SCIENTIFIC WRITING BOOKLET

SCIENTIFIC WRITING BOOKLET

TABLE OF CONTENTS
General Guidelines title abstract rules for scientific writing
2-3
Using an Outline to Prepare Your Paper description of an outline
value of the outline developing the outline
3
Word Usage in Scientific Writing 4-
Gra!!ar
"ctive versus Passive #oice in Writing when to use active voice
when to use passive voice active-passive e$ercise
%-&&
Writing the 'ntroduction &&-&2
Writing the (ethods &3-&4
Writing the )esults and *iscussion results section nu!bers and
statistics tables figures discussion section
&4-&%
Preparing the )eference Section e$a!ples of citation for!ats
e$a!ples of reference for!ats
2+-22
"nswers to "ctive-Passive ,$ercise 23
Sources for -urther 'nfor!ation websites boo. sources
24
GENERAL GUIDELINES
" scientific paper is a written report describing original research results/ 0he for!at of a scientific
paper has been defined b1 centuries of developing tradition2 editorial practice2 scientific ethics and
the interpla1 with printing and publishing services/ " scientific paper should have2 in proper order2 a
0itle2 "bstract2 'ntroduction2 (aterials and (ethods2 )esults2 and *iscussion/
0itle
" title should be the fewest possible words that accuratel1 describe the content of the paper/ O!it
all waste words such as 3" stud1 of ///32 3'nvestigations of ///32 3Observations on ///32 etc/ 'nde$ing
and abstracting services depend on the accurac1 of the title2 e$tracting fro! it .e1words useful in
cross-referencing and co!puter searching/ "n i!properl1 titled paper !a1 never reach the audience
for which it was intended2 so be specific/ 'f the stud1 is of a particular species2 na!e it in the title/ 'f
the inferences !ade in the paper are li!ited to a particular region2 then na!e the region in the title/
"bstract
" well prepared abstract should enable the reader to identif1 the basic content of a docu!ent 4uic.l1
and accuratel12 to deter!ine its relevance to the reader5s interests2 and thus to decide whether to read
the docu!ent in its entiret1/ 0he abstract should succinctl1 state the principal ob6ectives and scope of
the investigation where these are not obvious fro! the title/ (ore i!portantl12 the abstract should
concisel1 su!!ari7e the results and principal conclusions/ 0he abstract should not include details of
the !ethods e!plo1ed unless the stud1 is !ethodological2 i/e/ pri!aril1 concerned with !ethods/
0he abstract !ust be brief2 not e$ceeding 28+ words or as otherwise defined b1 the 6ournal/ 'f the
essential details of the paper can be conve1ed in &++ words2 do not use 2++/ *o not repeat
infor!ation contained in the title/ 0he abstract2 together with the title2 !ust be self-contained as it is
often published separatel1 fro! the paper in abstracting services/ O!it all references to the literature
and to tables or figures2 and o!it obscure abbreviations and acron1!s even though the1 !a1 be
defined in !ain bod1 of the paper/
)ules for Scientific Writing
9 'nterest2 infor!2 and persuade the reader
9 Write for 1our reader and write clearl1
9 ,li!inate unnecessar1 redundanc1
9 "void digressions
9 *on5t over e$plain and avoid overstate!ent
9 "void unnecessar1 4ualifiers
9 Use consistent tenses
9 Use the precise word
9 Si!pler words are preferred over co!ple$ words and use concrete words and e$a!ples
9 Si!pler sentences are preferred over !ore co!plicated sentences
9 Use the active voice :e$cept generall1 in !ethods;
9 (a.e sure the sub6ect and verb agree
9 Use affir!ative rather than negative constructions
9 "void use of the indefinite 3this3
9 Use transitions
9 <ite sources as well as findings
9 Proofread 1our paper carefull1= spell chec. does not catch ever1thing= 3there3 is spelled
correctl1 but not if 1ou !eant 3their3
'n general2 the best writing is si!ple and direct/ Writing that is si!ple and direct is !ost easil1
understood/ 't also tends to be the !ost forceful and !e!orable/ Use no !ore words than necessar1
> and never use a co!plicated word if a si!pler one will do 6ust as well/ (an1 people see! to feel
that writing in a co!plicated wa1 !a.es one sound serious2 scholarl1 and authoritative/ While this
t1pe of writing !a1 sound serious2 it is no !ore authoritative than writing that is si!ple and direct/
<ertainl12 it is !ore difficult to understand/ Often2 it sounds po!pous and overbearing/ 'f 1our
purpose is to be understood in a wa1 that is both forceful and !e!orable2 adopt a st1le that is si!ple
and direct/
USING AN OUTLINE TO PREPARE YOUR PAPER
*escription of an outline
"n outline is?
9 " logical2 general description
9 " sche!atic su!!ar1
9 "n organi7ational pattern
9 " visual and conceptual design of 1our writing
"n outline reflects logical thin.ing and clear classification/
#alue of the Outline
9 "ids in the process of writing
9 @elps 1ou organi7e 1our ideas
9 Provides a snapshot of each section of the paper will flow
9 Presents 1our !aterial in a logical for!
9 Shows the relationships a!ong ideas in 1our writing
9 <onstructs an ordered overview of 1our writing
9 *efines boundaries and groups
*eveloping the Outline
Aefore 1ou begin?
9 *eter!ine the purpose of 1our paper
9 *eter!ine the audience 1ou are writing for
9 *evelop the thesis of 1our paper
0hen?
9 Arainstor!? Bist all the ideas that 1ou want to include in 1our paper
9 Su!!ari7e the 4uestion:s;Cproble!:s;
9 Bist the .e1 pointsCele!ents pertaining to the 4uestion:s;Cproble!:s;
9 Organi7e? Group related ideas together= place each .e1 pointCele!ent in a separate file
9 Order? "rrange !aterial in subsections fro! general to specific or fro! abstract to concrete
9 (a.e sure the organi7ing sche!e is clear and well-structured
9 'dentif1 the i!portant details that contribute to each .e1 pointCele!ent
9 Babel? <reate !ain and sub headings
9 Dote the sources pertaining to each detail
WORD USAGE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING
"n1 glossar1 of word usage assu!es that what is acceptable for so!e uses !a1 not be for others/
So!e ter!s and e$pressions are worn-out clichEs and have outlived their usefulness= other
e$pressions and ter!s2 though not incorrect2 are not precise/ 'n reporting and recording research2 tr1
to be as accurate and precise in describing it as in doing it/ "void the a!biguous and 3faddish/3
9 Use a US-,nglish spelling chec.er/
9 (a.e sure 1ou use words according to the precise !eaning understood b1 the average
person/
9 'deall12 1ou would chec. whether ever1 word could be deleted or replaced b1 a better one/
9 9 "i! for econo!1?
a9 o because instead of based on the fact that=
b9 o for or to instead of for the purpose of/
c9 o there were several sub6ects who co!pletedF=
d9 o it is suggested that a relationship !a1 e$istF=
e9 o both ali.e= one and the sa!e=
f9 o a total of n sub6ects=
g9 o four different groups=
h9 o absolutel1 essential=
i9 o found previousl1=
69 o s!all in si7e=
.9 o in close pro$i!it1=
l9 o ver1 close to 7ero=
!9 o !uch better=
n9 o period of ti!e=
o9 o su!!ari7e briefl1=
p9 o the reason is because=
49 o also included=
r9 o e$cept for/
s9 9 "i! for precision?
