Basic Concepts: First Printing: February 1993

Basic Concepts
XYZs of Analog
and Digital Oscilloscopes
070869001
First Printing: February 1993
Basic Concepts
Copyright E Tektronix, Inc., 1992, 1993. All rights reserved. Tektronix products are covered by U.S. and for
eign patents, issued and pending. The following are registered trademarks: TEKTRONIX, TEK, TEKPROBE,
and SCOPEMOBILE.
XYZs of Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes i
Table of Contents
Introduction 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why Read This Book? 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Need More Copies? 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
For More Information 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Oscilloscope 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What Can You Do With It? 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analog and Digital 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How Does an Oscilloscope Work? 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analog Oscilloscopes 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Digital Oscilloscopes 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sampling Methods 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RealTime Sampling with Interpolation 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EquivalentTime Sampling 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oscilloscope Terminology 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement Terms 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Waves 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sine Waves 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Square and Rectangular Waves 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sawtooth and Triangle Waves 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step and Pulse Shapes 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Waveform Measurements 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency and Period 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phase 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Performance Terms 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bandwidth 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rise Time 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Sensitivity 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sweep Speed 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gain Accuracy 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Base or Horizontal Accuracy 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample Rate 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ADC Resolution (Or Vertical Resolution) 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Record Length 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting Up 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grounding 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground the Oscilloscope 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground Yourself 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting the Controls 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table of Contents
Basic Concepts ii
Probes 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Passive Probes 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Active Probes 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Current Probes 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Where to Clip the Ground Clip 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compensating the Probe 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Controls 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Display Controls 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Controls 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Position and Volts per Division 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Input Coupling 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bandwidth Limit 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Channel Invert 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alternate and Chop Display 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Math Operations 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horizontal Controls 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Position and Seconds per Division 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Base Selections 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Position 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnification 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XY Mode 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Controls 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Level and Slope 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Sources 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Modes 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Coupling 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigger Holdoff 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acquisition Controls for Digital Oscilloscopes 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acquisition Modes 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stopping and Starting the Acquisition System 40 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sampling Methods 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Controls 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement Techniques 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Display 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Measurements 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time and Frequency Measurements 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pulse and Rise Time Measurements 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phase Shift Measurements 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What's Next? 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Written Exercises 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Written Exercise Answers 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glossary G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index I1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XYZs of Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes 1
Introduction
The oscilloscope is an essential tool if you plan to design or repair electronic
equipment. It lets you see" electrical signals.
Energy, vibrating particles, and other invisible forces are everywhere in our
physical universe. Sensors can convert these forces into electrical signals
that you can observe and study with an oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes let you
see" events that occur in a split second.
If you are a scientist, engineer, technician, or electronics hobbyist, you
should know how to use an oscilloscope. The concepts presented here
provide you with a good starting point.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time, read this book to get a
solid understanding of oscilloscope basics. Then, read the manual provided
with your oscilloscope to learn specific information about how to use it in
your work. After reading this book, you will be able to:
H Describe how oscilloscopes work
H Describe the difference between an analog and digital oscilloscope
H Describe electrical waveform types
H Understand basic oscilloscope controls
H Take simple measurements
If you come across an unfamiliar term in this book, check the glossary in the
back for a definition.
This book serves as a useful classroom aid. It includes vocabulary and
multiple choice written exercises on oscilloscope theory and controls. You
do not need any mathematical or electronics knowledge. This book empha
sizes teaching you about oscilloscopes how they work and how to make
them work for you.
Additional copies of this book are available on request through your local
Tektronix representative.
Individual copies are available by ordering part number 070-8690-01.
To order a packet of 50 copies (e.g., for classroom instruction), use part
number 062-9323-01.
Why Read This
Book?
Need More Copies?
Introduction
Basic Concepts 2
If you have comments or questions about the material in this book, write to:
Tektronix, Inc.
P.O. Box 1520
Pittsfield, MA 01201
In the U.S., you may also call the Tektronix National Marketing Center toll
free:
1-800-426-2200
For More Information
The Oscilloscope
What is an oscilloscope, what can you do with it, and how does it work?
This section answers these fundamental questions.
The oscilloscope is basically a graphdisplaying device it draws a graph
of an electrical signal. In most applications the graph shows how signals
change over time: the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal
(X) axis represents time. The intensity or brightness of the display is some
times called the Z axis. (See Figure 1.) This simple graph can tell you many
things about a signal. Here are a few:
H You can determine the time and voltage values of a signal.
H You can calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal.
H You can see the moving parts" of a circuit represented by the signal.
H You can tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal.
H You can find out how much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternat
ing current (AC).
H You can tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is
changing with time.
X (time)
Y (voltage)
Z (intensity)
X (time)
Y (voltage)
Z (intensity)
Figure 1: X, Y, and Z Components of a Displayed Waveform
An oscilloscope looks a lot like a small television set, except that it has a grid
drawn on its screen and more controls than a television. The front panel of
an oscilloscope normally has control sections divided into Vertical, Horizon
The Oscilloscope
Basic Concepts 4
tal, and Trigger sections. There are also display controls and input connec
tors. See if you can locate these front panel sections in Figures 2 and 3 and
on your oscilloscope.
Figure 2:The TAS 465 Analog Oscilloscope Front Panel
Figure 3:The TDS 320 Digital Oscilloscope Front Panel
The Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from television repair technicians to
physicists. They are indispensable for anyone designing or repairing elec
tronic equipment.
The usefulness of an oscilloscope is not limited to the world of electronics.
With the proper transducer, an oscilloscope can measure all kinds of phe
nomena. A transducer is a device that creates an electrical signal in re
sponse to physical stimuli, such as sound, mechanical stress, pressure,
light, or heat. For example, a microphone is a transducer.
An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to measure engine vibrations.
A medical researcher uses an oscilloscope to measure brain waves. The
possibilities are endless.
Light Source
Photo Cell
Figure 4: Scientific Data Gathered by an Oscilloscope
What Can You Do
With It?
The Oscilloscope
Basic Concepts 6
Electronic equipment can be divided into two types: analog and digital.
Analog equipment works with continuously variable voltages, while digital
equipment works with discrete binary numbers that may represent voltage
samples. For example, a conventional phonograph turntable is an analog
device; a compact disc player is a digital device.
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An analog oscilloscope
works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam
moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up
and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen. This gives an
immediate picture of the waveform.
In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an ana
logtodigital converter (or ADC) to convert the voltage being measured into
digital information. It then uses this digital information to reconstruct the
waveform on the screen.
Analog Oscilloscopes
Trace Signals
Digital Oscilloscopes Sample
Signals and Construct Displays
ADC
1010
0001
0010
0101
Figure 5: Digital and Analog Oscilloscopes Display Waveforms
For many applications either an analog or digital oscilloscope will do. How
ever, each type does possess some unique characteristics making it more
or less suitable for specific tasks.
People often prefer analog oscilloscopes when it is important to display
rapidly varying signals in real time" (or as they occur).
Digital oscilloscopes allow you to capture and view events that may happen
only once. They can process the digital waveform data or send the data to a
computer for processing. Also, they can store the digital waveform data for
later viewing and printing.
Analog and Digital
The Oscilloscope
To better understand the oscilloscope controls, you need to know a little
more about how oscilloscopes display a signal. Analog oscilloscopes work
somewhat differently than digital oscilloscopes. However, several of the
internal systems are similar. Analog oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in
concept and are described first, followed by a description of digital oscillo
scopes.
Analog Oscilloscopes
When you connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal
travels through the probe to the vertical system of the oscilloscope. Figure 6
is a simple block diagram that shows how an analog oscilloscope displays a
measured signal.
Vertical System
Attenuator
Vertical
Amplifier
Trigger System
Horizontal System
Sweep
Generator
Ramp Time Base
Probe
CRT
Horizontal
Amplifier
Display
System
Figure 6: Analog Oscilloscope Block Diagram
Depending on how you set the vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator
reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier increases the signal voltage.
Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the cathode
ray tube (CRT). Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a glowing
dot to move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor inside the CRT creates the
glowing dot.) A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a negative
voltage causes the dot to move down.
The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a horizontal
sweep." Horizontal sweep is a term referring to the action of the horizontal
system causing the glowing dot to move across the screen. Triggering the
How Does an
Oscilloscope Work?
The Oscilloscope
Basic Concepts 8
horizontal system causes the horizontal time base to move the glowing dot
across the screen from left to right within a specific time interval. Many
sweeps in rapid sequence cause the movement of the glowing dot to blend
into a solid line. At higher speeds, the dot may sweep across the screen up
to 500,000 times each second.
Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection action
traces a graph of the signal on the screen. The trigger is necessary to stabi
lize a repeating signal. It ensures that the sweep begins at the same point of
a repeating signal, resulting in a clear picture as shown in Figure 7.
Untriggered
Display
Triggered
Display
Figure 7: Triggering Stabilizes a Repeating Waveform
In conclusion, to use an analog oscilloscope, you need to adjust three basic
settings to accommodate an incoming signal:
H The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use the volts/div control to
adjust the amplitude of the signal before it is applied to the vertical
deflection plates.
H The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the amount of time per
division represented horizontally across the screen.
