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Antonia Savva - Summer Project Corrected
Antonia Savva - Summer Project Corrected
(6)
where
q
j
= the charge measured by the Reader from a Field Dosimeter j
ECC
j
and RCF are as defined above
and K is expressed by:
L
K
D
= (7)
where
L and D are as defined above.
K is measured in gU/Gy
15
From equation (6) the quantity RCF*K is measured in nC/gU and shows a
relation between the dose and the internal units of the Reader. The time between
irradiation and read-out or irradiation and preparation is not important but it should
remain constant. Using the RCF an accurate conversion from charge to dosimetric
units is achieved [8].
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
The materials and equipment used are listed below:
- Harshaw Bicron TLD Reader (Model 6600E)
More details and specification of the reader are presented in Appendix 1.
- TL dosimeters (TLD100)
In total 124 TLD100 cards were used. TLD cards are tacked on pieces of
polystyrene (felizol), using pins, during the irradiations. More details and
characteristics of the TLD100 can be found in theory section 2.3-2.4.
-
137
Cs source
The source is used for the Readers and TLDs calibration and for the study of
the energy response of these dosimeters at high energies (662 keV). For the
specifications of the source see Appendix I.
- Mammography unit (Planmed Sophie Classic)
For the exposure of the TLDs at low energies and the examination of the TL
response at these energies (28 33 keV) a mammography unit is used. For the
specification of this unit see Appendix I.
- Radiography unit (Mecall EIDOS)
For the irradiation of the TLDs at energies between 47 and 120 keV a
diagnostic radiography unit is used. For the specification of this unit see
Appendix I.
To ensure that the dose remains constant, different ion chambers are used for the
measurement of dose at the different irradiation units.
16
- IONEX 2500/3 ion chamber (for the
137
Cs source)
- Radcal Model 10X9-6O (for the radiography unit)
- Radcal Model 10X9-6M (for the mammograpgy unit).
Specifications of these ion chambers are given in Appendix I.
3.2. Methodology
The TLD readers calibration as well as the TLDs and batch calibration are
carried out following the steps given in the TLD readers manual [8]. The
methodology sequence is described below.
3.2.1. Selection of Time Temperature Profile (TTP)
The TTP corresponding to the TLD100 material, shown in Table 3.2.1.1 is set
on the Reader [8].
Table 3.2.1.1: Time Temperature Profile for TLD100.
PREHEAT
Temp (C)
Time (sec)
50
0
ACQUISITION
Max Temp (C)
Time (sec)
Rate (C/sec)
300
13.33
25
ANNEAL
Temp (C)
Time (sec)
0
0
17
3.2.2. Selection of Calibration Dosimeters (CDs)
For the selection of the CDs, the TLDs are annealed in the reader so that any
residual exposure is removed and are then stored in a subdued UV environment at
temperature less than 30 C.
The TLDs are exposed in a Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory at a
dose of 500 mR (= 4380 Gy) using a
137
Cs source (figure 3.2.2.1). The TLDs are
then stored for 30 minutes at a maximum temperature of 30 C, to allow for the
shallow TL peak (peak 1 in figure 2.4.1) to fade out. The time between irradiation and
read-out must remain constant to have for all dosimeters the same fading.
The TLDs are subsequently placed in the reader and read.
The Reader automatically designates the TLD cards as CDs those that fall
within a specified range around the normalized mean value of their response. Usually
this range is narrower than 0.9 to 1.1 (10 %).
Figure 3.2.2.1: Irradiation of TLDs.
3.2.3. Calculation of Reader Calibration Factor (RCF)
For the creation of the Reader Calibration Factor the selected CDs are
annealed, exposed and read repeating the cycle described in 3.2.1. The RCF is
calculated automatically by the reader.
18
3.2.4. Calculation of the Element Correction Coefficients
(ECCs) and Selection of Field Dosimeters (FDs)
The ECCs are generated by repeating for the third time the annealing,
exposure and reading cycle for the rest of the dosimeters (not the CDs). ECCs are
calculated automatically by the Reader (one for each TLD element). The mean value
and the standard deviation for each ECC are calculated.
The Reader automatically designates the TLD cards as FDs falling within a
specified range around the normalized mean value of their response. A typical batch
of FDs has a variation less than one relative standard deviation.