t9 o patient or g1!nast instead of sub6ect=
u9 o concentration or fre4uenc1 instead of level/
9 *onGt generali7e unnecessaril1/ -or e$a!ple2 donGt sa1 so!e if 1ou .now of onl1 one
instance/
9 0his on its own is an a!biguous antecedent/ Use instead this test or this proble!/
9 "void h1pe :h1perbole;/ Words li.e ver1 and e$tre!el1 are usuall1 unnecessar1/
9 Dote these singular and plural for!s? criterion2 criteria= datu!2 data= !ediu!2 !edia=
pheno!enon2 pheno!ena/
9 *onGt use however or its s1non1!s twice in one paragraph2 because changing the direction of
an argu!ent twice in one paragraph !a1 anno1 readers/
9 *onGt use however !ore than once ever1 &+ paragraphs/ 0r1 a thesaurus for s1non1!s/
9 "void the so-called non-hu!an agent/ -or e$a!ple2 use the authors concluded thatF rather
than the stud1 concluded thatF/
9 "void collo4uialis!s2 such as steer clear of/
9 "void as such/ Poor? 0he S<"0 is a reliable test of state an$iet1/ "s such2 it is suitable for
e$peri!ental studies/ Aetter? 0he S<"0 is a reliable test of state an$iet1= it is therefore suitable for
e$peri!ental studies/
9 "void her2 his and an1 other se$ist language2 even if the sub6ects are clearl1 of one gender/
Above :3the above !ethod23 3!entioned above23 etc/; -- Often2 1ou are referring to so!ething
preceding2 but not necessaril1 above= a loose reference2 convenient for writers2 but not for readers/ Ae
specific/ You .now e$actl1 what and where2 but 1our readers !a1 have to search :so!eti!es through
!uch preceding !aterial;/
Affect, effect -- "ffect is a verb and !eans to influence/ ,ffect2 as a verb2 !eans to bring about=
as a noun2 effect !eans result/
All of, both of -- Hust 3all3 or 3both3 will serve in !ost instances/
Alter!te, !lter!t"ve -- Ae sure which 1ou !ean/
A# :to begin a sentence; -- Iuite proper/ You have been told not to do this in grade school/ Aut
teacher5s purpose was to .eep 1ou fro! using frag!entar1 sentences= either 3and3 or 3but3 !a1 be
used to begin co!plete sentences/ "nd both are useful transitional words between related or
contrasting state!ents/
A$$!retl% &!$$!ret' -- !eans obviousl12 clearl12 plainl1 evident2 but also !eans see!ingl1 or
ostensibl1 as well as observabl1/ You .now the !eaning that 1ou intend2 but readers !a1 not/
"!biguit1 results/ Use obvious:l1;2 clear:l1;2 see!ing:l1;2 evident:l1;2 observable or observabl12 to
re!ove doubt/
A$$e!r, !$$e!r( -- See!:s;J 3@e alwa1s appears on the scene2 but never see!s to .now what to
do/3 3(arle15s ghost appeared but see!ed har!less/3
A( -- *ialectal when used in place of that or whether= do ot use as to !ean because or inas!uch as/
At the $re(et t")e, !t th"( $o"t " t")e -- Sa1 3at present3 or 3now3 if necessar1 at all/
Belo* -- See co!!ent about above/
B+t :to begin a sentence; -- Go right ahead :see 3"nd3 and 3@owever3;/
B% )e!( of -- (ost often2 6ust 3b13 will serve and save words/
C!(e -- <an be a!biguous2 !isleading2 or ludicrous because of different connotations= e/g/2 3'n the
case of Scotch whis.e12////3 <ase also is a fre4uent offender in padded2 drawn-out sentences/ -or 3in
this case23 tr1 3in this instance/3
Co)$!re *"th, co)$!re to -- <o!pare with !eans to e$a!ine differences and si!ilarities=
co!pare to !eans to represent as si!ilar/ One !a1 conclude that the !usic of Arah!s co!pares to
that of Aeethoven2 but to do that2 one !ust first co!pare the !usic of Arah!s with that of
Aeethoven/
Co)$r"(e -- Aefore !isuse2 co!prise !eant to contain2 include2 or enco!pass :not to constitute or
co!pose; and still does2 despite two now opposite !eanings/ Use and !eanings now are so
confused and !i$ed that 3co!prise3 is best avoided altogether/
Correl!te# *"th, correl!te# to -- "lthough things !a1 be related to one another2 things are
correlated with one another/
D"fferet fro), #"fferet th! -- *ifferent fro!K "lso2 one thing differs fro! another2 although 1ou
!a1 differ with 1our colleagues/
D+e to -- (a.e sure that 1ou don5t !ean because of/ *ue is an ad6ective !odifier and !ust be
directl1 related to a noun2 ot to a concept or series of ideas gleaned fro! the rest of a state!ent/
3*ue to the fact that///3 is an atte!pt to weasel out/
D+r", the co+r(e of, " the co+r(e of -- Hust use 3during3 or 3in/3
E"ther----or, e"ther---or -- "ppl1 to no !ore than two ite!s or categories/ Si!ilarl12 for!er and
latter refer onl1 to the first and second of onl1 two ite!s or categories/
E.$er"ece&#' -- 0o e$perience so!ething is sensor1= inani!ate2 unsensing things :la.es2 soils2
en71!es2 strea!beds2 far! fields2 etc/; do not e$perience an1thing/
Follo*", -- 3"fter3 is !ore precise if 3after3 is the !eaning intended/ 3"fter Lnot
followingM the procession2 the leader announced that the cere!on1 was over/3
/",h&er', lo*&er' -- (uch too often used2 fre4uentl1 a!biguousl1 or i!precisel12 for other words
such as greater2 lesser2 larger2 s!aller2 !ore2 fewer= e/g/2 3Occurrences of higher concentrations were
lower at higher levels of effluent outflow/3 One interpretation is that greater concentrations were
fewer or less fre4uent as effluent volu!e:s; increased2 but others also are possible/
/o*ever -- Place it !ore often within a sentence or !a6or ele!ent rather than at the beginning or
end/ 3Aut3 serves better at the beginning/
/%$he", of co)$o+# or +"t )o#"f"er( -- Often needed to clarif1 what is !odif1ing what= e/g/2
a s!all-grain harvest :harvest of s!all grain; is different fro! a s!all grain harvest :s!all harvest of
all grain;2 a fast acting dean isn5t necessaril1 as effective as a fast-acting dean2 a batch of :sa12 2+;
&+-liter containers is different fro! a batch of &+ L&-M liter containers2 and a !an eating fish is ver1
different fro! a !an-eating fishK Gra!!aticall12 ad6ectives are noun !odifiers2 and the proble! is
when ad6ectives and nouns are used to !odif1 other ad6ectives and nouns/ A#verb( :usuall1 with
3l13 endings;2 however2 !re ad6ective !odifiers/
I or#er to -- -or brevit12 6ust use 3to3/
Irre,!r#le(( -- Do2 regardless/ Aut irrespective !ight do/
It (ho+l# be )et"oe#, ote#, $o"te# o+t, e)$h!("0e#, etc- -- Such prea!bles often add
nothing but words/ Hust go ahead and sa1 what is to be said/
It *!( fo+#, #eter)"e#, #ec"#e#, felt, etc- -- "re 1ou being evasiveJ Wh1 not put it fran.l1
and directl1J :"nd how about that sub6ective 3felt3J;
Le((&er', fe*&er' -- 3Bess3 refers to 4uantit1= 3fewer3 to nu!ber/
1!2or"t%, v!(t )!2or"t% -- See if !ost will do as well or better/ Boo. up 3vast/3
1%(elf -- Dot a substitute for !e/ 30his paper has been reviewed b1 *r/ S!ith and !1self3 and 30he
report enclosed was prepared b1 *r/ Hones and !1self3 are incorrect as is 3*on5t hesitate to call *r/
*oe or !1self3= !e would have been correct in all instances/ :Use of ' also would have been wrong
in those e$a!ples/; So!e correct uses of !1self? ' found the error !1self/ ' !1self saw it happen/ '
a! not !1self toda1/ ' cannot convince !1self/ ' loc.ed !1self out of the car/
P!rt"!ll%, $!rtl% -- <o!pare the !eanings :see also i!partiall1;/ Partl1 is the better2 si!pler2 and
!ore precise word when partl1 is !eant/
Percet, $ercet!,e -- Dot the sa!e= use percent onl1 with a nu!ber/