H The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger level to stabilize a
repeating signal, as well as triggering on a single event.
Also, adjusting the focus and intensity controls enables you to create a
sharp, visible display.
Digital Oscilloscopes
Some of the systems that make up digital oscilloscopes are the same as
those in analog oscilloscopes; however, digital oscilloscopes contain addi
tional data processing systems. (See Figure 8.) With the added systems, the
digital oscilloscope collects data for the entire waveform and then displays it.
When you attach a digital oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the vertical system
adjusts the amplitude of the signal, just as in the analog oscilloscope.
Next, the analogtodigital converter (ADC) in the acquisition system sam
ples the signal at discrete points in time and converts the signal's voltage at
these points to digital values called sample points. The horizontal system's
The Oscilloscope
sample clock determines how often the ADC takes a sample. The rate at
which the clock ticks" is called the sample rate and is measured in samples
per second.
The sample points from the ADC are stored in memory as waveform points.
More than one sample point may make up one waveform point.
Together, the waveform points make up one waveform record. The number
of waveform points used to make a waveform record is called the record
length. The trigger system determines the start and stop points of the re
cord. The display receives these record points after being stored in memory.
Depending on the capabilities of your oscilloscope, additional processing of
the sample points may take place, enhancing the display. Pretrigger may be
available, allowing you to see events before the trigger point.
Vertical System
Attenuator
Vertical
Amplifier
Analog to
Digital
Convertor
Memory
Processing
Acquisition System
Trigger System
Horizontal System
Sample
Clock
Clock Time Base
Probe
Digital
Display
System
Display
Figure 8: Digital Oscilloscope Block Diagram
Fundamentally, with a digital oscilloscope as with an analog oscilloscope,
you need to adjust the vertical, horizontal, and trigger settings to take a
measurement.
The Oscilloscope
Basic Concepts 10
Sampling Methods
The sampling method tells the digital oscilloscope how to collect sample
points. For slowly changing signals, a digital oscilloscope easily collects
more than enough sample points to construct an accurate picture. However,
for faster signals, (how fast depends on the oscilloscope's maximum sample
rate) the oscilloscope cannot collect enough samples. The digital oscillo
scope can do two things:
H It can collect a few sample points of the signal in a single pass (in real
time sampling mode) and then use interpolation. Interpolation is a
processing technique to estimate what the waveform looks like based
on a few points.
H It can build a picture of the waveform over time, as long as the signal
repeats itself (equivalenttime sampling mode).
RealTime Sampling with Interpolation
Digital oscilloscopes use realtime sampling as the standard sampling
method. In realtime sampling, the oscilloscope collects as many samples
as it can as the signal occurs. (See Figure 9.) For singleshot or transient
signals you must use real time sampling.
Sampling Rate
Waveform Constructed
with Sample Points
Figure 9: Realtime Sampling
Digital oscilloscopes use interpolation to display signals that are so fast that
the oscilloscope can only collect a few sample points. Interpolation con
nects the dots."
Linear interpolation simply connects sample points with straight lines. Sine
interpolation (or sin x over x interpolation) connects sample points with
curves. (See Figure 10.) Sin x over x interpolation is a mathematical process
similar to the oversampling" used in compact disc players. With sine inter
polation, points are calculated to fill in the time between the real samples.
Using this process, a signal that is sampled only a few times in each cycle
can be accurately displayed or, in the case of the compact disc player,
accurately played back.
The Oscilloscope
100
90
10
0%
Sine Wave Reproduced
using Sine Interpolation
Sine Wave Reproduced
using Linear Interpolation
Figure 10: Linear and Sine Interpolation
EquivalentTime Sampling
Some digital oscilloscopes can use equivalenttime sampling to capture very
fast repeating signals. Equivalenttime sampling constructs a picture of a
repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition.
(See Figure 11.) You see the waveform slowly build up like a string of lights
going on onebyone. With sequential sampling the points appear from left
to right in sequence; with random sampling the points appear randomly
along the waveform.
1st Acquisition Cycle
3rd Acquisition Cycle
nth Acquisition Cycle
2nd Acquisition Cycle
Waveform Constructed
with Sample Points
Figure 11: Equivalenttime Sampling
The Oscilloscope
Basic Concepts 12
Oscilloscope Terminology
Learning a new skill often involves learning a new vocabulary. This idea
holds true for learning how to use an oscilloscope. This section describes
some useful measurement and oscilloscope performance terms.
The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time is a wave sound
waves, brain waves, ocean waves, and voltage waves are all repeating
patterns. An oscilloscope measures voltage waves. One cycle of a wave is
the portion of the wave that repeats. A waveform is a graphic representation
of a wave. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage
on the vertical axis.
Waveform shapes tell you a great deal about a signal. Any time you see a
change in the height of the waveform, you know the voltage has changed.
Any time there is a flat horizontal line, you know that there is no change for
that length of time. Straight diagonal lines mean a linear change rise or
fall of voltage at a steady rate. Sharp angles on a waveform mean sudden
change. Figure 12 shows common waveforms and Figure 13 shows some
common sources of waveforms.
Sine Wave
Square Wave
Sawtooth Wave
Step
Damped Sine Wave
Rectangular Wave
Triangle Wave
Pulse
Figure 12: Common Waveforms
Measurement Terms
Basic Concepts 14
Figure 13: Sources of Common Waveforms
You can classify most waves into these types:
H Sine waves
H Square and rectangular waves
H Triangle and sawtooth waves
H Step and pulse shapes
Sine Waves
The sine wave is the fundamental wave shape for several reasons. It has
harmonious mathematical properties it is the same sine shape you may
have studied in high school trigonometry class. The voltage in your wall
outlet varies as a sine wave. Test signals produced by the oscillator circuit of
a signal generator are often sine waves. Most AC power sources produce
sine waves. (AC stands for alternating current, although the voltage alter
nates too. DC stands for direct current, which means a steady current and
voltage, such as a battery produces.)
The damped sine wave is a special case you may see in a circuit that oscil
lates but winds down over time.
Figure 14 shows examples of sine and damped sine waves.
Sine Wave Damped Sine Wave
Figure 14: Sine and Damped Sine Waves
Square and Rectangular Waves
The square wave is another common wave shape. Basically, a square wave
is a voltage that turns on and off (or goes high and low) at regular intervals.
It is a standard wave for testing amplifiers good amplifiers increase the
amplitude of a square wave with minimum distortion. Television, radio, and
computer circuitry often use square waves for timing signals.
The rectangular wave is like the square wave except that the high and low
time intervals are not of equal length. It is particularly important when analyz
ing digital circuitry.
Figure 15 shows examples of square and rectangular waves.
Square Wave Rectangular Wave
Figure 15: Square and Rectangular Waves
Types of Waves
Basic Concepts 16
Sawtooth and Triangle Waves
Sawtooth and Triangle waves result from circuits designed to control volt
ages linearly, such as the horizontal sweep of an analog oscilloscope or the
raster scan of a television. The transitions between voltage levels of these
waves change at a constant rate. These transitions are called ramps.
Figure 16 shows examples of sawtooth and triangle waves.
Sawtooth Wave Triangle Wave
Figure 16: Sawtooth and Rectangular Waves
Step and Pulse Shapes
Signals such as steps and pulses that only occur once are called singleshot
or transient signals. The step indicates a sudden change in voltage, like
what you would see if you turned on a power switch. The pulse indicates
what you would see if you turned a power switch on and then off again. It
might represent one bit of information traveling through a computer circuit or
it might be a glitch (a defect) in a circuit.
A collection of pulses travelling together creates a pulse train. Digital compo
nents in a computer communicate with each other using pulses. Pulses are
also common in xray and communications equipment.
Figure 17 shows examples of step and pulse shapes and a pulse train.
Step Pulse Train Pulse
Figure 17: Step, Pulse, and Pulse Train Shapes
You use many terms to describe the types of measurements that you take
with your oscilloscope. This section describes some of the most common
measurements and terms.
Frequency and Period
If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is measured in Hertz
(Hz) and equals the number of times the signal repeats itself in one second
(the cycles per second). A repeating signal also has a period this is the
amount of time it takes the signal to complete one cycle. Period and fre
quency are reciprocals of each other, so that 1/period equals the frequency
and 1/frequency equals the period. So, for example, the sine wave in Fig
ure 18 has a frequency of 3 Hz and a period of 1/3 second.
Period
Frequency
1 Second
1 2 3
3 Cycles per
Second = 3 Hz
Figure 18: Frequency and Period
Voltage
Voltage is the amount of electric potential (a kind of signal strength) between
two points in a circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but
not always you may want to measure the voltage from the maximum
peak to the minimum peak of a waveform, referred to at the peaktopeak
voltage. The word amplitude commonly refers to the maximum voltage of a
signal measured from ground or zero volts. The waveform shown in Figure
19 has an amplitude of one volt and a peaktopeak voltage of two volts.
Waveform
Measurements
Basic Concepts 18
Phase
Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. Sine waves are based on
circular motion and a circle has 360. One cycle of a sine wave has 360, as
shown in Figure 19. Using degrees, you can refer to the phase angle of a
sine wave when you want to describe how much of the period has elapsed.