3.2.5. Irradiation procedure
The TLDs are positioned 2 meters from the irradiation source with the aid of a
laser beam. The TLD cards are pinned on a piece of polystyrene support with
dimensions 20 x 20 cm
2
(20 TLDs for each irradiation - see figure 3.2.5.1). The
Figure 3.1.5.1: 20 cards were placed on a block of polystyrene (The maximum distance of a TLD
element from the centre of the irradiation beam is 12.5 cm).
maximum distance of a TLD element from the centre of the irradiation beam is 12.5
cm. The distance between this TLD and the irradiation source is 2.0039 meters (figure
3.2.5.2) which is well within the positioning error for such a calibration set-up. It was
19
assumed that all TLDs are exposed to the same dose independently of their position at
the edge or in the middle of the polystyrene piece.
Figure 3.2.5.2: Diagram showing the positioning error for the TLD cards irradiation with the
137Cs source.
3.2.6. Repeatability
The repeatability of the TLDs is examined be exposing each time 20 FDs
using the
137
Cs source. The FDs are stored for 30 minutes for fading and then are read.
This procedure is repeated 10 times. The mean value of each exposure, the
standard deviation and the standard error of the mean are calculated. The TL response
of the TLDs (relative to the first exposure) is represented in a graphical form as a
function of the number of exposures.
3.2.7. Energy dependence
By keeping the dose constant (4.38 mGy or 4.38 mSv equivalent dose) the
energy dependence is investigated within the energy range for which the TLDs will be
used routinely.
Due to physical limitation the irradiation distance for the mammography unit
is 0.6 m and for the radiography unit 1.0 m.
The TLD irradiations are repeated 4 times for 20 dosimeters per irradiation
using the
137
Cs source and 20 times for 4 dosimeters (see figure 3.2.7.1) using the
mammography unit (positioning error=0.6017 m) and radiography unit (positioning
20
error=1.0010 m), so as to minimize the irradiation distance error from the centre to the
edge in the case of the mammography and the radiography units set-up.
Figure 3.2.7.1: 4 cards were placed on a block of polystyrene (The maximum distance is 4.5 cm).
The mean responses and their uncertainties are calculated. The energy
response of the TLDs is represented in graphical form as the relative response (TL
response/ response of the
137
Cs) as a function of irradiation beam energy. For low
energy photons (mammography unit) the TL response is measured and compared at
two different energy qualities (Rh and Mo anode filtration).
3.2.8. Angular dependence
The angular dependence of the TLD cards is investigated at the same dose and
energy. The TLDs are positioned as for the energy dependence but at an angle to the
direction of the irradiation beam (as an example see figure 3.2.8.1). 5 groups of 4
TLDs, were irradiated by keeping the positions of the TLDs exactly the same for all
the measurements. The measurement was repeated 4 times for each group for each
angle.
The mean responses and their errors are calculated. The angular relative
response (TL response at an angle/TL response at 0) against the angle is given in
graphical form.
21
Figure 3.2.8.1: Irradiation at an angle equal to 10.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Selection of Calibration Dosimeters (CDs)
The reader automatically selects the TLD cards that are within the set selection
limits. Initially the selection limit was set to 0.9-1.1. As all TLDs felt within this limit,
the limit was reduced and the CDs were selected as those within the range of 0.94-
1.06 ( 6%).
The readings for the 124 TLD cards are given in Appendix II. 42 TLDs are
within the selection limits and are designated automatically by the reader as the CDs.
The TLDs that are indicated in Appendix II as bad will be used to select the
FDs that will be used for the repeatability, energy and angular response
measurements.
4.2. Calculation of Reader Calibration Factor (RCF)
The RCF was calculated automatically from the reader and was found equal to
0.034127 and 0.027526 (no units). Two different RCFs were calculated as each card
22
consists of 2 TL elements. Thus the first RCF is for the TLD in position ii and the
second one for position iii. According to [10] the RCF of this reader changes by 1.3%
over 5.5 years proving that its system is reliable and stable. Using the RCF, a
measurement of the charge is automatically converted into dose by the reader (see
equation 6).
