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FLIGHT INSTRUMENT ESSENTIALS
COURSE NOTES

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www.PilotEffect.com Table of Contents– PAGE 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section 1: Preliminaries
1-A: Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1-B: Flight Instruments

So, What IS a Flight Instrument? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Flight Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Standard Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
VFR Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Introduction to IFR Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Section 2: The Pitot-Static System and Instruments

2-A: The Pitot-Static System
Main Elements: ‘Pitot’ and ‘Static’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Redundancy and Safety Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2-B: The Altimeter (ALT)

Altimeter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Altimeter Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Altimeter Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2-C: The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

Reading the VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
VSI Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2-D: The Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Notable Speeds and Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
ASI Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Section 3: Gyroscopes and Gyroscopic Instruments

3-A: Gyroscopes
Rigidity in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
What are we Measuring? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
“Advanced”Avionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Powering Gyros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3-B: The Attitude Indicator (AI)

AI Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Setting the AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
AI Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
AI Gyroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
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3-C: The Directional Gyro (DG)

DG Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Setting the DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Precession and Apparent Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The DG Gyroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3-D: The Turn and Slip Indicator (TS)

General Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Display and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Gyro Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Bank v. Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3-E: The Turn Coordinator (TC)

General Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Display and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Turn Coordinator v. The Turn & Slip Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Gyro Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bank v. Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Section 4: Other Flight Instruments

4-A: The Inclinometer
Aerodynamics of a Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Forces on the Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Display & Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
EFIS Inclinometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4-B: The Magnetic Compass

Compass Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Whiskey Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Vertical Card Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Turning and Acceleration Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Flux Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
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SECTION 1

PRELIMINARIES

Section 1-A: Terminology Page 6

Section 1-B: Flight Instruments Page 9

www.PilotEffect.com SECTION 1-A: Terminology – PAGE 6

SECTION 1-A: TERMINOLOGY

A large part of learning any new discipline is learning the language. Flight Instruments include a significant amount
of their own terminology. Instrument-specific terminology is presented in the relevant sections. However, some
of the terminology used is not instrument-specific, and used more generally in aviation. General terms that are used
in the Flight Instrument Essentials video series are defined below.

AHRS – Attitude and Heading Reference System. The heart of light most aircraft EFIS’s.

Aileron – The control surfaces on the trailing edge of the outboard wing. Ailerons pivot opposite to one another
and are used to control roll.

Airspeed – Speed measured relative to the air. There are several different types of airspeed. The two we’re
interested in are indicated airspeed—which is the speed read off the airspeed indicator dial—and true
airspeed—which is the actual speed of the aircraft through the air. Under standard sea level conditions with
a perfectly calibrated airspeed indicator and Pitot-static system, these two speeds will be the same. Under most
(but not all) real-world conditions, the true airspeed is higher than the indicated airspeed.

Altitude – Height, normally measured from sea level (ASL) or ground level (AGL).

Ammeter – An instrument used in electrical systems to measure and display the amount of amperage.

Ancillary System – Any aircraft system that is not immediately critical to the operation of the aircraft. Also
sometimes referred to as auxiliary systems.

Angle of Attack – THe angle between the relative airflow and the chord line of the wing.

AGL – Above Ground Level.

ASL – Above Sea Level.

Attitude – Orientation of an aircraft measured with respect to the horizon.

Bank – The angle between the lateral axis and the horizon as seen from the front or rear.

Clean Configuration – Flaps, gear, and other secondary controls retracted.

Chord Line – A reference line in the side-view cross-section of the wing that travels from the leading edge to the
trailing edge.

Configuration – The external state of the aircraft with respect to flaps, landing gear, and other secondary controls

Coordination – A reference to the slip condition. Coordinated flight implies zero-sideslip and a rate of turn that
corresponds to the bank angle and airspeed. Uncoordinated flight implies a non-zero slip angle and a rate of
turn that does not correspond to the bank angle and airspeed.

Dynamic Pressure – The pressure of the air resulting from it’s bulk motion. Dynamic pressure manifests when
the air is brought to rest and the motion is converted to pressure.

EFIS – Electronic Flight Information System. Sometimes referred to informally as a “Glass Cockpit”.
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Fuel Pressure Gauge – An instrument used to measure and display the pressure of fuel supplied to the engine by
the fuel system.

Gear Indication Lights – A set of green and red lights used to indicate the state of retractable landing gear.

GPS – Global Positioning System.

Groundspeed – Speed measured relative to the ground.