90
180
360
270
+1
0
-1
0
Figure 19: Sine Wave Degrees

Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two otherwise similar
signals. In Figure 20, the waveform labeled current" is said to be 90 out of
phase with the waveform labeled voltage," since the waves reach similar
points in their cycles exactly 1/4 of a cycle apart (360/4 = 90). Phase shifts
are common in electronics.
0
Voltage
Current
Phase = 90
Figure 20: Phase Shift

The terms described in this section may come up in your discussions about
oscilloscope performance. Understanding these terms will help you evaluate
and compare your oscilloscope with other models.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth specification tells you the frequency range the oscilloscope
accurately measures.
As signal frequency increases, the capability of the oscilloscope to accurate
ly respond decreases. By convention, the bandwidth tells you the frequency
at which the displayed signal reduces to 70.7% of the applied sine wave
signal. (This 70.7% point is referred to as the -3 dB point," a term based
on a logarithmic scale.)
Rise Time
Rise time is another way of describing the useful frequency range of an
oscilloscope. Rise time may be a more appropriate performance consider
ation when you expect to measure pulses and steps. An oscilloscope can
not accurately display pulses with rise times faster than the specified rise
time of the oscilloscope.
Vertical Sensitivity
The vertical sensitivity indicates how much the vertical amplifier can amplify
a weak signal. Vertical sensitivity is usually given in millivolts (mV) per divi
sion. The smallest voltage a general purpose oscilloscope can detect is
typically about 2 mV per vertical screen division.
Sweep Speed
For analog oscilloscopes, this specification indicates how fast the trace can
sweep across the screen, allowing you to see fine details. The fastest sweep
speed of an oscilloscope is usually given in nanoseconds/div.
Gain Accuracy
The gain accuracy indicates how accurately the vertical system attenuates
or amplifies a signal. This is usually listed as a percentage error.
Time Base or Horizontal Accuracy
The time base or horizontal accuracy indicates how accurately the horizontal
system displays the timing of a signal. This is usually listed as a percentage
error.
Performance Terms
Basic Concepts 20
Sample Rate
On digital oscilloscopes, the sampling rate indicates how many samples per
second the ADC (and therefore the oscilloscope) can acquire. Maximum
sample rates are usually given in megasamples per second (MS/s). The
faster the oscilloscope can sample, the more accurately it can represent fine
details in a fast signal. The minimum sample rate may also be important if
you need to look at slowly changing signals over long periods of time.
Typically, the sample rate changes with changes made to the sec/div control
to maintain a constant number of waveform points in the waveform record.
ADC Resolution (Or Vertical Resolution)
The resolution, in bits, of the ADC (and therefore the digital oscilloscope)
indicates how precisely it can turn input voltages into digital values. Calcula
tion techniques can improve the effective resolution.
Record Length
The record length of a digital oscilloscope indicates how many waveform
points the oscilloscope is able to acquire for one waveform record. Some
digital oscilloscopes let you adjust the record length. The maximum record
length depends on the amount of memory in your oscilloscope. Since the
oscilloscope can only store a finite number of waveform points, there is a
tradeoff between record detail and record length. You can acquire either a
detailed picture of a signal for a short period of time (the oscilloscope fills
up" on waveform points quickly) or a less detailed picture for a longer period
of time. Some oscilloscopes let you add more memory to increase the
record length for special applications.
Setting Up
This section briefly describes how to set up and start using an oscillo
scope specifically, how to ground the oscilloscope, set the controls in
standard positions, and compensate the probe.
Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to take measure
ments or work on a circuit. Properly grounding the oscilloscope protects you
from a hazardous shock and grounding yourself protects your circuits from
damage.
Ground the Oscilloscope
Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high voltage contacts
the case of an ungrounded oscilloscope, any part of the case, including
knobs that appear insulated, it can give you a shock. However, with a prop
erly grounded oscilloscope, the current travels through the grounding path
to earth ground rather than through you to earth ground.
To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an electrically neutral
reference point (such as earth ground). Ground your oscilloscope by plug
ging its threepronged power cord into an outlet grounded to earth ground.
Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate measurements with your
oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs to share the same ground as any
circuits you are testing.
Some oscilloscopes do not require the separate connection to earth ground.
These oscilloscopes have insulated cases and controls, which keeps any
possible shock hazard away from the user.
Ground Yourself
If you are working with integrated circuits (ICs), you also need to ground
yourself. Integrated circuits have tiny conduction paths that can be dam
aged by static electricity that builds up on your body. You can ruin an expen
sive IC simply by walking across a carpet or taking off a sweater and then
touching the leads of the IC. To solve this problem, wear a grounding strap
(see Figure 21). This strap safely sends static charges on your body to earth
ground.
Grounding
Setting Up
Basic Concepts 22
Connect to Earth
Ground
Figure 21: Typical Wrist Type Grounding Strap
After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front panel. It is divided
into three main sections labeled Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger. Your oscil
loscope may have other sections, depending on the model and type (analog
or digital).
Notice the input connectors on your oscilloscope. This is where you attach
probes. Most oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and each
channel can display a waveform on the screen. Multiple channels are handy
for comparing waveforms.
Intensity
Control
Vertical
Section
Horizontal
Section
Focus
Control
Trigger
Section
Figure 22: Front Panel Control Sections of an Oscilloscope
Some oscilloscopes have an AUTOSET or PRESET button that sets up the
controls in one step to accommodate a signal. If your oscilloscope does not
have this feature, it is helpful to set the controls to standard positions before
taking measurements.
Setting the Controls
Setting Up
Standard positions include the following:
H Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1
H Set the volts/division scale to a midrange position
H Turn off the variable volts/division
H Turn off all magnification settings
H Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC
H Set the trigger mode to auto
H Set the trigger source to channel 1
H Turn trigger holdoff to minimum or off
H Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level
H Adjust the focus control for a sharp display
These are general instructions for setting up your oscilloscope. If you are not
sure how to do any of these steps, refer to the manual that came with your
oscilloscope. The Controls section beginning on page 29 describes the
controls in more detail.
Now you are ready to connect a probe to your oscilloscope. It is important
to use a probe designed to work with your oscilloscope. A probe is more
than a cable with a clipon tip. It is a highquality connector, carefully de
signed not to pick up stray radio and power line noise.
Probes are designed not to influence the behavior of the circuit you are
testing. However, no measurement device can act as a perfectly invisible
observer. The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with
the circuit being tested is called circuit loading. To minimize circuit loading,
you will probably use a 10X attenuator (passive) probe.
Your oscilloscope probably arrived with a passive probe as a standard
accessory. Passive probes provide you with an excellent tool for generalpur
pose testing and troubleshooting. For more specific measurements or tests,
many other types of probes exist. Two examples are active and current
probes.
Descriptions of these probes follow, with more emphasis given to the pas
sive probe since this is the probe type that allows you the most flexibility of
use.
Probes
Setting Up
Basic Concepts 24
Using Passive Probes
Most passive probes have some degree of attenuation factor, such as 10X,
100X, and so on. By convention, attenuation factors, such as for the 10X
attenuator probe, have the X after the factor. In contrast, magnification
factors like X10 have the X first.
The 10X (read as ten times") attenuator probe minimizes circuit loading and
is an excellent generalpurpose passive probe. Circuit loading becomes
more pronounced at higher frequencies, so be sure to use this type of probe
when measuring signals above 5 kHz. The 10X attenuator probe improves
the accuracy of your measurements, but it also reduces the amplitude of the
signal seen on the screen by a factor of 10.
Because it attenuates the signal, the 10X attenuator probe makes it difficult
to look at signals less than 10 millivolts. The 1X probe is similar to the 10X
attenuator probe but lacks the attenuation circuitry. Without this circuitry,
more interference is introduced to the circuit being tested. Use the 10X
attenuator probe as your standard probe, but keep the 1X probe handy for
measuring weak signals. Some probes have a convenient feature for switch
ing between 1X and 10X attenuation at the probe tip. If your probe has this
feature, make sure you are using the correct setting before taking measure
ments.
Many oscilloscopes can detect whether you are using a 1X or 10X probe
and adjust their screen readouts accordingly. However with some oscillo
scopes, you must set the type of probe you are using or read from the
proper 1X or 10X marking on the volts/div control.
The 10X attenuator probe works by balancing the probe's electrical proper
ties against the oscilloscope's electrical properties. Before using a 10X
attenuator probe you need to adjust this balance for your particular oscillo
scope. This adjustment is called compensating the probe and is further
described on page 26. Figure 23 shows a simple diagram of the internal
workings of a probe, its adjustment, and the input of an oscilloscope.
10 V
pp
Signal
One Tenth of Signal
(1 V
pp
) at Input
1 MW
20 pF
10X Probe
9 MW
x pF
Probe Compensation
Adjustment
Oscilloscope Input
Figure 23: Typical Probe/Oscilloscope 10to1 Divider Network
Setting Up
Figure 24 shows a typical passive probe and some accessories to use with
the probe.
Marker Ring
Retractable
Hook Tip
BNC Connector
Marker Ring
Alligator Clip
Ground Lead
Adjustment
Tool
IC Protector Tip
Figure 24: A Typical Passive Probe with Accessories
Using Active Probes
Active probes provide their own amplification or perform some other type of
operation to process the signal before applying it to the oscilloscope. These
types of probes can solve problems such as circuit loading or perform tests
on signals, sending the results to the oscilloscope. Active probes require a
power source for their operation.