Pre#o)"!te, $re#o)"!t --Predo!inate is a verb/ Predo!inant is the ad6ective= as an
adverb2 predo!inantl1 :not 3predo!inatel13;/
Pref".e( -- :!id2 non2 pre2 pro2 re2 se!i2 un2 etc/; -- Usuall1 not h1phened in U/S/ usage e$cept
before a proper na!e :pro-'owa; or nu!erals :!id-N+s; or when lac. of a h1phen !a.es a word
a!biguous or aw.ward/ )ecover a fu!ble2 but perhaps re-cover a sofa/ Preengineered is better
h1phened as pre-engineered2 one of the few e$ceptions so h1phened/ Area.ing pairs such as
predoctoral and postdoctoral into pre- and post-doctoral 3forces3 h1phening of both otherwise
unh1phened words/
Pr"c"$le, $r"c"$!l -- 0he15re different= !a.e sure which 1ou !ean/
Pr"or to, $rev"o+( to -- Use before2 preceding2 or ahead of/ 0here are prior and subse4uent events
that occur before or after so!ething else2 but prior to is the sa!e .ind of atrocious use that
atte!pts to substitute 3subse4uent to3 for 3after/3
Prove -- "lthough a proven ad6ective2 stic. to proved for the past participle/ 3" proven guilt1
person !ust first have been proved guilt1 in court/3
Prov"#e#, $rov"#", --Provided :usuall1 followed b1 3that3; O con6unction= providing O participle/
Re!(o *h% -- O!it wh1 if reason is used as a noun/ 0he reason is///= or2 the reason is that///
S"ce -- has a ti!e connotation= use 3because3 or 3inas!uch as3 when either is the intended !eaning/
S)!ll " ("0e, rect!,+l!r " (h!$e, bl+e " color, te+o+( " !t+re, etc- -- )edundant/
Th!t !# *h"ch -- 0wo words that can help2 when needed2 to !a.e intended !eanings and
relationships un!ista.able2 which is i!portant in reporting scientific infor!ation/ 'f the clause can
be o!itted without leaving the !odified noun inco!plete2 use which and enclose the clause within
co!!as or parentheses= otherwise2 use that/ ,$a!ple? 30he lawn !ower2 which is bro.en2 is in the
garage/3 Aut2 30he lawn !ower that is bro.en is in the garage= so is the lawn !ower that
wor.s/3///0hat is bro.en specifies the particular !ower being discussed2 whereas which is bro.en
!erel1 adds additional infor!ation to the sentence/
To be -- -re4uentl1 unnecessar1/ 30he differences were LfoundM Lto beM significant/3
3!r%", -- Ae careful to distinguish fro! various or differing/ 'n sa1ing that 1ou used var1ing
a!ounts or var1ing conditions2 1ou are i!pl1ing "#"v"#+!ll% ch!,", a!ounts or conditions rather
than a selection of various or different ones/
Where -- Use when 1ou !ean where2 but not for 3in which23 3for which23 etc/
Wh"ch "(, th!t *ere, *ho !re, etc- -- Often not needed/ -or e$a!ple2 3the data that were related to
age were anal17ed first3 !eans that the data related to age were anal17ed first/ Si!ilarl12 for 3the site2
which is located near "!es23 tr1 3the site2 located near "!es3 or 3the site2 near "!es/3 )ather than
3all persons who were present voted23 6ust sa1 that 3all persons present voted/3 )ephrasing so!eti!es
can help/ 'nstead of 3a surve12 which was conducted in &%P43 or 3a surve1 conducted in &%P423 tr1 3a
&%P4 surve1/3
Wh"le -- Preferabl1 not if2 while writing2 1ou !ean and2 but2 although2 or whereas/
)e!e!ber that a research report should co!!unicate and record infor!ation as accuratel1 and
concisel1 as possible/ 0he purpose is to report2 not to i!press with elegance/ ,$cess wordage2
tortuous construction2 unnecessar1 detail2 duplication2 repetition2 third-person passive pseudo-
ob6ectivis!2 etc/2 obstruct rather than facilitate co!!unication/ 't5s the !essage that is i!portant2 not
sheer nu!bers of words/ Use precise words and e$pressions of un!ista.able !eaning= avoid the
clouded2 a!biguous2 vague2 and needlessl1 co!ple$/
GRA11AR
9 (a.e sure 1ou write well-for!ed sentences2 and .eep their structure si!ple/
9 Use the first person :' or we tested si$ runners ; rather than the passive voice :Si$ runners
were tested ;/ Si!ilarl12 sa1 S!ith reported instead of reported b1 S!ith/
9 With co!paratives :!ore than2 less than;2 the than !a1 need to be than that of or than with or
than b1 etc/ to clarif1 the !eaning/ Si!ilarl12 si!ilar to !a1 need to be si!ilar to that of/ ,$a!ples?
0he !easure was !ore valid than that of S!ith et al/ :&%%4;/ We e$perienced fewer proble!s with
the revised instru!ent than with the published version/ 0he !ethod was si!ilar to that of an earlier
stud1/
9 *on5t use a long string of 4ualifiers in front of a noun? a !odified test of cognitive function is
better than a !odified cognitive-function test/
9 "void gra!!aticall1 4uestionable for!al cliches2 such as? Aased on these results2 it is
concluded that and 0he results showed that
9 Use the past tense to report results :1ours or others5;/ Use the present tense to discuss the!/
We have found thatF= S!ith :&%%; reported a si!ilar result/ " si!ple e$planation of these findings
is thatF
9 "void so-called !isplaced !odifiers? When sedentar12 protein supple!entation resulted inF
"thletes were consulted when designing the 4uestionnaireF 'f necessar12 sub6ects were testedF
Aased on these results2 we concludeF 0he ne$t two e$a!ples are !arginal? Using stable tracers2 it is
possible to !easureF Given the i!portance of bod1 !ass2 there has been little stud1 of its effectsF
Dote that a noun was verbed to verb so!ething :e/g/ an e$peri!ent was perfor!ed to test this
h1pothesis; is also technicall1 incorrect but is used so widel1 that it has to be accepted/ " noun was
verbed :b1; verbingF is also acceptable/ 0he active voice would avoid these aw.ward e$pressions/
9 Put onl12 partl1 and !ainl1 ne$t to the word the1 !odif1? 0he test consists onl1 of new
ite!s/
9 9 0he following rules are bro.en so fre4uentl1 that ' doubt whether the1 can be considered
rules an1 !ore/
a9 o Which or thatJ Si!ple rule? Which alwa1s follows a co!!a :and a pause;2 but that never
does/ 0his stud12 which cost Q&+2+++2 was a success/ 0he stud1 that cost Q&+2+++ was a success/
b9 o Owing to or due toJ Si!ple rule? Owing to alwa1s has a co!!a2 due to never does/ 0he
data were lost2 owing to co!puter !alfunction/ 0he loss of data was due to co!puter
!alfunction/
9 "n adverb is placed usuall1 after the verb/ Placing it before the verb creates a split infinitive
:to boldl1 goF is acceptable if e!phasi7ing go= if the e!phasis is on boldl12 to go boldl1 is better;/
ACTI3E 3ERSUS PASSI3E 3OICE IN WRITING
'n the active voice2 the gra!!atical sub6ect is the doer of the action2 and the sentence tells2 RwhoGs
doing what/S 0he passive voice tells what is done to the sub6ect of the sentence/ 0he person or thing
doing the action !a1 or !a1 not be !entioned but is alwa1s i!plied/
#erbs are also said to be either active :0he e$ecutive co!!ittee approved the new polic1; or passive
:0he new polic1 was approved b1 the e$ecutive co!!ittee; in voice/ 'n the active voice2 the sub6ect
and verb relationship is straightforward? the gra!!atical sub6ect is the doer of the action2 and the
sentence tells2 RwhoGs doing whatS/ 0he verb 5activel15 !oves the sentence along/
0he passive voice tells what is done to the sub6ect of the sentence/ 0he sub6ect of the sentence is
acted upon b1 so!e other agent or b1 so!ething unna!ed :0he new polic1 was approved;/
<o!puteri7ed gra!!ar chec.ers can pic. out a passive voice construction fro! !iles awa1 and as.