Heading – The direction the aircraft is pointed in, measured clockwise from North.

IFR – Instrument Flight Rules. Flight operations with equipment and under rules and procedures that allow for
the loss of visual reference (i.e.– flight in cloud or in low or nil visibility).

ILS – Instrument Landing System.

knots – Nautical miles per hour.

Lateral Axis – The axis that runs from wingtip to wingtip.

Longitudinal Axis – The axis that runs from nose to tail.

Manifold Pressure – The pressure of the air or fuel/air mixture passing through the intake manifold of the engine.

Manifold Pressure Gauge – A gauge used to display the manifold pressure, which is often used as a proxy
indication of power setting.

MPH – Statute Miles Per Hour.

Oil Pressure Gauge – A guage used to display the oil pressure in the engine.

Pitch (attitude) – The angle between the longitudinal axis and the horizon as seen from the side, often referred
to as being “nose high”, “nose low”, or “in cruise”.

Pitch (movement) – Rotation around the lateral axis, used to transition between different pitch attitudes.

Pressure – A force distributed over an area, usually used in the context of the pressure of a gas or liquid.

Rate 1 Turn – A turn at a rate of 3E/s, which is also 180E in 30 seconds or 360E/min.

Rate of Turn – The rate at which heading changes during a turn.

Relative Airflow – The airflow direction relative to the aircraft—important for determining the angle of attackand
slip angle.

Roll – Rotation around the longitudinal axis, used to transition between different bank attitudes.

RPM – Revolutions Per Minute.

Rudder – The control surface on the vertical stabilizer, used to control yaw.

Sideslip – SEE ‘SLIP’.

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Skid – A slip to the outside of a turn, meaning that the turn rate is higher than it should be for the current angle
of bank and airspeed combination.

Slip – A condition of flight in which the relative airflow is crossing the aircraft—it’s at an angle to the
longitudinal axis as seen from above. If the relative airflow is coming from the right, the aircraft is in a right
slip. If the relative airflow is coming from the left, the aircraft is in a left slip.
The term ‘slip’ is also used for the more specific meaning of a slip to the inside of a turn, implying that the
turn rate is lower than it should be for the current angle of bank and airspeed.
Slipping is of interest because the side-on flow of air creates drag, can induce an unwanted roll, and can
seriously aggravate the problems associated with a stall. So we normally want to avoid slipping—which means
we want to keep the slip angle to zero.
There are uses for slips, but we spend the vast majority of our time in flight seeking to eliminate any slip
angle and remain coordinated.

Stall – A condition of flight where the critical angle of attack has been exceeded, resulting in separated airflow
over the top of the wing and a catastrophic loss of lift.

Static Pressure – The pressure of the air resulting from random motion of the molecules. Static pressure in the
atmosphere is a result of the weight of the air above the point of measurement. Static pressure of the
atmosphere decreases as altitude is increased.

Tachometer – An instrument used to display the RPM, normally of the propeller.

Total Pressure – The total pressure in the airflow, consisting of the sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure.
When flowing air is brought to a stop, the dynamic pressure is converted to static pressure, and the total
pressure is the resulting static pressure.

Uncoordinated – A reference to the slip condition. Uncoordinated flight implies a non-zero slip angle and a rate
of turn that does not correspond to the bank angle and airspeed.

Vertical Axis – The axis that runs from top to bottom.

Vertical Speed – The rate at which the aircraft is gaining or losing altitude.

VFR – Visual Flight Rules. Flight operations with visual reference to the surface.

VHF – Very High Frequency: the frequency range from 30 MHz to 300 MHz.

Voltmeter – An instrument used in electrical systems to measure and display the amount of voltage difference
between two points in a circuit—often the terminal points of the battery.

VOR – VHF Omni Range.

Yaw – Rotation around the vertical axis.

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SECTION 1-B: FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Aircraft instrumentation provides information about our position, orientation, engine status, system status, and so
on. By doing this, they help us maintain aircraft control and situational awareness.

In order to use the instruments effectively, it's sometimes necessary to know a little bit about how they work.
Hopefully this e-book and the accompanying videos will help you to start building this knowledge.

SO, WHAT IS A FLIGHT INSTRUMENT?

Aircraft instruments fall into four broad categories

(Fig. 1-1):

1) Navigation Instruments,
2) Engine Instruments,
3) System Instruments, and
4) Flight Instruments.

Each of these groups of instruments serves a

function in helping use manage our aircraft.