Using Current Probes
Current probes enable you to directly observe and measure current
waveforms. They are available for measuring both AC and DC current.
Current probes use jaws that clip around the wire carrying the current. This
makes them unique since they are not connected in series with the circuit;
they, therefore, cause little or no interference in the circuit.
Where to Clip the Ground Clip
Measuring a signal requires two connections: the probe tip connection and
a ground connection. Probes come with an alligatorclip attachment for
grounding the probe to the circuit under test. In practice, you clip the
grounding clip to a known ground in the circuit, such as the metal chassis of
a stereo you are repairing, and touch the probe tip to a test point in the
circuit.
Setting Up
Basic Concepts 26
Before using a passive probe, you need to compensate it to balance its
electrical properties to a particular oscilloscope. You should get into the
habit of compensating the probe every time you set up your oscilloscope. A
poorly adjusted probe can make your measurements less accurate.
Figure 25 shows what happens to measured waveforms when using a probe
not properly compensated.
Probe Undercompensated
Probe Compensated Correctly
Probe Overcompensated
Probe
Adjustment
Signal
Note Reduced
Amplitude of a
1 MHz Test
Signal
Note Increased
Amplitude of a
1 MHz Test
Signal
NoteProper
Amplitude
of a 1 MHz
Test Signal
Probe
Adjustment
Signal
Probe
Adjustment
Signal
Figure 25: The Effects of Improper Probe Compensation
Compensating the
Probe
Setting Up
Most oscilloscopes have a square wave reference signal available at a
terminal on the front panel used to compensate the probe. You compensate
a probe by:
H Attaching the probe to an input connector
H Connecting the probe tip to the probe compensation signal
H Attaching the ground clip of the probe to ground
H Viewing the square wave reference signal
H Making the proper adjustments on the probe so that the corners of the
square wave are square
When you compensate the probe, always attach any accessory tips you will
use and connect the probe to the vertical channel you plan to use. This way
the oscilloscope has the same electrical properties as it does when you take
measurements.
Setting Up
Basic Concepts 28
The Controls
This section briefly describes the basic controls found on analog and digital
oscilloscopes. Remember that some controls differ between analog and
digital oscilloscopes; your oscilloscope probably has controls not discussed
here.
Display systems vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes. Common
controls include:
H An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the waveform. As you
increase the sweep speed of an analog oscilloscope, you need to
increase the intensity level.
H A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital oscillo
scopes may not have a focus control.
H A trace rotation control to align the waveform trace with the screen's
horizontal axis. The position of your oscilloscope in the earth's magnetic
field affects waveform alignment. Digital oscilloscopes may not have a
trace rotation control.
H Other display controls may let you adjust the intensity of the graticule
lights and turn on or off any onscreen information (such as menus).
Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically. Your
oscilloscope also has controls for setting the input coupling and other signal
conditioning, described in this section. Figure 26 shows a typical front panel
and onscreen menus for the vertical controls.
VERTICAL
MENU
Button
CPLG
VAR
INV
BW
DC
AC
GND
Off
On
Off
On
20 MHz
Full
Figure 26: Vertical Controls
Display Controls
Vertical Controls
The Controls
Basic Concepts 30
Position and Volts per Division
The vertical position control lets you move the waveform up or down to
exactly where you want it on the screen.
The volts per division (usually written volts/div) setting varies the size of the
waveform on the screen. A good general purpose oscilloscope can accu
rately display signal levels from about 4 millivolts to 40 volts.
The volts/div setting is a scale factor. For example, if the volts/div setting is
5 volts, then each of the eight vertical divisions represents 5 volts and the
entire screen can show 40 volts from bottom to top (assuming a graticule
with eight major divisions). If the setting is 0.5 volts/div, the screen can
display 4 volts from bottom to top, and so on. The maximum voltage you
can display on the screen is the volts/div setting times the number of vertical
divisions. (Recall that the probe you use, 1X or 10X, also influences the
scale factor. You must divide the volts/div scale by the attenuation factor of
the probe if the oscilloscope does not do it for you.)
Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine gain control for
scaling a displayed signal to a certain number of divisions. Use this control
to take rise time measurements.
Input Coupling
Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal from one
circuit to another. In this case, the input coupling is the connection from your
test circuit to the oscilloscope. The coupling can be set to DC, AC, or
ground. DC coupling shows all of an input signal. AC coupling blocks the
DC component of a signal so that you see the waveform centered at zero
volts. Figure 27 illustrates this difference. The AC coupling setting is handy
when the entire signal (alternating plus constant components) is too large
for the volts/div setting.
0V
4V
0V
4V
DC Coupling of a 1 V
pp
Sine
Wave with a 2 V DC Component
AC Coupling of
the Same Signal
Figure 27: AC and DC Input Coupling
The Controls
The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system,
which lets you see where zero volts is on the screen. With grounded input
coupling and auto trigger mode, you see a horizontal line on the screen that
represents zero volts. Switching from DC to ground and back again is a
handy way of measuring signal voltage levels with respect to ground.
Bandwidth Limit
Most oscilloscopes have a circuit that limits the bandwidth of the oscillo
scope. By limiting the bandwidth, you reduce the noise that sometimes
appears on the displayed waveform, providing you with a more defined
signal display.
Channel Invert
Most oscilloscopes have an invert function that allows you to display a signal
upsidedown." That is, with low voltage at the top of the screen and high
voltage at the bottom.
Alternate and Chop Display
On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate
or chop mode. (Digital oscilloscopes do not normally use chop or alternate
mode.)
Alternate mode draws each channel alternately the oscilloscope com
pletes one sweep on channel 1, then one sweep on channel 2, a second
sweep on channel 1, and so on. Use this mode with medium to highspeed
signals, when the sec/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster.
Chop mode causes the oscilloscope to draw small parts of each signal by
switching back and forth between them. The switching rate is too fast for
you to notice, so the waveform looks whole. You typically use this mode with
slow signals requiring sweep speeds of 1 ms per division or less. Figure 28
shows the difference between the two modes. It is often useful to view the
signal both ways, to make sure you have the best view.
The Controls
Basic Concepts 32
Alternate Mode:
Channel 1 and Channel 2 Drawn Alternately
Chop Mode:
Segments of Channel 1 and Channel 2 Drawn Alternately
Drawn
First
Drawn
Second
Figure 28: Multi-Channel Display Modes
Math Operations
Your oscilloscope may also have operations to allow you to add waveforms
together, creating a new waveform display. Analog oscilloscopes combine
the signals while digital oscilloscopes mathematically create new
waveforms. Subtracting waveforms is another math operation. Subtraction
with analog oscilloscopes is possible by using the channel invert function on
one signal and then use the add operation. Digital oscilloscopes typically
have a subtraction operation available. Figure 29 illustrates a third waveform
created by adding two different signals together.
ADD Mode: Channel 1 and
Channel 2 Combined
Channel 1 Display
Channel 2 Display
Figure 29: Adding Channels
The Controls
Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform horizontally.
Figure 30 shows a typical front panel and onscreen menus for the horizon
tal controls.
MAIN
DELAY
XY
VAR
TRCSEP
TRIG POS
REC LENGTH
HORIZONTAL
MENU
Button
Figure 30: Horizontal Controls
Position and Seconds per Division
The horizontal position control moves the waveform from left and right to
exactly where you want it on the screen.
The seconds per division (usually written as sec/div) setting lets you select
the rate at which the waveform is drawn across the screen (also known as
the time base setting or sweep speed). This setting is a scale factor. For
example, if the setting is 1 ms, each horizontal division represents 1 ms and
the total screen width represents 10 ms (ten divisions). Changing the sec/div
setting lets you look at longer or shorter time intervals of the input signal.
As with the vertical volts/div scale, the horizontal sec/div scale may have
variable timing, allowing you to set the horizontal time scale in between the
discrete settings.
Time Base Selections
Your oscilloscope has a time base usually referred to as the main time base
and it is probably the most useful. Many oscilloscopes have what is called a
delayed time base a time base sweep that starts after a predetermined
time from the start of the main time base sweep. Using a delayed time base
sweep allows you to see events more clearly or even see events not visible
with just the main time base sweep.
The delayed time base requires the setting of a delay time and possibly the
use of delayed trigger modes and other settings not described in this book.
Refer to the manual supplied with your oscilloscope for information on how
to use these features.
Horizontal Controls
The Controls
Basic Concepts 34
Trigger Position
The trigger position control may be located in the horizontal control section
of your oscilloscope. It actually represents the horizontal position of the
trigger in the waveform record." Horizontal trigger position control is only
available on digital oscilloscopes.
Varying the horizontal trigger position allows you to capture what a signal
did before a trigger event (called pretrigger viewing).
Digital oscilloscopes can provide pretrigger viewing because they constantly
process the input signal whether a trigger has been received or not. A
steady stream of data flows through the oscilloscope; the trigger merely tells
the oscilloscope to save the present data in memory. In contrast, analog
oscilloscopes only display the signal after receiving the trigger.