4.3. Calculation of Element Correction Coefficients (ECCs)
and Selection of Field Dosimeters (FDs)
For selecting the FDs to be used for the energy and angular dependence of the
TL response a range of 0.7-1.3 ( 30%) of the normalized mean value of the response
was chosen. For the TLD element falling in this range their ECCs were calculated (a
different one for each TLD element). Those falling outside this range were rejected.
These ECCs are used by the Reader to multiply automatically each charge
measurement in order to have a similar sensitivity (efficiency).
According to [10], ECCs follow a Gaussian distribution with mean value equal
to 1. The values of the ECCs of the selected FDs are shown in graph 4.3.1. As ECCs
are correction factors given by the Reader, it was assumed that they do not have an
error.
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
o
s
i
m
e
t
e
r
s
ECC values
Figure 4.3.1: The normal distribution of ECCs.
23
A Gaussian curve is fitted to the ECC distribution (red curve in figure 4.3.1).
This is obtained by using equation
( )
2
2
2
0
c
x x
w
y y A e
= +
given by the Origin
Pro 8 program, where y0=0.620.14, A=30.821.30, xc=1.0010.01 and
w=0.060.01. The measured mean value of the normal distribution (xc) is equal to
1.0010.01 (no units) and is similar to the theoretical mean value. The standard
deviation of that distribution is equal to 0.060.01 (w).
The 57 FDs that are within this range of standard deviation are chosen to be
used for the repeatability, energy and angular dependence response measurements.
4.4. Repeatability
The repeatability of the FDs was checked by irradiating them with the same
dose and energy. The energy was 662keV, as a
137
Cs source was used, and the dose
was equal to 4380 Gy. As badges were not used, there was no filter to separate the
elements for skin or deep dose. The mean value of all the FD responses for each
exposure was calculated with its uncertainty (standard error of the mean). As the
Reader converts the charge measurement into dose using correction factors is was
assumed that the error due to the Reader is very small compared to the error of the
mean value and only this uncertainty is taken into account. As a more accurate value,
the uncertainty of the measured dose assumes to be one standard deviation at 95%
coincidence level instead of the standard error of the mean.
According to [11] the repeatability of the TLD 100 should be within 2%. The
measured dose per cycle, relative to the dose measured in the first cycle, as a function
of the number of exposures [12], is illustrated in figure 4.4.1, showing that the
reproducibility is within the threshold (2%) of all the exposures. The actual
reproducibility observed in this work is about 1 %. The error bars shown in figure
4.4.1 are calculated by adding the errors in quadrature i.e.:
( )
2
2
1
2
1
1
j j
SD D SD
R
D
D
o
| |
| |
|
= +
|
|
\ .
\ .
24
where
SD
1
and SD
j
are the standard deviation of the 1
st
and j exposure accordingly (j=1-10)
and
1
D and
j
D are the mean measured dose (response) of the first and j exposure
respectively.
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
Measured dose relative to the measured dose in the first exposure
Upper limit (+2%)
Lower limit (-2%)
R
e
p
r
o
d
u
c
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
Number of exposure
Figure 4.4.1: The reproducibility against the number of exposures.
According to [13] the ISO requirement is that the Coefficient of Variation
(CV) should not exceed 10%. The CV of each exposure is shown in Table 4.4.1 and
as indicated the CV is less than 10% for all exposures and is calculated by [14]
(%) 100%
SD
CV
Mean
=
Table 4.4.1: CV for 10 different exposures.
Number of
exposures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Coefficient of
Variation (%)
1.4 1.5 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.7
25
4.5. Energy dependence
FDs were irradiated to 4.38 mSv using photons of energies 28 and 33 keV
(mammography unit), 47, 60, 80, 100 and 120 keV (radiography unit) and 662 keV
(
137
Cs source). As the TL signal is proportional to the dose absorbed by the TLD, the
energy response was defined as the TL response relative to the
137
Cs response, at the
same irradiation conditions. Whereas the calibration was carried out using the
137
Cs
source, the accuracy of the measured doses in diagnostic x-ray energies is not affected
[15].
For the measurements of the energy dependence no phantom was used.
According to [16] the relative response of TLDs is similar whether the irradiation is
on phantom or in air.