1ou to revise it to a !ore active construction/ 0here is nothing inherentl1 wrong with the passive
voice2 but if 1ou can sa1 the sa!e thing in the active !ode2 do so :see e$ceptions below;/ Your te$t
will have !ore pi77a77 as a result2 since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pa6a!as
and avoid actual wor./
We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created b1 self-protective business
interests2 !agnilo4uent educators2 and bo!bastic !ilitar1 writers :who !ust get wear1 of this
accusation;2 who use the passive voice to avoid responsibilit1 for actions ta.en/ 0hus 3<igarette ads
were designed to appeal especiall1 to children3 places the burden on the ads > as opposed to 3We
designed the cigarette ads to appeal especiall1 to children23 in which 3we3 accepts responsibilit1/ "t a
White @ouse press briefing we !ight hear that 30he President was advised that certain !e!bers of
<ongress were being audited3 rather than 30he @ead of the 'nternal )evenue service advised the
President that her agenc1 was auditing certain !e!bers of <ongress3 because the passive
construction avoids responsibilit1 for advising and for auditing/
One further caution about the passive voice? we should not !i$ active and passive constructions in
the sa!e sentence? 30he e$ecutive co!!ittee approved the new polic12 and the calendar for ne$t
1ear5s !eetings was revised3 should be recast as 30he e$ecutive co!!ittee approved the new polic1
and revised the calendar for ne$t 1ear5s !eeting/3
When to use "ctive #oice
'n general2 writing should be co!posed in the active voice because of the sense of i!!ediac1 and
conciseness conve1ed when the sub6ect of the sentence carries out the action/ 'n addition2 fewer
words are usuall1 re4uired for the active voice2 it is !ore efficient2 and it ta.es the reader fro! point
" to point A in a Rstraight line/S
When to use Passive #oice
0he passive voice does e$ist for a reason2 however2 and its presence is not alwa1s to be despised/
0he passive is particularl1 useful :even reco!!ended; in two situations?
When it is !ore i!portant to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon?
0he unidentified victi! was apparentl1 struc. during the earl1 !orning hours/
When the actor in the situation is not i!portant? 0he aurora borealis can be observed in the
earl1 !orning hours/
'n scientific writing2 overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and co!plicated
sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to beco!e confused/ Sentences in active voice are
generall1--though not alwa1s-- clearer and !ore direct than those in passive voice/
0hat being said2 the passive voice is especiall1 helpful :and even regarded as !andator1; in scientific
or technical writing or lab reports2 where the actor is not reall1 i!portant but the process or principle
being described is of ulti!ate i!portance/ 'nstead of writing 3' poured 2+ cc of acid into the bea.er23
we would write 30went1 cc of acid isCwas poured into the bea.er/3 0he passive voice is also useful
when describing2 sa12 a !echanical process in which the details of process are !uch !ore i!portant
than an1one5s ta.ing responsibilit1 for the action? 30he first coat of pri!er paint is applied
i!!ediatel1 after the acid rinse/3 0hus in scientific writing2 the passive voice is often preferred to
indicate ob6ective procedures/ Scientists and engineers are interested in anal17ing data and in
perfor!ing studies that other researchers can replicate/ 0he individual doing the e$peri!ent is
therefore relativel1 uni!portant and usuall1 is not the sub6ect of the sentence/
You can recogni7e passive-voice e$pressions because the verb phrase will alwa1s include a for! of
be2 such as a!2 is2 was2 were2 are2 or been/ 0he presence of a be-verb2 however2 does not
necessaril1 !ean that the sentence is in passive voice/ "nother wa1 to recogni7e passive-voice
sentences is that the1 !a1 include a 3b1 the///3 phrase after the verb= the agent perfor!ing the
action2 if na!ed2 is the ob6ect of the preposition in this phrase/
You can see e$a!ples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at
htt$455o*l-e,l"(h-$+r#+e-e#+5h!#o+t(5,r!))!r5,6te(e(7-ht)l
0he active voice enhances the authorit1 of the writer2 while the passive voice can obscure it/
Passive voice? 't is understood b1 students that good writing is essential in college/ "ctive
voice? Students understand that good writing is essential in college/
<onsider these pairs of sentences?
0he report was read b1 Aett1/
Aett1 read the report/
" decision was !ade to stop the pro6ect/ We decided to stop the pro6ect/
0he passive voice should be avoided/ "void the passive voice/
Scientists conduct e$peri!ents to test h1potheses/ ,$peri!ents are conducted b1 scientists to
test h1potheses/
Watching a reaction boil over through shielding re!inds !e to be careful/ ' a! re!inded to
be careful b1 watching a reaction boil over through shielding/
Dow2 as. 1ourself? which of the two sentences in each set sounds better to 1ou > and wh1J 'n
general2 the active voice :the second sentence in each pair; is preferable to the passive voice :the
first sentence in each pair; because the active voice tends to be si!pler2 clearer and !ore direct/ 0he
active voice also !a.es for !ore forceful and interesting writing/ 0hus2 we sa1? "void the passive/
-avor the active/
U(ef+l re(o+rce4 htt$455o*l-e,l"(h-$+r#+e-e#+5h!#o+t(5$r"t5,r!))!r5,6!ct$!((-ht)l-
"ctive-Passive ,$ercise?
)ewrite the following sentences so that passive constructions are changed to active verbs/ So!e of
these sentences do not use passive verbs or are better off left in the passive2 so this e$ercise will also
engage 1our attention in recogni7ing passive constructions and in using the! when appropriate/
& Aefore the se!ester was over2 the new nursing progra! had been approved b1 the
<urriculu! <o!!ittee and the Aoard of 0rustees/
2 With five seconds left in the ga!e2 an illegal ti!e-out was called b1 one of the pla1ers/
3 0he !a6or points of the lesson were 4uic.l1 learned b1 the class2 but the1 were also 4uic.l1
forgotten b1 the!/
4 -or several 1ears2 <haunce1 was raised b1 his elderl1 grand!other/
8 "n une$pected tornado s!ashed several ho!es and uprooted trees in a suburb of Tno$ville/
N ' was surprised b1 the teacher5s lac. of s1!path1/
P 0all buildings and !ountain roads were avoided b1 )aoul because he had such a fear of
heights/
:answers appear on page 24;
WRITING T/E INTRODUCTION
0he first step will be to !eet with 1our research director to discuss the content of the 'ntroduction/
0his should be ver1 e$plicit to the specific research 1ou will be doing/ (uch of 1our ti!e before
writing !ust be spent in reading appropriate papers that are the bac.ground to the wor. 1ou will be
doing/ Your research director can help 1ou identif1 these papers/ "s 1ou spend additional ti!e
wor.ing on the pro6ect2 1ou should continue to read appropriate papers fro! the literature that will
help 1ou understand 1our wor. better/ You should ta.e responsibilit1 for learning fro! 1our research
director2 or so!eone else who! is designated2 the papers that are !ost appropriate for 1ou to read in
the future/ "dditionall1 1ou should ac4uire s.ills in conducting literature searches on 1our own for
relevant papers in the !ost current literature as the1 appear b1 chec.ing the !ost appropriate 6ournals
on a regular basis/ You should as. 1our research director to also identif1 papers that include the
!ethods 1ou will be using in 1our stud1/
0he 'ntroduction should begin b1 introducing the reader to the pertinent literature/ " co!!on
!ista.e is introducing authors and their areas of stud1 in general ter!s without !entioning their
!a6or findings/ -or e$a!ple?
