or what is called standards-based instruction, has become a major issue in educational
psychology and u.s. classrooms. This issue is all about standards of excellence and
what it takes to get students to pass external, large-scale tests. Many educational psy-
chologists stress that the challenge is to teach creatively within the structure imposed
by NCLB (McMillan, 2007). Much more information about No Child Left Behind is
provided in chapter 15, "Standardized Tests and Teaching."
Before you become a teacher, your subject matter knowledge and teaching skills
are also likelyto be assessedby the state in which you plan to teach (Tittle, 2006).
A large majority of states now use the PRAXISTMtest to determine whether prospec-
tive teachers are qualified to teach. Because of the increasing use of the PRAXISTM
test, this text includes a number of resources to help you prepare for this test. .
--- --- _. --'" -
j
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I
Technological Skills Technology itself does not necessarily improve students' ability
to learn. Other conditions are also necessary to create supportive learning environ-
ments (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 2006,a,b; Berson &others, 2007; Bitter &Legacy,2006).
These conditions include vision and support from educational leaders; teachers skilled
in using technology for learning; content standards and curriculum resources; assess-
ment of effectiveness of technology for learning; and an emphasis on the child as an
active,constructivelearner (International Societyfor Technologyin Education,2001).
Effective teachers develop their technological skills and integrate computers
appropriately into classroom learning (Cruz & Duplass, 2007; Sawyer, 2006). This
integration should match up with students' learning needs, including the need to
TECHNOLOGYAND EDUCATION
Schools-and -Communities
---'-. - ~- -
Not only is technol0gy helping children
learn more effectively in school, but it is
~ plso increasingly opening up schools to
communities (Dick, Carey, &Carey, 2005).
In many districts, students and pa"ents
cant6mmui1itate- wIth teachers and
administrators through e-mail. Teachers
can post students' work on Web pages.
Some schools provide students with lap-
~p-c0mputerslhey can take home (Pea
& Maldonado, 2006; Silvernail & Lane,
2004; Zucker & McGhee, 2005).
Better communication between par-
ents and teachers was one goal of a state-
funded Indiana program called the Buddy Cherokee Middle School students
System (Rockman &Mayer, 1994). In this tackle LEGO robotic kit.
program, computers and modems were
placed in theJ10mes of 7,000 elementary school students,
most of them in grades 4 and 5, for 1 or 2 years, The stu-
dents'" parents, many of whom had never been to their chil-
dren's schools, had to go there to pick up the computer
equipment and get training. Many of the parents and teach-
ers report that the computer connection has resulted in
increased communication with each other.
A special concern is to enable students from low-income
backgrounds to have adequate access to computers. The
Foshay Learning Center, a K-12 public school in Los Angeles,
has created eight satellite learning centers in low-income
apartment complexes. Without leaving their buildings, stu-
dents in this schoOl can use the computers to get help with
l
i
homework, learn about technology, and
participate in active learning experi-
ences. Such programs are especially
important because, according to one
survey, Americans earning less than
$30,000 a year comprise only 18 percent
pf Internet users, despite comprising 28
percent of the population. Low-income
youth are especially vulnerable, being
eight times less likely to use computers
at home as children in families earning
$75,000 or more (Local Initiatives Sup-
port Corporation [LlSC],2005).
IBM recently created a Team Tech
Volunteer program that will provide
technology services to more than 2,500
health and human service agencies. The
Team Tech program gives students opportunities to become
volunteers in their community and provides technological ser-
vices that can improve the education and learning of students.
Another project was created by Steve Scott, an IBMemployee
in North Carolina, who recruited five IBM peers to hold a
technology cap for 28 eighth-grade Native American students
at Cherokee Middle School (IBM,2006). The IBMemployees
discussed career opportunities and presented technical infor-
mationin interesting, easy to understand ways. One project
involves having teams of students work on LEGOrobotic kits.
Do a thorough assessment of the businesses in your com-
munity. Like IBM, some might be willing to provide techno-
logical services and expertise for your classroom.
prepare for tomorrow's jobs, many of which will require technological expertise and
computer-based skills. In addition, effective teachers are knowledgeable about various
assistive devices to support the learning of students with disabilities (Provenza, 2005).
National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) have been established by the
International Society for Technology in Education (lSTE) (2000, 2001). The NETS
standards include:
. Technology foundation standards for students, which describe what students
should know about technology and be able to do with technology;--
. Standards for using technology in learning and teaching, which describe how
technology should be used throughout the curriculum for teaching, learning,
and instructional management;
. Educational technology support standards, which describe systems, access, staff
development, and support services needed to provide effectiveuse of technology; and
. Standards for student assessment and evaluation of technology use, which
describe various means of assessing student progress and evaluating the use of
technology in learning and teaching.
To think further about schools, communities, and technology, see the Technol-
ogy and Education box.
1
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11
12
Chapter 1 Educational Psychology: A Tool for Effective Teaching
uy 0 uAre the Coolest"
Commitment and Motivation
Being an effective teacher also requires commitment and motivation.