Pretrigger viewing is a valuable troubleshooting aid. For example, if a prob
lem occurs intermittently, you can trigger on the problem, record the events
that led up to it and, possibly, find the cause.
Magnification
Your oscilloscope may have special horizontal magnification settings that let
you display a magnified section of the waveform onscreen.
XY Mode
Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel
signal along the Xaxis (instead of time). This is called XY mode; you will find
a longer discussion on page 47.
The Controls
The trigger controls let you stabilize repeating waveforms and capture
singleshot waveforms. Figure 31 shows a typical front panel and onscreen
menus for the trigger controls.
MODE
SRC
CPLG
SLOPE
HOLDOFF
Auto
Auto Level
Normal
Single Sequence
Video Line
Video Field
Vert
Ch1
Ch2
Add
Line
EXT
DC
Noise Reject
HF Reject
AC
LF Reject
Rising
Falling
Min
Variable
TRIGGER
MENU
Button
1 10
odd even both
Figure 31: Trigger Controls
The trigger makes repeating waveforms appear static on the oscilloscope
display. Imagine the jumble on the screen that would result if each sweep
started at a different place on the signal (see Figure 32).
Figure 32: Untriggered Display
Trigger Controls
The Controls
Basic Concepts 36
Trigger Level and Slope
Your oscilloscope may have several different types of triggers, such as edge,
video, pulse, or logic. Edge triggering is the basic and most common type
and is the only type discussed in this book. Consult your oscilloscope
instruction manual for details on other trigger types.
For edge triggering, the trigger level and slope controls provide the basic
trigger point definition.
The trigger circuit acts as a comparator. You select the slope and voltage
level of one side of the comparator. When the trigger signal matches your
settings, the oscilloscope generates a trigger.
H The slope control determines whether the trigger point is on the rising or
the falling edge of a signal. A rising edge is a positive slope and a falling
edge is a negative slope.
H The level control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs.
Figure 33 shows you how the trigger slope and level settings determine how
a waveform is displayed.
Triggering on the
Positive Slope with
the Level Set to 3 V
Input Signal
3 V
3 V
Triggering on the
Negative Slope with
the Level Set to 3 V
Positive
Slope
Negative
Slope
Zero Volts
Figure 33: Positive and Negative Slope Triggering
Trigger Sources
The oscilloscope does not necessarily have to trigger on the signal being
measured. Several sources can trigger the sweep:
H Any input channel
H An external source, other than the signal applied to an input channel
H The power source signal
H A signal internally generated by the oscilloscope
The Controls
Most of the time you can leave the oscilloscope set to trigger on the channel
displayed.
Note that the oscilloscope can use an alternate trigger source whether
displayed or not. So you have to be careful not to unwittingly trigger on, for
example, channel 1 while displaying channel 2.
Trigger Modes
The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope draws a
waveform if it does not detect a trigger. Common trigger modes include
normal and auto.
In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the
set trigger point; otherwise (on an analog oscilloscope) the screen is blank
or (on a digital oscilloscope) frozen on the last acquired waveform. Normal
mode can be disorienting since you may not see the signal at first if the level
control is not adjusted correctly.
Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without a trigger. If no
signal is present, a timer in the oscilloscope triggers the sweep. This ensur
es that the display will not disappear if the signal drops to small voltages. It
is also the best mode to use if you are looking at many signals and do not
want to bother setting the trigger each time.
In practice, you will probably use both modes: normal mode because it is
more versatile and auto mode because it requires less adjustment.
Some oscilloscopes also include special modes for single sweeps, trigger
ing on video signals, or automatically setting the trigger level.
Trigger Coupling
Just as you can select either AC or DC coupling for the vertical system, you
can choose the kind of coupling for the trigger signal.
Besides AC and DC coupling, your oscilloscope may also have high fre
quency rejection, low frequency rejection, and noise rejection trigger cou
pling. These special settings are useful for eliminating noise from the trigger
signal to prevent false triggering.
The Controls
Basic Concepts 38
Trigger Holdoff
Sometimes getting an oscilloscope to trigger on the correct part of a signal
requires great skill. Many oscilloscopes have special features to make this
task easier.
Trigger holdoff is an adjustable period of time during which the oscilloscope
cannot trigger. This feature is useful when you are triggering on complex
waveform shapes, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on the first eligible
trigger point. Figure 34 shows how using trigger holdoff helps create a
usable display.
Holdoff Holdoff No Triggering Recognized
During Holdoff Time
Trigger Points
Trigger Level
Holdoff
Acquisition
Interval
Acquisition
Interval
With Holdoff Without Holdoff
Figure 34: Trigger Holdoff
The Controls
Digital oscilloscopes have settings that let you control how the acquisition
system processes a signal. Look over the acquisition options on your digital
oscilloscope while you read this description. Figure 35 shows you an exam
ple of an acquisition menu.
Figure 35: Example of an Acquisition Menu
Acquisition Modes
Acquisition modes control how waveform points are produced from sample
points. Recall from the first section that sample points are the digital values
that come directly out of the AnalogtoDigitalConverter (ADC). The time
between sample points is called the sample interval. Waveform points are
the digital values that are stored in memory and displayed to form the wave
form. The time value difference between waveform points is called the
waveform interval. The sample interval and the waveform interval may be but
need not be the same. This fact leads to the existence of several different
acquisition modes in which one waveform point is made up from several
sequentially acquired sample points. Additionally, waveform points can be
created from a composite of sample points taken from multiple acquisitions,
which leads to another set of acquisition modes. A description of the most
commonly used acquisition modes follows.
H Sample Mode: This is the simplest acquisition mode. The oscilloscope
creates a waveform point by saving one sample point during each
waveform interval.
Acquisition Controls
for Digital
Oscilloscopes
The Controls
Basic Concepts 40
H Peak Detect Mode: The oscilloscope saves the minimum and maximum
value sample points taken during two waveform intervals and uses these
samples as the two corresponding waveform points. Digital oscillo
scopes with peak detect mode run the ADC at a fast sample rate, even
at very slow time base settings (long waveform interval), and are able to
capture fast signal changes that would occur between the waveform
points if in sample mode. Peak detect mode is particularly useful for
seeing narrow pulses spaced far apart in time.
H Hi Res Mode: Like peak detect, hi res mode is a way of getting more
information in cases when the ADC can sample faster than the time
base setting requires. In this case, multiple samples taken within one
waveform interval are averaged together to produce one waveform
point. The result is a decrease in noise and an improvement in resolu
tion for low speed signals.
H Envelope Mode: Envelope mode is similar to peak detect mode. How
ever, in envelope mode, the minimum and maximum waveform points
from multiple acquisitions are combined to form a waveform that shows
min/max changes over time. Peak detect mode is usually used to ac
quire the records that are combined to form the envelope waveform.
H Average Mode: In average mode, the oscilloscope saves one sample
point during each waveform interval as in sample mode. However,
waveform points from consecutive acquisitions are then averaged to
gether to produce the final displayed waveform. Average mode reduces
noise without loss of bandwidth but requires a repeating signal.
Stopping and Starting the Acquisition System
One of the greatest advantages of digital oscilloscopes is their ability to store
waveforms for later viewing. To this end, there are usually one or more
buttons on the front panel that allow you to stop and start the acquisition
system so you can analyze waveforms at your leisure. Additionally, you may
want the oscilloscope to automatically stop acquiring after one acquisition is
complete or after one set of records has been turned into an envelope or
average waveform. This feature is commonly called single sweep or single
sequence and its controls are usually found either with the other acquisition
controls or with the trigger controls.
Sampling Methods
In digital oscilloscopes that can use either realtime sampling or equivalent
time sampling as described on page 10, the acquisition controls will allow
you to choose which one to use for acquiring signals. Note that this choice
makes no difference for slow time base settings and only has an effect when
the ADC cannot sample fast enough to fill the record with waveform points in
one pass.
The Controls
So far we have described the basic controls that a beginner needs to know
about. Your oscilloscope may have other controls for various functions.
Some of these may include:
H Measurement cursors
H Keypads for mathematical operations or data entry
H Print capabilities
H Interfaces for connecting your oscilloscope to a computer
Look over the other options available to you and read your oscilloscope's
manual to find out more about these other controls.
Other Controls
The Controls
Basic Concepts 42
Measurement Techniques
This section teaches you basic measurement techniques. The two most
basic measurements you can make are voltage and time measurements.
Just about every other measurement is based on one of these two funda
mental techniques.
This section discusses methods for taking measurements visually with the
oscilloscope screen. Many digital oscilloscopes have internal software that
will take these measurements automatically. Knowing how to take the mea
surements manually will help you understand and check the automatic
measurements of the digital oscilloscopes.
Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid markings on the
screen these markings create the graticule. Each vertical and horizontal
line constitutes a major division. The graticule is usually laid out in an
8by10 division pattern. Labeling on the oscilloscope controls (such as
volts/div and sec/div) always refers to major divisions. The tick marks on the
center horizontal and vertical graticule lines (see Figure 36) are called minor
divisions.
Many oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each vertical
division represents and how many seconds each horizontal division repre
sents. Many oscilloscopes also have 0%, 10%, 90%, and 100% markings on
the graticule (see Figure 36) to help make rise time measurements, de
scribed on page 46.