8P!r)eter &9:;<' !# Che(()! &9:;=' (t+#"e# the #"et of Chelo#"! lo,"coll"( !t v!r"o+(
l!t"t+#e( !# Le,ler &9:;=' !# Che(()! &9:=>' co#+cte# ! (")"l!r (t+#% o Chelo#"!
e.$!(!8
co!pares poorl1 with?
8W"th" the cof"e( of c!r"vor%, Chelo#"! e.$!(! "( ! (elect"ve !# ($ec"!l"0e# $re#!tor
fee#", +$o h",hl% )ot"le $re% (+ch !( #ec!$o# cr+(t!ce!(, !?+!t"c b+,( !# ()!ll f"(h
&Le,ler, 9:;=@ Che(()!, 9:=A', *here!( C- lo,"coll"( "( re$orte# to h!ve ! #"ver(e !#
o$$ort+"(t"c #"et &P!r)eter, 9:;<@ Che(()!, 9:=A'8-
0he latter is a far !ore infor!ative lead-in to the literature2 but !ore i!portantl1 it enables the
reader to clearl1 place the current wor. in the conte$t of what is alread1 .nown/ "n i!portant
function of the 'ntroduction is to establish the significance of the current wor.? Wh1 was there a
need to conduct the stud1J
@aving introduced the pertinent literature and de!onstrated the need for the current stud12 1ou
should state clearl1 the scope and ob6ectives/ "void a series of point-wise state!ents -- use prose/
0he 'ntroduction can finish with the state!ent of ob6ectives or2 as so!e people prefer2 with a brief
state!ent of the principal findings/ ,ither wa12 the reader !ust have an idea of where the paper is
heading in order to follow the develop!ent of the evidence/
B+e(t"o( to !##re((4 /o* to !##re(( the)4
De(cr"be the proble! investigated/
9 S+))!r"0e relevant research to provide conte$t2 .e1
ter!s2 and concepts so 1our reader can understand the
e$peri!ent/
Wh% "( "t ")$ort!tC 9 Rev"e* relevant research to provide rationale/ :What conflict or
unanswered 4uestion2 untested population2 untried !ethod
in e$isting research does 1our e$peri!ent addressJ What
findings of others are 1ou challenging or e$tendingJ;
Wh!t (ol+t"o &or (te$ 9 Ariefl1 #e(cr"be 1our e$peri!ent? h1pothesis:es;2 research to*!r# !
(ol+t"o' #o %o+ 4uestion:s;= general e$peri!ental design or !ethod= $ro$o(eC 6ustification of
!ethod if alternatives e$ist/
"dditional 0ips?
& (ove fro! general to specific? proble! in real worldCresearch literature 1our e$peri!ent/
2 ,ngage 1our reader? answer the 4uestions2 3What did 1ou doJ3 3Wh1 should ' careJ3
3 (a.e clear the lin.s between proble! and solution2 4uestion as.ed and research design2 prior
research and 1our e$peri!ent/
Ae selective2 not e$haustive2 in choosing studies to cite and a!ount of detail to include/ :'n
general2 the !ore relevant an article is to 1our stud12 the !ore space it deserves and the later in the
'ntroduction it appears/;
WRITING T/E 1ET/ODS
0he !ain purpose of the (aterials and (ethods section is to provide enough detail for a co!petent
wor.er to repeat 1our stud1 and reproduce the results/ 0he scientific !ethod re4uires that 1our
results be reproducible2 and 1ou !ust provide a basis for repetition of the stud1 b1 others/
Often in field-based studies2 there is a need to describe the stud1 area in greater detail than is
possible in the 'ntroduction/ Usuall1 authors will describe the stud1 region in general ter!s in the
'ntroduction and then describe the stud1 site and cli!ate in detail in the (aterials and (ethods
section/ 0he sub-headings 3Stud1 Site32 3General (ethods3 and 3"nal1sis3 !a1 be useful2 in that
order/
,4uip!ent and !aterials available off the shelf should be described e$actl1 :Bicor underwater
4uantu! sensor2 (odel B' &%2SA; and sources of !aterials should be given if there is variation in
4ualit1 a!ong supplies/ (odifications to e4uip!ent or e4uip!ent constructed specificall1 for the
stud1 should be carefull1 described in detail/ 0he !ethod used to prepare reagents2 fi$atives2 and
stains should be stated e$actl12 though often reference to standard recipes in other wor.s will
suffice/
0he usual order of presentation of !ethods is chronological2 however related !ethods !a1 need to be
described together and strict chronological order cannot alwa1s be followed/ 'f 1our !ethods are new
:unpublished;2 1ou !ust provide all of the detail re4uired to repeat the !ethods/ @owever2 if a
!ethod has been previousl1 published in a standard 6ournal2 onl1 the na!e of the !ethod and a
literature reference need be given/
Ae precise in describing !easure!ents and include errors of !easure!ent/ Ordinar1 statistical
!ethods should be used without co!!ent= advanced or unusual !ethods !a1 re4uire a literature
citation/ Show 1our !aterials and !ethods section to a colleague/ "s. if the1 would have difficult1
in repeating 1our stud1/
0he table below offers guidelines for effective !ethods sections in scientific reports/
Iuestions to address? @ow to address the!?
@ow did 1ou stud1 the 9 Ariefl1 e$plain the general t1pe of scientific procedure
proble!J 1ou used/
What did 1ou useJ 9 *escribe what !aterials2 sub6ects2 and e4uip!ent
:(a1 be subheaded as :che!icals2 e$peri!ental ani!als2 apparatus2 etc/; 1ou
(aterials; used/
:0hese !a1 be subheaded "ni!als2 )eagents2 etc/;
@ow did 1ou proceedJ 9 ,$plain the steps 1ou too. in 1our e$peri!ent/
:(a1 be subheaded as (ethods :0hese !a1 be subheaded b1 e$peri!ent2 t1pes of assa12
or Procedures; etc/;
"dditional 0ips?
& Provide enough detail for replication/ -or a 6ournal article2 include2 for e$a!ple2 genus2
species2 strain of organis!s= their source2 living conditions2 and care= and sources :!anufacturer2
location; of che!icals and apparatus/
2 Order procedures chronologicall1 or b1 t1pe of procedure :subheaded; and chronologicall1
within t1pe/
3 Use past tense to describe what 1ou did/
4 Iuantif1 when possible? concentrations2 !easure!ents2 a!ounts :all !etric;= ti!es :24-hour
cloc.;= te!peratures :centigrade;/
What to avoid?
& *on5t include details of co!!on statistical procedures/
2 *on5t !i$ results with procedures/
WRITING T/E RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
)esults Section
'n the )esults section 1ou present 1our findings/ Present the data2 digested and condensed2 with
i!portant trends e$tracted and described/ Aecause the results co!prise the new .nowledge that 1ou
are contributing to the world2 it is i!portant that 1our findings be clearl1 and si!pl1 stated/ 0he
)esults should be short and sweet2 without e$cessive verbiage/
*o not sa1?