NAVIGATION

Navigation (aka – ‘nav’) instruments include

instruments such as the VOR, GPS, or ILS. Nav
instruments help us figure out where we are, where
we're going, and how we're getting there.

ENGINE

Engine instruments include instruments such as the

Tachometer, Manifold Pressure, and Oil Pressure
Gauge. These instruments help us remain
informed regarding the engine status, including
both power output and serviceability.

SYSTEM

System instruments include instruments such as the

Fuel Pressure Gauge, Voltmeter, Ammeter, and
Gear Indication Lights. These instruments help us
remain informed regarding the status of the various
ancillary systems of the aircraft, such as the fuel
and electrical systems.
Figure 1-1 – Aircraft Instruments: Two examples of instrument layouts in
light aircraft.
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FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

But what we're really interested in is the Flight Instruments. The Flight Instruments are the instruments we use to
monitor the flight state of the aircraft. They consist of seven instruments indicating various flight parameters of
interest, such as airspeed, altitude, turn rate, and so on.

So, what are the Flight Instruments? They are (Fig. 1-2) the:

1) Airspeed Indicator (ASI, Fig. 1-2a);

2) Attitude Indicator (AI, Fig. 1-2b);
3) Altimeter (ALT, Fig. 1-2c);
4) Turn & Slip Indicator (TS or T&S) or the Turn Coordinator (TC, Fig. 1-2d);
5) Direction Gyro (DG, Fig. 1-2e);
6) Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI, Fig. 1-2f); and
7) Magnetic Compass (MC, Fig. 1-2g).

Figure 1-2 – The Flight Instruments

Some would argue that the power instruments, such as the Tachometer (RPM) and the Manifold Pressure (MP)
gauge, also qualify as flight instruments because of the importance of power setting when controlling an aircraft.
This argument has merit, and we’ll discuss power instruments a bit in this section. But for the remainder of this
e-book, we won’t include them.
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STANDARD LAYOUT

The standard layout of the flight instruments is often referred

to as the “Six Pack”. It's made up of six flight instruments
arranged in 2 rows of 3 instruments. Top and center in the 6-
Pack is the AI, with all of the other flight instrument arranged
around it.

External to the six-pack is the Magnetic Compass and the

power instruments. Normally, the Magnetic Compass is
mounted on top of the dash panel or at the top of the
windscreen. The power instruments can be located anywhere,
but are often near the lower center section of the dash.

The six-pack layout is not that vital in VFR operations

(although it’s nice to have some standardization from one
aircraft to the next), but it’s design is intended to facilitate a
proper instrument scan when operating in instrument
conditions.

Figure 1-3 – TheStandard “6-Pack” Layout: Sometimes

referred to as the “T-Layout”, the standard layout is designed
to make instrument scanning more efficient.

VFR USE

DAY

Regulations vary from country to country. But typical airworthiness requirements call for the installation of a
Magnetic Compass, Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, and power instruments for Day VFR operations (not to mention
some required system instruments, such as fuel gauges). The remaining Flight Instruments are normally optional,
but they're often installed, especially in aircraft that are used at night or in IFR operations.

Instrument usage under Day VFR is—or at least should be—very limited. The instruments called for by the
airworthiness requirements are all that are actually needed. This is because they provide important information that
we can’t always get by outside visual reference.

Airspeed and altitude information can't be reliably obtained from outside visual references, so the ASI and Altimeter
are required and are normally incorporated into a VFR crosscheck.

As for the compass, over familiar terrain or over short distances, landmarks can be used to establish direction. But
outside of these conditions, we need another source of direction information—and the compass is the most reliable
and useful in most parts of the world.

Used properly and sparingly, other flight instruments—such as the Vertical Speed Indicator and Directional
Gyro—can also come in handy. They're not absolutely necessary for safe flight, but can make some phases of flight
easier and/or more efficient.
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NIGHT

Of course, instrument requirements increase at night. Many countries don't allow VFR at night, but those that do
normally require an increase in aircraft instrumentation. Further, many aircraft that are operated at night are
equipped with a full compliment of flight instruments whether or not they are legally required to be.

INTRODUCTION TO IFR USE

IFR operation requires a full set of flight instruments—not to mention navigation instruments. Proper use of this
equipment is quite involved, but centers around a variety of well organized instrument scans that enable us to get
the information we need when we need it.

With regard to the flight instruments, this information centers around attitude, power, and the way flight parameters
vary with attitude and power settings.