100
90
10
0%
Minor
Division Marks
Rise Time
Marks
Major
Division
Figure 36: An Oscilloscope Graticule
The Display
Basic Concepts 44
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two
points in a circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not
always. Voltages can also be measured from peaktopeak from the
maximum point of a signal to its minimum point. You must be careful to
specify which voltage you mean.
The oscilloscope is primarily a voltagemeasuring device. Once you have
measured the voltage, other quantities are just a calculation away. For
example, Ohm's law states that voltage between two points in a circuit
equals the current times the resistance. From any two of these quantities
you can calculate the third. Another handy formula is the power law: the
power of a DC signal equals the voltage times the current. Calculations are
more complicated for AC signals, but the point here is that measuring the
voltage is the first step towards calculating other quantities.
Ohm's Law:
Power Law:
Voltage +Current Resistance
Power +Voltage Current
Current +
Voltage
Resistance
Resistance +
Voltage
Currente
Figure 37 shows the voltage of one peak (V
p
) and the peaktopeak voltage
(V
pp
), which is usually twice V
p
. Use the RMS (rootmeansquare) voltage
(V
RMS
) to calculate the power of an AC signal.
Voltage Peak
Voltage Peaktopeak
Zero Volts
Rms Voltage
Figure 37: Voltage Peak and Peaktopeak Voltage
You take voltage measurements by counting the number of divisions a
waveform spans on the oscilloscope's vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to
cover most of the screen vertically, then taking the measurement along the
Voltage
Measurements
center vertical graticule line having the smaller divisions, makes for the best
voltage measurements. The more screen area you use, the more accurately
you can read from the screen.
Take Amplitude
Measurements
at Center Vertical
Graticule Line
Figure 38: Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line
Many oscilloscopes have onscreen cursors that let you take waveform
measurements automatically onscreen, without having to count graticule
marks. Basically, cursors are two horizontal lines for voltage measurements
and two vertical lines for time measurements that you can move around the
screen. A readout shows the voltage or time at their positions.
You take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope.
Time measurements include measuring the period, pulse width, and timing
of pulses. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the
period, the frequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage measure
ments, time measurements are more accurate when you adjust the portion
of the signal to be measured to cover a large area of the screen. Taking time
measurement along the center horizontal graticule line, having smaller
divisions, makes for the best time measurements. (See Figure 39.)
Time and Frequency
Measurements
Basic Concepts 46
Take Time Measurements
at Center Horizontal Graticule Line
Figure 39: Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line
In many applications, the details of a pulse's shape are important. Pulses
can become distorted and cause a digital circuit to malfunction, and the
timing of pulses in a pulse train is often significant.
Standard pulse measurements are pulse width and pulse rise time. Rise
time is the amount of time a pulse takes to go from the low to high voltage.
By convention, the rise time is measured from 10% to 90% of the full voltage
of the pulse. This eliminates any irregularities at the pulse's transition cor
ners. This also explains why most oscilloscopes have 10% and 90% mark
ings on their screen. Pulse width is the amount of time the pulse takes to go
from low to high and back to low again. By convention, the pulse width is
measured at 50% of full voltage. See Figure 40 for these measurement
points.
Pulse Width
100%
50%
10%
0
90%
Rise Time Fall Time
Voltage
Figure 40: Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points
Pulse and Rise Time
Measurements
Pulse measurements often require finetuning the triggering. To become an
expert at capturing pulses, you should learn how to use trigger holdoff and
how to set the digital oscilloscope to capture pretrigger data, as described
earlier in the Controls section. Horizontal magnification is another useful
feature for measuring pulses, since it allows you to see fine details of a fast
pulse.
The horizontal control section may have an XY mode that lets you display an
input signal rather than the time base on the horizontal axis. (On some
digital oscilloscopes this is a display mode setting.) This mode of operation
opens up a whole new area of phase shift measurement techniques.
The phase of a wave is the amount of time that passes from the beginning
of a cycle to the beginning of the next cycle, measured in degrees. Phase
shift describes the difference in timing between two otherwise identical
periodic signals.
One method for measuring phase shift is to use XY mode. This involves
inputting one signal into the vertical system as usual and then another signal
into the horizontal system. (This method only works if both signals are sine
waves.) This set up is called an XY measurement because both the X and Y
axis are tracing voltages. The waveform resulting from this arrangement is
called a Lissajous pattern (named for French physicist Jules Antoine Lissa
jous and pronounced LEEsazhoo). From the shape of the Lissajous pat
tern, you can tell the phase difference between the two signals. You can also
tell their frequency ratio. Figure 41 shows Lissajous patterns for various
frequency ratios and phase shifts.
270
X:Y Ratio
Frequency
Phase Shift
0
90
180
360
15
135
120
30
60
22
30
67
30
45
45
90
90
180
11
15
22
30
45
90
1:1
1:2
1:3
1:4
Figure 41: Lissajous Patterns
Phase Shift
Measurements
Basic Concepts 48
This section has covered basic measurement techniques. Other measure
ment techniques involve setting up the oscilloscope to test electrical compo
nents on an assembly line, subtracting noise from a signal, capturing elusive
transient signals, and many others that would take too much room to list.
The measurement techniques you will use depend on your application, but
you have learned enough to get started. Practice using your oscilloscope
and read more about it. Soon its operation will be second nature to you.
What's Next?
Written Exercises
This section contains written exercises that cover information in this book.
The exercises are divided into two parts, Part I and Part II.
Part I covers information presented in these sections:
H The Oscilloscope
H Oscilloscope Terminology
Part II covers information presented in sections:
H Setting Up
H The Controls
H Measurement Techniques
Written Exercises
Basic Concepts 50
The following exercises cover information presented in these sections:
H The Oscilloscope
H Oscilloscope Terminology
Check how well you have absorbed the information in these sections by
doing this short selftest. Answers begin on page 58.
Vocabulary Exercise
Write the number of the definitions in the right column next to the correct
words in the left column.
Term Definition
1. Acquisition A The unit of electric potential difference.
2. Analog B A performance measurement indicating the precision of an ADC, measured
in bits.
3. Bandwidth C Term used when referring to degree points of a sine wave.
4. Digital D The number of times a signal repeats in one second.
5. Frequency E The amount of time it takes a wave to complete one cycle.
6. Glitch F A stored digital value that represents the voltage of a signal at a specific
point in time.
7. Period G A common waveform shape that has a rising edge, a width, and a falling
edge.
8. Phase H A performance measurement indicating the fastest edge a given oscillo
scope can accurately display.
9. Pulse I Oscilloscope circuitry that controls the timing of the sweep.
10. Waveform Point J An intermittent error in a circuit.
11. Rise Time K A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once.
12. Sample Point L The oscilloscope's process of collecting sample points from the ADC,
processing them, and storing them in memory.
13. Time Base M Something that operates with continuous values.
14. Transient N Something that operates with discrete values.
15. ADC Resolution O A frequency range.
16. Volt P The raw data from an ADC used to calculate waveform points.
Part I Exercises
Written Exercises
Using Oscilloscopes Exercise
Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more
than one right answer.
1. With an oscilloscope you can:
a. Calculate the frequency of a signal.
b. Find malfunctioning electrical components.
c. Analyze bird calls.
d. All the above.
2. The difference between analog and digital oscilloscopes is:
a. Analog oscilloscopes do not have onscreen menus.
b. Analog oscilloscopes apply a measurement voltage directly to the
display system, while digital oscilloscopes first convert the voltage
into digital values.
c. Analog oscilloscopes measure analogs, whereas digital oscillo
scopes measure digits.
d. Analog oscilloscopes do not have an acquisition system.
3. An oscilloscope's vertical section does the following:
a. Acquires sample points with an ADC.
b. Starts a horizontal sweep.
c. Lets you adjust the brightness of the display.
d. Attenuates or amplifies the input signal.
4. The time base control of the oscilloscope does the following:
a. Adjusts the vertical scale.
b. Shows you the current time of day.
c. Sets the amount of time represented by the horizontal width of the
screen.
d. Sends a clock pulse to the probe.
5. On an oscilloscope display:
a. Voltage is on the vertical axis and time is on the horizontal axis.
b. A straight diagonal trace means voltage is changing at a steady
rate.
c. A flat horizontal trace means voltage is constant.
d. All the above.
Written Exercises
Basic Concepts 52
6. All repeating waves have the following properties:
a. A frequency measured in hertz.
b. A period measured in seconds.
c. A bandwidth measured in hertz.
d. All the above.
7. If you probe inside a computer with an oscilloscope, you are likely to
find the following types of signals:
a. Pulse trains.
b. Ramp waves.
c. Sine waves.
d. All the above.
8. When evaluating the performance of an analog oscilloscope, some
things you might consider are:
a. The bandwidth.
b. The vertical sensitivity.
c. The ADC resolution.
d. The sweep speed.
Written Exercises
The following exercises cover information presented in these sections:
H Setting Up
H The Controls
H Measurement Techniques
Check how well you have absorbed the information in these sections by
doing this short selftest. Answers begin on page 58.
Vocabulary Exercise
Write the letter of the definitions in the right column next to the correct words
in the left column.
Term Definition
1. Averaging Mode A The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the circuit
being tested which distorts a signal.