This includes having a good attitude and caring about students.
Beginning teachers often report that the investment of time and
effort needed to be an effective teacher is huge. Some teachers, even
experienced ones, say they have "no life" from September to June. Even
putting in hours on evenings and weekends, in addition to all of
the hours spent in the classrci'om, might still not be enough to get
things done. . , ---,--_.
In the face of these demands, it is easy to become frustrated or to
get into a rut and develop a negative attitude. Commitment and moti-
vation help get effective teachers through the tough moments of
teaching. Effective-teachers have confidence in their own self-efficacy,
don't let negative emotions diminish their motivation, and bring a
positive attitude and enthusiasm to the classroom. These qualities are
contagious and help make the classroom a place where students want
to be.
So, what is likely to nurture your own positive attitudes and con-
tinued enthusiasm for teaching? As in all fields, success breeds success.
It's important to become aware of times when you've made a differ-
ence in an individual student's life. Consider the words of one of
the expert consultants for this book, Carlos Diaz (1997), now a pro'
fessor of education at Florida Atlantic University, about Mrs. Oppel, his high school
English teacher:
I jd't"Want"'tb'thankyoUfodlll the extra time
you took to help me. You didn't have to do
that..buf~,}(m~:.4iq~8dIwan~;tPJba~kyou for
it. Thal!.ks ~i~o for being str~ight up with me
and.,not b;ating ar9~Ild the bush and for that
you:'~re tfJ~coolese'd'm'sorry'>for' the hard
til11~S: [-gaVk'you. Youotake~o'l11uc~Junk but
thrct!Jgh..~lrtfJat yoO.s,~flycalrr ang';YbUare a
",," ,J'"o," 1-1""., f"oo", '.' 'f',
greatte.Qch~ri .~ '~ ,,0
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Jes~i;c~;.~~en~h-Grade Sty,d~Ilt
Mas;on>6eorgia
Letter to Chuck.Rawls, Her Teacher,'at the End
of thej.School YearJ'
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@The New'Yorker Collection.'1989 ,Lee Lorenz from
cartoonbant.com. All Rights Reserved.
To this day, whenever I see certain words (dearth, slake) I recognize them fondly as some
of Mrs. Oppel's vocabulary words. As a teacher, she was very calm and focused. She also
was passionate about the power of language and the beauty of literature. I credit her, at
least partially, for my determination to try to master the English language and become a
professor and writer. I wish I could bottle these characteristics and implant them in all
of my students.
The better teacher you become, the more rewarding your work will be. And the
more respect and success you achieve in the eyes of your students, the better you will
feel about your commitment to teaching.
With that in mind, stop for a moment and think about the images you have of
your own former teachers. Some of your teachers likely were outstanding and left
you with a very positive image. In a national survey of almost a thousand students
13 to 17 years of age, having a good sense of humor, making the class interesting,
and having knowledge of the subject matter were the characteristics students listed
as the most important for teachers to have (NASSP, 1997). Characteristics second-
ary school students most frequently attributed to their worst teachers were having
a boring class, not explaining things dearly, and showing favoritism. These charac-
teristics and others that reflect students' images of their best and worst teachers are
shown in figure 1.1.
Think about the roles that.a-good-sense-oflmmor..and.your own genuine enthu-
siasm are likely to play in your long-term commitment as a teacher. Also, notice other
characteristics in figure 1.1 that relate to the caring nature of outstanding teachers.
Effective teachers care for their students, often referring to them as "my students."
They really want to be with the students and are dedicated to helping them learn. At
the same time, they keep their role as a teacher distinct from student roles. Beyond
their own caring, effective teachers also look for ways to help their students consider
others' feelings and care about each other.
To think about the best and worst characteristics of the teachers you have had,
complete Self-Assessment 1.1. Use the self-assessment to further explore the attitudes
behind your commitment to become a teacher.
SELF-ASSESSMENT1.1
The Best~and-W()"rsf'-Chara'cteristicsof fViyteachers
~,""
L
When you studied figure 1.1, were you surprised by any of the charactel-istics listed by
students to describe their best and WOfst teachers? Which of the top five characteristics
students listed for the best teachers surprised you the most? Which of the top five char-
acteristics of the WOfst teachers surprised you the most?'
Now think about the top five char!'Sl~!i?t!cs_.pLthe best teachers you have had.~Then
think about the'riialri-rfW;-CFiaracteristics of the worst teachers you have had. Ingener-
ating your lists, don't be constrained by the characteristics described in figure 1.1. Also,
after you have listed.eachcharacteristic,write down one Of more examples of situations
that reflected the characteristic.
-"'" -
Five Characteristics of the BestT eachers I Have Had
...~ ,.. --_u..
Examples of Situations That Reflected the Characteristic
Characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Five Characteristics of the Worst Teachers I Have Had
Examples of Situations That Reflected the Characteristic
Characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
FIGURE 1.1 Student's Images of Their Best and Worst Teachers
14
Chapter 1 Educational Psychology:A Tool for EffectiveTeaching
~
li"-~~~~"@~""'!'{!