8It "( cle!rl% ev"#et fro) F",- 9 th!t b"r# ($ec"e( r"che(( "cre!(e# *"th h!b"t!t co)$le."t%8-
Sa1 instead
8B"r# ($ec"e( r"che(( "cre!(e# *"th h!b"t!t co)$le."t% &F",- 9'8-
@owever2 do not be too concise/ 0he readers cannot be e$pected to e$tract i!portant trends fro! the
data unaided/ -ew will bother/ <o!bine the use of te$t2 tables2 figures to condense data and highlight
trends/ 'n doing so be sure to refer to the guidelines for preparing tables and figures below/
Du!bers and Statistics
9 Use s1!bol U to !ean appro$i!atel1 e4ual to/
9 Du!bers beginning a sentence !ust be spelled/ 't is usuall1 better to rewrite a sentence so
1ou don5t start it with nu!bers greater than ninet1-nine/
9 Dote? one2 two2 threeF nine2 &+2 &&2 &2F ,$ceptions? a 2-! tape !easure= 3 !illion/
9 Put a space between nu!bers and units? for e$a!ple2 P8 .g/ ,$ception? P8V/
9 Dote? +/32 is correct2 DO0 /32/
9 Dote? write nu!bers as follows? &43 224N& or 24N& 2&22P &24+%2+++
9 When 1ou 4uote nu!bers2 !a.e sure 1ou use the !ini!u! nu!ber of significant digits or
deci!al places/ -or e$a!ple2 23 W P 1ears is appropriate but not 23/4 W N/N 1ears= the loss of accurac1
is not i!portant because the !easure!ent is not significant to the first deci!al place/ @owever 23/4
W +/N is correct because this !easure!ent is accurate to the first deci!al place
9 Use the appropriate nu!ber of digits? two significant digits for standard deviations :one digit
if the standard deviation is for a descriptive statistic li.e height or weight2 or if precision is not
i!portant;= two deci!al places for correlations2 two significant digits for percentages/ ,$a!ples? P3
W 8= r O +/48= r O +/+= &NV= &/3V= +/+&3V/
9 'f it is !ore convenient to show p values than confidence li!its2 show the e$act p value to
one significant digit :for p X +/&; or two deci!al places :for p Y +/&+;/ )ather than using p X +/+8 or p
Y +/+8 it !ight be better to use the following e$a!ples? p O +/+3= p O +/++P= p O +/+%= p O +/P4 when
the e$act p value is i!portant for an1one using 1our data to calculate confidence li!its or using 1our
data in a !eta-anal1sis/ 'f 1ou have a table or figure with a large nu!ber of co!parisons it !a1 be
si!pler to use the p X notation to refer to a group of observations/
9 (a.e sure the significant digits of the !ean and standard deviation are consistent/ ,$a!ples?
2+ W &3= +/+2+ W +/+&3= &8N W P= &/8N W +/+P= &8N++ W P++ DO0 &/N W +/+P or 2+ W &3/&
9 Use the standard deviation as a !easure of spread/ *o not use the standard error of the !ean/
9 Show %8V confidence intervals for effect statistics li.e a correlation coefficient or the
difference between !eans/
9 'nterpret the !agnitudes of outco!es in a 4ualitative wa12 using both 1our e$perience of the
!agnitudes that !atter in this area of hu!an endeavor and also an1 published scales of !agnitudes/
You !ust interpret the observed effects and the confidence li!its/ -or e$a!ple2 1ou !ight have to
sa1 that 1ou observed a !oderate effect2 but that the true value of the effect could be an1thing
between trivial and ver1 strong/ 'f an effect does not achieve statistical significance2 then it is
i!proper to sa1 the value is greater or s!aller than control/ You can indicate a trend or a tendenc1 in
4ualitative ter!s but one cannot absolutel1 sa1 the values differ/
0ables
G+"#el"e( for effect"ve re(+lt( (ect"o( " (c"et"f"c re$ort(-
B+e(t"o to !##re((4 /o* to !##re(( "t44
Wh!t #"# %o+ ob(erveC -or e!ch e$peri!ent or procedure?
9 Br"efl% #e(cr"be e.$er")et without detail of (ethods section :a sentence or two;/
9 9 Re$ort )!" re(+lt&('2 supported b1 selected data?
a9 o Re$re(et!t"ve4 !ost co!!on
b9 o Be(t C!(e4 best e$a!ple of ideal or e$ception
"dditional tips?
&/ Or#er !ultiple results logicall1?
a9 o fro! !ost to least i!portant
b9 o fro! si!ple to co!ple$ o organ b1 organ= che!ical class b1 che!ical class
2/ U(e $!(t te(e to describe what happened/
3/ Wh!t to !vo"#4
a9 o DoDt si!pl1 repeat table data= (elect-
b9 o DoDt interpret results/
c9 o Avo"# e$tra words? 3't is shown in 0able & that Z induced Y3 EEF 3Z induced Y :0able &;/3
9 <reate tables with the 0able pull-down in Word/ *o not use tabs/
9 ,$a!ples of a si!ple and co!ple$ table are shown below/
E.!)$le of ! (")$le t!ble
0able &- ,ffect of ciliar1 neurotrophic factor :<D0-; on protein content and l1soso!al latenc1 in
pro$i!all1 denervated soleus/
'n6ection Protein :!gC!uscle; B1soso!al latenc1 :V;
#ehicle / W +/% 43 W 4
<D0- /+ W+/[ 33 W 3[
Pro$i!all1 denervated !uscles were in6ected :4 \lC!uscleC&++g bod1 weight; dail12 beginning
i!!ediatel1 after denervation2 with vehicle onl1 :PAS with +/&V bovine seru! albu!in ; or <D0-
:8 \gC!l PAS ;/ "t 3 da1s after denervation2 protein content :Aiuret !ethod; and l1soso!al latenc1
were deter!ined as described in (aterials and (ethods/
[Significantl1 different fro! vehicle onl1 :PX+/+2;/
E.!)$le of ! co)$le. t!ble
0able 2/ -inal !uscle weights2 total protein concentration2 GBU0-4 protein2 and he$o.inase and
citrate s1nthase activities in s.eletal !uscle following 3-da1 or P-da1 hindli!b suspension :@S;/
Group -inal (uscle
Weight :gC&++
g AW;
0otal Protein
<oncentration
:!gCg;
0otal GBU0-4
:V of control;
0otal @e$o.inase <itrate
S1nthase :n!olC!gC!in;
Soleus
Weight-
bearing 3-da1
@S P-da1 @
4+/+ W +/ 33/N
W &/3[ 2&/ W
&/+[
&4% W 3 &33 W
2[ &3+ W P[
&++ W % &32 W
&N &N2 W &+[
&/8 W +/2 2/&
W +/&[ 2/% W
+/2[
&+P W 8
&22 W N
&43 W N[
,*B
Weight-
bearing 3-da1
@S P-da1 @
42/P W +/P 48/%
W +/ 42/4 W 2/4
&8 W 3 &8N W
8 &4N W
&++ W P P W P
&&2 W
&/% W +/& 2/+ W
+/2 2/% W +/&[
N4 W 3
N% W P
8P W P
#alues are !eans W S, for -&P ani!als in the pooled weight-bearing group and N-& ani!als in
the respective @S groups/ [ PX+/+8 vs/ weight-bearing control group/
-igures
Dote these rules for choice of figure for!at?
a9 o line diagra!s or scattergra!s if independent and dependent variables are nu!eric=
b9 o bar graphs if onl1 the dependent variable is nu!eric=
c9 o bar graphs or pie charts for proportions/
9 *o not use scanned i!ages of graphs or diagra!s2 because the lines and s1!bols beco!e too
3pi$ell1/3 *raw the figures directl1 in a co!puter2 using preferabl1 PowerPoint2 ,$cel2 or the drawing
window of (icrosoft Word/
9 (a.e sure the fonts and an1 s1!bols are big enough/
9 *o not !a.e figures an1 wider than U&4 c!2 because the1 need to be viewable in a Web-
browser window without the reader having to scroll sidewa1s/
9 When using Word2 paste each figure directl1 into the te$t using Paste SpecialF2 unselect
-loat Over 0e$t2 and paste the! in as bit!aps or drawings/ "lso2 !a.e sure the figure is displa1ed at
&++V si7e and that it loo.s OT when the docu!ent is displa1ed at &++V/
9 Put the figure into the cell of a table2 as shown/ Place the title and an1 footnotes for the figure
in cells above and below the figure/ 0he st1le for this te$t is &&-pt "rial/
9 Place each figure or table i!!ediatel1 after the paragraph that first refers to it/
9 See the e$a!ples :-igures &-3;/
See the e$a!ples :-igures &-4;/ -igure &? 'nfor!ative title for a ti!e series
a
/
-igure 2? 'nfor!ative title for a scattergra!