2. Circuit Loading B A conductor that connects electrical currents to the Earth.
3. Compensation C A sampling mode in which the digital oscilloscope collects as many sam
ples as it can as the signal occurs, then constructs a display, using inter
polation if necessary.
4. Coupling D A sampling mode in which the digital oscilloscope constructs a picture of a
repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition.
5. Earth Ground E A device that converts a specific physical quantity such as sound, pres
sure, strain, or light intensity into an electrical signal.
6. EquivalentTime F A test device for injecting a signal into a circuit input.
7. Graticule G A processing technique used by digital oscilloscopes to eliminate noise in a
signal.
8. Interpolation H The method of connecting two circuits together.
9. Real Time I A connectthedots" processing technique to estimate what a fast
waveform looks like based on only a few sampled points.
10. Signal Generator J The grid lines on a screen for measuring oscilloscope traces.
11. Single Sweep K A trigger mode that triggers the sweep once, must be reset to accept
another trigger event.
12. Transducer L A probe adjustment for 10X attenuator probes that balances the electrical
properties of the probe with the electrical properties of the oscilloscope.
Part II Exercises
Written Exercises
Basic Concepts 54
Using Oscilloscopes Exercise
Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more
than one right answer.
1. To operate an oscilloscope safely, you should:
a. Ground the oscilloscope with the proper threepronged power cord.
b. Learn to recognize potentially dangerous electrical components.
c. Avoid touching exposed connections in a circuit being tested even if
the power is off.
d. All the above.
2. Grounding an oscilloscope is necessary:
a. For safety reasons.
b. To provide a reference point for making measurements.
c. To align the trace with the screen's horizontal axis.
d. All the above.
3. Circuit loading is caused by:
a. An input signal having too large a voltage.
b. The probe and oscilloscope interacting with the circuit being tested.
c. A 10X attenuator probe being uncompensated.
d. Putting too much weight on a circuit.
4. Compensating a probe is necessary to:
a. Balance the electrical properties of the 10X attenuator probe with the
oscilloscope.
b. Prevent damaging the circuit being tested.
c. Improve the accuracy of your measurements.
d. All the above.
5. The trace rotation control is useful for:
a. Scaling waveforms on the screen.
b. Detecting sine wave signals.
c. Aligning the waveform trace with the screen's horizontal axis on an
analog oscilloscope.
d. Measuring pulse width.
Written Exercises
6. The volts per division control is used to:
a. Scale a waveform vertically.
b. Position a waveform vertically.
c. Attenuate or amplify an input signal.
d. Set the numbers of volts each division represents.
7. Setting the vertical input coupling to ground does the following:
a. Disconnects the input signal from the oscilloscope.
b. Causes a horizontal display to appear on the screen.
c. Lets you see where zero volts is on the screen.
d. All the above.
8. The trigger is necessary to:
a. Stabilize repeating waveforms on the screen.
b. Capture singleshot waveforms.
c. Mark a particular point of an acquisition.
d. All the above.
9. The difference between auto and normal trigger mode is:
a. In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps once and then stops.
b. In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal
reaches the trigger point; otherwise the screen is blank.
c. Auto mode makes the oscilloscope sweep continuously even with
out being triggered.
d. All the above.
10. A digital oscilloscope's acquisition controls let you specify:
a. Whether the oscilloscope uses realtime or equivalenttime sampling
to collect sample points.
b. Whether to average a collection of records to form a waveform.
c. How sample points are processed to form waveform points.
d. All the above.
11. The acquisition mode that best reduces noise in a repeating signal is:
a. Sample mode.
b. Peak detect mode.
c. Envelope mode.
d. Averaging mode.
Written Exercises
Basic Concepts 56
12. The two most basic measurements you can make with an oscilloscope
are:
a. Time and frequency measurements.
b. Time and voltage measurements.
c. Voltage and pulse width measurements.
d. Pulse width and phase shift measurements.
13. If the volts/division is set at 0.5, the largest signal that can fit on the
screen (assuming an 8 10 division screen) is:
a. 62.5 millivolts peaktopeak.
b. 8 volts peaktopeak.
c. 4 volts peaktopeak.
d. 0.5 volts peaktopeak.
14. If the seconds/division is set at 0.1 ms, the amount of time represented
by the width of the screen is:
a. 0.1 ms.
b. 1 ms.
c. 1 second.
d. 0.1 kHz.
15. By convention, pulse width is measured:
a. At 10% of the pulse's maximum voltage.
b. At 50% of the pulse's maximum voltage.
c. At 90% of the pulse's maximum voltage.
d. At 10% and 90% of the pulse's maximum voltage.
16. You attach a probe to your test circuit but the screen is blank. You
should:
a. Check that the screen intensity is turned up.
b. Check that the oscilloscope is set to display the channel that the
probe is connected to.
c. Set the trigger mode to auto since norm mode blanks the screen.
d. Set the vertical input coupling to AC and set the volts/division to its
largest value since a large DC signal may go off the top or bottom of
the screen.
e. Check that the probe isn't shorted and make sure it is properly
grounded.
f. Check that the oscilloscope is set to trigger on the input channel
you are using.
Written Exercise
Answers to the written exercises are on the back of this sheet.
Written Exercise
Basic Concepts 58
This section provides the answers to all written exercises in the previous
sections.
Part I: Vocabulary Exercise Answers
1. L 5. D 9. G 13. I
2. M 6. J 10. F 14. K
3. O 7. E 11. H 15. B
4. N 8. C 12. P 16. A
Part I: Oscilloscope Usage Exercise Answers
1. D 3. D 5. D 7. D
2. B,D 4. C 6. A,B 8. A,B,D
Part II: Vocabulary Exercise Answers
1. G 4. H 7. J 10. F
2. A 5. B 8. I 11. K
3. L 6. D 9. C 12. E
Part II: Oscilloscope Usage Exercise Answers
1. D 5. C 9. B,C 13. C
2. A,B 6. A,C,D 10. D 14. B
3. B 7. D 11. D 15. B
4. A,C 8. D 12. B 16. G
Written Exercise
Answers
XYZs of Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes G1
Glossary
AC
(Alternating Current) A signal in which the current and voltage vary in a
repeating pattern over time.
ADC
(AnalogtoDigital Converter) A digital electronic component that con
verts an electrical signal into discrete binary values.
Alternate Mode
A display mode of operation in which the oscilloscope completes tracing
one channel before beginning to trace another channel.
Amplitude
The magnitude of a quantity or strength of a signal. In electronics,
amplitude usually refers to either voltage or power.
Attenuation
A decrease in signal voltage during its transmission from one point to
another.
Averaging
A processing technique used by digital oscilloscopes to eliminate noise
in a signal.
Bandwidth
A frequency range.
CRT
(CathodeRay Tube) An electronbeam tube in which the beam can be
focused on a luminescent screen and varied in both position and inten
sity to produce a visible pattern. A television picture tube is a CRT.
Chop Mode
A display mode of operation in which small parts of each channel are
traced so that more than one waveform can appear on the screen
simultaneously.
Circuit Loading
The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the
circuit being tested, distorting the signal.
Compensation
A probe adjustment for 10X probes that balances the capacitance of the
probe with the capacitance of the oscilloscope.
Coupling
The method of connecting two circuits together. Circuits connected with
a wire are directly coupled; circuits connected through a capacitor or a
transformer are indirectly (or AC) coupled.
Glossary
Basic Concepts G2
Cursor
An onscreen marker that you can align with a waveform to take accu
rate measurements.
DC (Direct Current)
A signal with a constant voltage and current.
Division
Measurement markings on the CRT graticule of the oscilloscope.
Earth Ground
A conductor that will dissipate large electrical currents into the Earth.
Envelope
The outline of a signal's highest and lowest points acquired over many
repetitions.
Equivalenttime Sampling
A sampling mode in which the oscilloscope constructs a picture of a
repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repeti
tion.
Focus
The oscilloscope control that adjusts the CRT electron beams to control
the sharpness of the display.
Frequency
The number of times a signal repeats in one second, measured in Hertz
(cycles per second). The frequency equals 1/period.
Gigahertz (GHz)
1,000,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
Glitch
An intermittent error in a circuit.
Graticule
The grid lines on a screen for measuring oscilloscope traces.
Ground
1. A conducting connection by which an electric circuit or equipment is
connected to the earth to establish and maintain a reference voltage
level.
2. The voltage reference point in a circuit.
Hertz (Hz)
One cycle per second; the unit of frequency.
Kilohertz (kHz)
1000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
Interpolation
A connectthedots" processing technique to estimate what a fast
waveform looks like based on only a few sampled points.
Megahertz (MHz)
1,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
Glossary
Megasamples per second (MS/s)
A sample rate unit equal to one million samples per second.
Microsecond (ms)
A unit of time equivalent to 0.000001 seconds.
Millisecond (ms)
Nanosecond (ns)
Noise
An unwanted voltage or current in an electrical circuit.
Oscilloscope
An instrument used to make voltage changes visible over time. The
word oscilloscope comes from oscillate," since oscilloscopes are often
used to measure oscillating voltages.
Peak (V
p
)
The maximum voltage level measured from a zero reference point.