".' ."z:' BEST p..RA~tl~~~
...' .';"" Strategies ~(j! {Bi"?n\i~g
1. Effective teaching requires teachers to wearmahy differ-
ent hats. It's easy to fall into the trap of"thinking that if
you have good subject matter knowledge, excellent
teaching will follow. Being an effective teacher requires
many diverse skills. Next, you can readi160GF'howS'usan
Bradburn, who teaches fourth and sixth grades" at West
Marian Elementary School in North Carolina, brings
many different skills to create effective lessons.
~,~~~~-~ -"-'--.
THROUGH THE EYES OF TEACHERS
The Turtle Lady
Susan created a school museum in
which students conduct research and
create exhibitions. She has put her
school museum concept "on wheels"
by having students take carts to other
classes and into the commuD,ity,al1dp'~.
she has used the award money to
spread the use of mobile museums to
other North Carolina schools. Nick-
named "the turtle lady" because of her
interest in turtles and other animals,
Susan takes students on 3-day field
trips to Edisto Island, South Carolina,
to search for fossils and study coastal
ecology. Her students sell calendars that contain their orig-
inal poetry and art, and they use the proceeds to buy
portions of a rain forest so it won't be destroyed.
one teacher benefited from reflecting about how his per-
ceptions of students' diversity was too stereotypical.
THROUGHTHE EYESPEIEA.cHERS
FindingIndividuality in Diversity
Paul August taught for 6 years in an integrated school but
says that experience did not adequately prepare him, a
non-Latino White, for teach'fngln~anall African American
school. Initially, he perceived thy. African American stu-
dents as looking alike. At the end of the school-year,
however, he -realized how ridiculous
this was, and individuality had bloomed
in his classroom both on his part arid his
students. He no longer was seen by his
students as a White guy but as a teacher.
Later, when Paul was transferred to
teach in a predominantly AsianAmerican
schpol,he says that he regressed into the
"they all look alike" stereotype. Once
again, though, over time individuality
trumped nationality and he "could see
the differences in faces, names, and
cultures of Chinese, Vietnamese, Cam-
bodians, Laotions, Japanese, and Mieni,
(August, 2002, p. A29).
2. Engage in perspective taking. You want to be the very
best teacher you can possibly be. Think about what your
students need from you to improve their academic and
life skills. Put your heart and mind into helping them
construct these skills. Also thinkabout how you perceive
your students and how they perceive you. tJere is how
3. Keep the list of characteristics of effective teachers we
have discussed in this chapter with you through your
teaching career. Looking at the list and thinking about
the different areas of effective teaching can benefit you
as you go through your student teaching, your days as a
beginning teacher, and even your years as an experi-
enced teacher. By consulting it from time to time, you
might realize that you have let one or two areas slip and
need to spend time improving yourself.
knowledge and skills
for teachers to be
. ,iYVhatismost likelyto make teaching rewardingfor;you in the.l01') g run?
www.mhhe.com/sa ntedu3e
PRAX!STMPRACTICE
1. Suzannespendsa cons
criteria for student SUI
she demonstrating?
a. classmommanagen
b. communication
c. developmentally ap
d. goal setting and in~
2. Mr. Marcinello, who is
with his job. He is dev
teaching. Which of the
most at this point .to b
a. classroommanag
b. commitment and
c. technology and
d. subject matter
ng, feels frustrated
rrying over in his
d to work on the
RESEARCHIN EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY
Why Research
Is
Program Evaluation Research, Action
Research. and the Teacher-as-Researcher
--.---.---.-.--..
Research can be a valuable source of information about teaching. We will explore
why research is important and how it is done, including how you can be a teacher-
researcher.
V\lhy Resea Important
It sometimes is said that experience is the best teacher. Your own experiences and
experiences that other teachers, administrators, and experts share with you will make
you a better teacher. However, by providing you with valid information about the
best ways to teach children, research also can make you a better teacher (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2005, Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).
We all get a great deal of knowledge from personal experience. Vlfegeneralize
from what we observe and frequently turn memorable encounters into lifetime
"truths." But how valid are these conclusions? Sometimes we err in making these per-
sonal observations or misinterpret,what,wesee,~ndhear,-Chancesare, you can think
of many situations in which you thought other people read you the wrong way, just
as they might have felt that you misread them. When we base information only on
personal experiences, we also aren't always totally objective because we sometimes
make judgments that protect our ego and self-esteem (McMillan, 2004; McMillan &
Schumacher, 2006).
We get information not only from personal experiences but also from authori-
ties or experts. In your teaching career, you will hear many authorities and experts
spell out a "best way" to educate students. The authorities and experts, however, don't
always agree, do they? You might hear one expert one week tell you about a reading
method that is absolutely the best, yet the next week hear another expert tout a
Researchin Educational Psychology 15