*ata are !eans/ Aars are standard deviations
:shown onl1 for Groups A and <;/
a
Use
letters to label footnotes2 if necessar1/
Beast-s4uares lines are shown for each
variable/
-igure 3? 'nfor!ative title for a bar graph/
*ata are !eans/ Aars are standard deviations/
*iscussion Section
'n the *iscussion section 1ou should discuss the results/ What biological principles have been
established or reinforcedJ What generali7ations can be drawnJ @ow do 1our findings co!pare to the
findings of others or to e$pectations based on previous wor.J "re there an1 theoreticalCpractical
i!plications of 1our wor.J When 1ou address these 4uestions2 it is crucial that 1our discussion rests
fir!l1 on the evidence presented in the )esults section/ <ontinuall1 refer to 1our results :but do not
repeat the!;/ (ost i!portantl12 do not e$tend 1our conclusions be1ond those which are directl1
supported b1 1our results/ Speculation has its place2 but should not for! the bul. of the *iscussion
section/ Ae sure to address the ob6ectives of the stud1 in the *iscussion section and to discuss the
significance of the results/ *on5t leave the reader thin.ing 3So whatJ3/ ,nd the *iscussion section
with a short su!!ar1 or conclusion regarding the significance of the wor./
G+"#el"e( for effect"ve #"(c+(("o (ect"o( " (c"et"f"c re$ort(-
B+e(t"o( to !##re((4 /o* to !##re(( the)4
Wh!t #o %o+r 9 S+))!r"0e the !ost i!portant findings at the beginning/
ob(erv!t"o( )e!C
Wh!t cocl+("o( c! %o+ -or e!ch !a6or result?
#r!*C 9 De(cr"be the patterns2 principles2 relationships results show/
9 E.$l!" how 1our results relate to e$pectations and to literature cited in 1our 'ntroduction/
*o the1 agree2 contradict2 or are the1 e$ceptions to the ruleJ
9 E.$l!" plausibl1 an1 agree!ents2 contradictions2 or e$ceptions/
9 De(cr"be what additional research !ight resolve contradictions or e$plain e$ceptions/
/o* #o %o+r re(+lt( f"t 9 S+,,e(t the theoretical i!plications of 1our results/
"to ! bro!#er cote.tC 9 S+,,e(t practical applications of 1our resultsJ
9 E.te# 1our findings to other situations or other species/
9 G"ve the big picture? do 1our findings help us understand a broader topicJ
"dditional tips?
&/ 1ove fro) ($ec"f"c to ,eer!l4 1our finding:s; EEF literature2 theor12 practice/
2/ DoDt ",ore or b+r% the )!2or "((+e- *id the stud1 achieve the goal :resolve the proble!2
answer the 4uestion2 support the h1pothesis; presented in the 'ntroductionJ
3/ 1!Ge e.$l!!t"o( co)$lete-
a9 o Give evidence for each conclusion/
b9 o *iscuss possible reasons for e$pected and une$pected findings/
4/ Wh!t to !vo"#4
a9 o DoDt overgenerali7e/
b9 o DoDt ignore deviations in 1our data/
c9 o Avo"# speculation that cannot be tested in the foreseeable future/
PREPARING T/E REFERENCE SECTION
0here are a variet1 of st1les used b1 6ournals for referencing infor!ation/ <itations in the te$t !a1
be referred to b1 nu!ber or b1 author na!e/ 'n the reference section the citations are then arranged
nu!ericall1 or alphabeticall1/ So!e 6ournals have the sub!itters first alphabeti7e the authors and
then nu!ber each/ 0his is a co!plicated s1ste! and one which we will not use/ You !a1 choose to
either nu!ber in se4uence each new reference as it is cited or !a1 alphabeti7e the first authors of
each reference/ While the choice is 1ours2 the easiest s1ste! is the for!er because as 1ou add a new
reference to the te$t it is provided with a nu!ber/ 0his saves 1ou fro! interpreting the nuances of
how to order the alphabeti7ed authors in the latter s1ste! - it !a1 see! trivial but2 for instance2 how
do 1ou alphabeti7e when the list of authors for two papers is identical and in the sa!e 1earK When
reading references provided to 1ou b1 1our !entor2 1ou should loo. at how each 6ournal handles its
references as well as articles published b1 1our !entor/
,$a!ples of <itation -or!ats
Du!bering s1ste!
Second2 the s@SP-associated proteins could be released fro! the @sp&N/N i!!unoprecipitate b1 the
"0P-dependent activit1 of the chaperones *naT2 *naH2 and Grp,2 as has been observed for s@SP-
bound substrates in vitro :]&+2 3&;/
"lthough we found that the plas!a concentration of fructose was onl1 about &C8++ of that of glucose
as a free !onosaccharide2 we e$pected that fructose !ight be co!parable to glucose in ter!s of
!ediating patholog1 through nonen71!atic reactions and downstrea! processes2 because it has been
reported that fructose is !uch !ore reactive in gl1cation than glucose/
&2P
"lphabetical s1ste!
0he e$istence of cr1stalli7ation inhibitors was first observed in the &%N+s/ :Ali7na.ov2 &%N8;
Aecause we de!onstrated that this !olecule e$hibited a potent capacit1 as cr1stalli7ation
inhibitor of calciu! salts in urine :Grases et al/2 &%%N= Grases et al/2 &%%a and Grases et al/2
&%%b;/
Previous wor. had established a direct relationship between pla4ue weight and
precipitation of h1dro$1apatite :<ooper and Sallis2 &%%3 and *e!adis et al/2 2++&;/
Whichever s1ste! 1ou utili7e2 the reference itself !ust include the following?