Peaktopeak (V
pp
)
The voltage measured from the maximum point of a signal to its mini
mum point, usually twice the V
p
level.
Peak Detection
An acquisition mode for digital oscilloscopes that lets you see the ex
tremes of a signal.
Period
The amount of time it takes a wave to complete one cycle. The period
equals 1/frequency.
Phase
The amount of time that passes from the beginning of a cycle to the
beginning of the next cycle, measured in degrees.
Probe
An oscilloscope input device, usually having a pointed metal tip for
making electrical contact with a circuit element and a flexible cable for
transmitting the signal to the oscilloscope.
Pulse
A common waveform shape that has a fast rising edge, a width, and a
fast falling edge.
RMS
Root mean square.
Realtime Sampling
A sampling mode in which the oscilloscope collects as many samples
as it can as the signal occurs.
Record Length
The number of waveform points used to create a record of a signal.
Glossary
Basic Concepts G4
Rise Time
The time taken for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from its minimum
to its maximum values (typically measured from 10% to 90% of these
values).
Sample Point
The raw data from an ADC used to calculate waveform points.
Screen
The surface of the CRT upon which the visible pattern is produced
the display area.
Signal Generator
A test device for injecting a signal into a circuit input; the circuit's output
is then read by an oscilloscope.
Sine Wave
A common curved wave shape that is mathematically defined.
Single Shot
A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once (also called
a transient event).
Single Sweep
A trigger mode for displaying one screenful of a signal and then stop
ping.
Slope
On a graph or an oscilloscope screen, the ratio of a vertical distance to a
horizontal distance. A positive slope increases from left to right, while a
negative slope decreases from left to right.
Square Wave
A common wave shape consisting of repeating square pulses.
Sweep
One horizontal pass of an oscilloscope's electron beam from left to right
across the CRT screen.
Sweep Speed
Same as the time base.
Time Base
Oscilloscope circuitry that controls the timing of the sweep. The time
base is set by the seconds/division control.
Trace
The visible shapes drawn on a CRT by the movement of the electron
beam.
Transducer
A device that converts a specific physical quantity such as sound,
pressure, strain, or light intensity into an electrical signal.
Transient
A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once (also called
a singleshot event).
Glossary
Trigger
The circuit that initiates a horizontal sweep on an oscilloscope and
determines the beginning point of the waveform.
Trigger Holdoff
A control that inhibits the trigger circuit from looking for a trigger level for
some specified time after the end of the waveform.
Trigger Level
The voltage level that a trigger source signal must reach before the
trigger circuit initiates a sweep.
Volt
The unit of electric potential difference.
Voltage
The difference in electric potential, expressed in volts, between two
points.
Waveform
A graphic representation of a voltage varying over time.
Waveform Point
A digital value that represents the voltage of a signal at a specific point
in time. Waveform points are calculated from sample points and stored
in memory.
Zaxis
The signal in an oscilloscope that controls electronbeam brightness as
the trace is formed.
Glossary
Basic Concepts G6
XYZs of Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes I1
Index
A
Abbreviations, defined
AC, G1
ADC, G1
CRT, G1
DC, G2
GHz, G2
Hz, G2
kHz, G2
MHz, G2
ms, G3
ms, G3
MS/s, G3
ns, G3
RMS, G3
Vp, G3
Vpp, G3
AC, 15
defined, G1
Acquisition controls, 39
Acquisition modes, 39
averaging, 40
envelope, 40
hi res, 40
peak detect, 40
sample, 39
Acquisition system, 8
Active probes, 25
ADC, 6
defined, G1
ADC resolution, 20
Add mode, 32
Alternate display mode, 31
Alternating mode, defined, G1
Amplifier, 7
Amplitude, defined, G1
Analog oscilloscopes, 7
Attenuation, defined, G1
Attenuator, 7
Auto trigger, 37
Autoset, 22
Averaging, 40
defined, G1
B
Bandwidth, 19
defined, G1
Bandwidth limit, 31
C
Calculations
current, 44
power, 44
resistance, 44
voltage, 44
Channel invert, 31
Chop display mode, 31
Chop mode, defined, G1
Circuit loading, 23, 25
defined, G1
Compensation, defined, G1
Control settings, Typical, 23
Controls
horizontal, 22
trigger, 22
vertical, 22
Convertor, Analogtodigital, 6
Coupling
AC, 30
DC, 30
defined, G1
Ground, 30
CRT, 7
defined, G1
Current probes, 25
Cursor, defined, G2
Cursors, 45
Cycle, 13
D
DC, 15
defined, G2
Delayed trigger, 33
Digital oscilloscopes, 8
Display controls, 29
Division, defined, G2
Divisions, 43
E
Earth ground, 21
defined, G2
Envelope, 40
defined, G2
Equivalenttime sampling, 11
defined, G2
F
False triggering, eliminating, 37
Focus, defined, G2
Focus control, 29
Frequency, 17
defined, G2
Frequency measurements, 45
Frequency ratios, 47
Front panel controls, 22
Index
Basic Concepts I2
G
Gain accuracy, 19
Gigahertz, defined, G2
Glitch, 16
defined, G2
Graticule, 43
defined, G2
Ground, defined, G2
Ground clip, 25
Grounding strap, 21
Grounding the oscilloscope, 21
Grounding yourself, 21
H
Hertz, defined, G2
Hi res, 40
Horizontal
position, 33
time base, 7
Horizontal accuracy, 19
Horizontal controls, 33
Horizontal system, 7
I
Input connectors, 22
Input coupling, 30
Intensity control, 29
Interpolation, 10
defined, G2
Invert, 32
K
Kilohertz, defined, G2
L
Lissajous patterns, 47
M
Magnification, horizontal, 34
Math operations
adding waveforms, 32
subtracting waveforms, 32
Measurement terms, 13
Measurements
frequency, 45
peak, 44
peaktopeak, 44
period, 45
pulse width, 45
rise time, 43
time, 45
voltage, 44
Megahertz, defined, G2
Megasamples per second, defined,
G3
Microsecond, defined, G3
Millisecond, defined, G3
N
Nanosecond, defined, G3
Noise, defined, G3
Normal, 37
O
Ohm's law, 44
Oscilloscope
defined, G3
what is it, 3
Oscilloscopes
analog, 7
digital, 8
digital and analog, 6
how they work, 7
purpose of, 5
P
Passive probes, 24
Peak, defined, G3
Peak detect, 40
Peak detection, defined, G3
Peaktopeak, 17, 44
defined, G3
Percent markings, 43
Performance terms, 19
Period, 17
defined, G3
Phase, 18
defined, G3
Phase shift, 18
Phase shift measurements, 47
Power law, 44
Preset, 22
Pretrigger, 9
defined, 34
Probe, defined, G3
Probe compensation
how to, 26
what is it, 24
Probes, 23
Pulse, 16
defined, G3
Pulse measurements, 46
Pulse train, 16
Index
XYZs of Analog and Digital Oscilloscopes I3
R
Ramps, 16
Random sampling, 11
Realtime sampling, 10
defined, G3
Record, 9
Record length, 9, 20
defined, G3
Rectangular wave, 15
Resolution, 20
Rise time, 19
defined, G4
RMS, defined, G3
S
Safety, 21
Sample, 39
Sample point, 39
defined, G4
Sample points, 8
Sample rate, 8
maximum, 20
Sampling
equivalenttime, 10
interpolation, 10
realtime, 10
Sampling modes, 10
Sawtooth wave, 16
Scale, 43
Screen, defined, G4
Seconds per division, 33
Sequential sampling, 11
Signal generator, defined, G4
Sine wave, defined, G4
Sine waves, 15
damped, 15
Single shot, defined, G4
Single sweep, defined, G4
Singleshot, 16
Slope, defined, G4
Square wave, 15
defined, G4
Static electricity, 21
Step, 16
Sweep, defined, G4
Sweep speed, 19
defined, G4
T
Terminology, 13 20
Time base, 7, 33
defined, G4
delayed, 33
main, 33
Time base accuracy, 19
Time measurements, 45
Trace, defined, G4
Trace rotation, 29
Transducer, 5
defined, G4
Transient, 16
defined, G4
Triangle wave, 16
Trigger
defined, G5
types, 36
Trigger controls, 35
Trigger coupling
AC, 37
DC, 37
high frequency reject, 37
Low frequency reject, 37
noise reject, 37
Trigger holdoff, 38
defined, G5
Trigger level, 36
defined, G5
Trigger modes
auto, 37
normal, 37
Trigger position, horizontal, 34
Trigger slope, 36
Trigger source, 36
Trigger system, 7
V
Variable gain, 30
Vertical, position control, 30
Vertical controls, 29
Vertical resolution, 20
Vertical scale, 30
Vertical sensitivity, 19
Vertical system, 7
Volt, defined, G5
Voltage, 17
defined, G5
peak, 44
peaktopeak, 44
rms, 44
Voltage measurement
using cursors, 45
using graticule, 44
Voltage measurements, 44
Volts per Division control, 30
W
Waveform, 13
defined, G5
Waveform point, defined, G5
Waveform points, 9, 39
X
XY mode, 34, 47
Z
Zaxis, defined, G5
Index
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Basic Concepts

Figure 19: Sine Wave Degrees

Figure 20: Phase Shift

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