9 all of the authors listed on the publication :or on the chapter if citing a boo.;
9 the title of the paper :or chapter if citing a boo.;
9 the na!e of the 6ournal :or boo.;
9 editors if a boo. is cited
9 volu!e nu!ber
9 co!plete pagination :first and last page of the wor. cited;
9 1ear of publication
,$a!ples of reference for!ats fro! select 6ournals
"!erican Hournal of Ph1siolog1
Ho+r!l Art"cle(4 #illalobos ")2 Par!elee H02 and )enfro HB/ <holine upta.e across the
ventricular !e!brane of neonate rat choroid ple$us/ "! H Ph1siol <ell Ph1siol 2PN? <&2-<&2%N2
&%%%/
BooG Referece(4 "usubel -(2 Arent )2 Tingston ),2 (oore **2 Seid!an HG2 S!ith H"2
and Struhl T/ <urrent Protocols in (olecular Aiolog1/ Dew Yor.? Wile12 &%%82 p/ 28-2N/
Polloc. *(/ ,ndothelin receptor subt1pes and tissue distribution/ 'n? ,ndothelin (olecular
Aiolog12 Ph1siolog12 and Patholog12 edited b1 @ighs!ith )-/ 0otowa2 DH? @u!ana2 &%%/
Art"cle( P+bl"(he# o the Web4 *udoit S2 Yang Y@2 <allow (H2 and Speed 0H/ Statistical
!ethods for identif1ing differentiall1 e$pressed genes in replicated c*D" !icroarra1 e$peri!ents
LOnlineM/ *ept/ of Statistics2 Univ/ of <alifornia at Aer.ele1/
http?CCwww/stat/ber.ele1/eduCusersCterr1C7arra1C@t!lC!att/ht!l L3 Sept/ 2+++M/
-ried!an D2 Binial (2 Dach!an '2 and PeGer */ Using Aa1esian networ.s to anal17e e$pression
data LOnlineM/ Stanford Universit1/
http?CCrobotics/stanford/eduCpeopleCnirC"bstractsC-BDP&-ull/ht!l L2+++M/
Dote that the date !a1 be general or specific to the da1/
Hournal of <ell Aiolog1
Ho+r!l Art"cle(4 Yalow2 )/S/2 and S/"/ Aerson/ &%N+/ '!!unoassa1 of endogenous plas!a
insulin in !an/ H/ <lin/ 'nvest/ 3%?&&8P-&&P8/
Aenditt2 ,/P/2 D/ ,ric.sen2 and )/@/ @anson/ &%P%/ "!1loid protein S"" is an apoprotein of
!ouse plas!a high densit1 lipoprotein/ Proc/ Datl/ "cad/ Sci/ US"/ PN?4+%2-4+%N/
Arown2 W/2 and "/ Delson/ &%3/ Phosphorus content of lipids/ H/ Bipid )es/ 'n press/
Ol"e PeerERev"e*e# Art"cle(4 Bope7-Soler2 )/'/2 )/*/ (oir2 0/P/ Spann2 )/ Stic.2 and
)/*/ Gold!an/ 2++&/ " role for nuclear la!ins in nuclear envelope asse!bl1/ :Hul1 %2 2++&; H/ <ell
Aiol/ &+/&+3C6cb/2++&+&+28/
Co)$lete BooG(4 (1ant2 D/A/ &%&/ 0he Aiolog1 of <holesterol and )elated Steroids/
@eine!ann (edical Aoo.s2 Bondon/ 2 pp/
Art"cle( " BooG(4 'nnerarit12 0/B/2 */Y/ @ui2 and )/W/ (ahle1/ &%2/ @epatic apoprotein ,
:re!nant; receptor/ 'n Bipoproteins and <oronar1 "therosclerosis/ G/ Doseda2 </ -ragiaco!o2 )/
-u!agalli2 and )/ Paoletti2 editors/ ,lsevierCDorth @olland2 "!sterda!/ &P3-&&/
Phar!acolog1
Ho+r!l Art"cle(4 Sun H2 Toto @2 <hung T-? 'nteraction of o7one and allergen challenges on
bronchial responsiveness and infla!!ation in sensitised guinea pigs/ 'nt "rch "llerg1 '!!unol
&%%P=&&2?&%&]&%8
Art"cle( " BooG(4 Parren PW@'2 Aurton *)? "ntibodies against @'#-& fro! phage displa1
libraries? (apping of an i!!une response and progress towards antiviral i!!unotherap1= in <apra
H* :ed;? "ntibod1 ,ngineering/ <he! '!!unol/ Aasel2 Targer2 &%%P2 vol N82 pp &]8N/
'!!unolog1
Ho+r!l Art"cle(4 Shingu (2 @urd ,)/ Sera fro! patients with s1ste!ic lupus2
er1the!atosus reactive with hu!an endothelial cells/ H )heu!atol &%&= ?8&-N/
^ava7ava (2 @alene (2 Westphal , et al/ ,$pression of (@< class ' and '' !olecules b1 cadaver
retinal= pig!ent cells? opti!i7ation of post-!orte! @B" t1ping/ <lin ,$p '!!unol &%%&= 4? &N3-N
Art"cle( " BooG(4 Tearse TP2 Taplan "(2 <ohen *"/ )ole of cell surface gl1coproteins in
the for!ation of 0-cell? "P< con6ugates 'n? Schoo. BA2 0ew HG2 eds/ "ntigen presenting cells?
diversit12 differentiation2 and regulation/ Dew Yor.? "lan )/ Biss2 &%?22&-34/
#irella G2 Goust H(2 -udenberg @@/ 'ntroduction to !edical i!!unolog12 2nd ,dn/ Dew Yor.?
(arcel *e..er2 &%%+
ANSWERS TO ACTI3EEPASSI3E EIERCISE
& Aefore the se!ester was over2 the <urriculu! <o!!ittee and the Aoard of 0rustees approved
the new nursing progra!/
2 With five seconds left in the ga!e2 one of the pla1ers called an illegal ti!e-out/
3 0he class 4uic.l1 learned2 but then 4uic.l1 forgot2 the lesson5s !a6or points/
4 <haunce15s elderl1 grand!other raised hi! for several 1ears/ :DO0,? 'n the original version
the e!phasis was !ore on <haunce1 and there is nothing reall1 wrong with that/;
8 "n une$pected tornado s!ashed several ho!es and uprooted trees in a suburb of Tno$ville/
:DO0,? 0he original was alread1 active/;
N 0he teacher5s lac. of s1!path1 surprised !e/ :DO0,? 'f the intent is to e!phasi7e 1our
surprise rather than the source then the original version is fine/;
P )aoul avoided tall buildings and !ountain roads because he had such a fear of heights/
SOURCES FOR FURT/ER INFOR1ATION
Websites
http?CCwww/organicworldwide/netCwriting/ht!l
http?CCwww/ag/iastate/eduCaginfoCchec.list/ht!l - Word Usage 'n Scientific Writing
http?CCwww/sportsci/orgC6ourC%%+&Cwghst1le/ht!l - Guidelines On St1le -or Scientific
Writing http?CCwww/!ang/canterbur1/ac/n7CcourseinfoC"cade!icWritingCScientific/ht!
0he Science of Scientific Writing= George */ Gopen and Hudith "/ Swan "!erican Scientist2
#olu!e P
http?CC!ason/g!u/eduCUaricharNClogic/ht! -
Bogical -allacies 'n Scientific Writing= "/ Stephen
)ichardson http?CCwww/star./.ent/eduCwritingCoutline/ht! -
outlines
http?CCbio/winona/eduCdelongC,coBabC2&V2+Suggestions/ht!l -
0went1-One Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers?
http?CCwww/!co/eduClibCinstrClibinsta/ht!l - 'nstructions to "uthors in the @ealth
Sciences
:a plethora of 6ournals;
Aoo. sources
"!erican (edical "ssociation (anual of St1le? a Guide for "uthors and ,ditors2 %th ed/= Willia!s _
Wil.ins? Aalti!ore2 &%%/
"tlas2 (ichel </ "uthor5s @andboo. of St1les for Bife Science Hournals= 'verson2 <her1l2 ,d/= <)<
Press? Aoca )aton2 &%%N/
A1rne2 *aniel W/ Publishing 1our (edical )esearch Paper? What 0he1 *on5t 0each You in (edical School=
Willia!s _ Wil.ins? Aalti!ore2 &%%/
Gehlbach2 Stephen @/ 'nterpreting the (edical Biterature2 4th ed/= (cGraw @ill (edical Publishing *ivision?
Dew Yor.2 2++2/
(atthews2 Hanice )/= Aowen2 Hohn (/= (atthews2 )obert W/ Successful Scientific Writing? a Step-b1step
Guide for Aio!edical Scientists2 2nd ed= <a!bridge Universit1 Press? Dew Yor.2 2+++/
(c(illan2 #ic.1/ Writing Papers in the Aiological Sciences2 3rd ed/= Aedford Aoo.s? Aoston2 2++&/
Pecheni.2 Han "/ " Short Guide to Writing about Aiolog12 4th ed/= Bong!an? Dew Yor.2 2++&/
^eiger2 (i!i/ ,ssentials of Writing Aio!edical )esearch Papers2 2nd ed/= (cGraw-@ill2 @ealth Professions
*ivision? Dew Yor.2 2+++/