The energy response relative to the
137
Cs source response is portrayed in figure
4.5.1. The mean response, standard deviation and standard error in the mean for all
the measured energies were calculated. The maximum error for the TL response at
energy j was found using:
2 2
max max j j
SD SD o = +
where
SD
j
is the standard deviation at 95% coincidence level for an energy j
and SD
max
is the maximum standard deviation at 95% coincidence level found from
the repeatability in part 4.4.
The uncertainty of the relative response, indicated by the size of the error bars in
figure 4.5.1, was calculated by adding the errors in quadrature i.e.:
( )
2
2
max max
. 2
j j Cs
E R
Cs
Cs
D
D
D
o o
o
| |
| |
|
= +
|
|
\ .
\ .
where
max j
and
max cs
are the maximum error of the jth energy response and
137
Cs response
respectively
and
Cs
D and
j
D are the mean measured signal of the
137
Cs and j energies.
26
Figure 4.5.1: Energy response (relative to 137Cs response) versus the energy.
Figure 4.5.1 demonstrates the influence of the x-ray beam energy quality by
the points on the graph obtained with the mammography unit by generating x-rays
with the same nominal energy but with different beam filtration, thus producing a
different energy spectrum. In such cases the energy response of the TL material is that
of a specific energy spectrum characteristic of the x-ray beam anode and beam
filtration material used. Molybdenum (Mo) and Rhodium (Rh) filtrations give
different TL energy response due to the different spectra produced by the x-ray tube.
These spectra are illustrated in figure 4.5.2 and 4.5.3 using the XCompW program
[17].
Figure 4.5.2: Mo and Rh filtration at 28 keV.
27
For the radiography unit the same filter (1.7 mm Aluminum-Al) was used. The
respective energy spectra for the radiographic unit are shown in figure 4.5.4. It can be
concluded, therefore, that the energy dependence of the TL materials as used in
Diagnostic Radiology is a function of the energy spectrum (energy quality) and not a
function of the nominal value of the energy used to produce the energy spectrum.
Figure 4.1.3: Mo and Rh filtration at 33 keV.
Figure 4.5.4: Different spectra of incident beams used for Radiography unit.
28
Compared with the energy response curve given from Harshaw TLD-100 [18],
the shape found is similar, although in [18] only one filter is used for low energies.
According to [13] the ISO requirement is that the response should be within
the range of 0.5-1.5 assuming monoenergetic beams. Even so, in this work, for the
energy range of 47-662 keV the TL response is within this range. Using the Mo filter
in mammography unit this requirement is satisfied. With the Rh filter the response at
33 keV is about 1.6 and thus the ISO requirement is not met at that energy.
4.6. Angular dependence
The angular dependence of the TLDs was studied at an incident energy equal
to 120 keV with the radiographic unit where the energy response is constant (figure
4.5.1). The piece of polystyrene was rotated around the central axis of the incident
beam at 10, 30, 50, 70 and 90 degrees in both directions. The clockwise rotation
assumed to be the positive values of the angles and the anticlockwise the negative
ones.
The mean value, standard deviation and standard error in the mean were
calculated for each angle for all the groups of the irradiated TLDs. The TL response
normalized to 0 (TL response at an angle/TL response at 0) as a function of the
angle is shown in figure 4.6.1 using polar coordinates.
Figure 4.6.1: TL response normalized to 0 against the angle.
29
The uncertainty of the angle is estimated to be 1. The maximum error of the
response at each angle is the same as explained in part 4.5 for energy dependence. The
uncertainty for the response normalized to 0 was calculated adding the errors at the
same way as explained in part 4.4 and 4.5.
Figure 4.6.1 shows that the TL response is roughly constant for both positive
and negative angles for up to about 70. The TL response is reduced to about half its
value when the angles become 90 in both directions. This means that when a worker
stands at 90 with respect to the incident beam, the TLDs measure half of the dose
compared to the dose which would be measured at 0.
It is worth pointing out that the small difference in the angular response
noticed in figure 4.6.1 for the angular range of -30 to -65 compared with those of 30
to 65 is due to the decrease in the irradiation distance as the TLDs are closer in the x-
ray tube (see figure 4.6.2). As the dose is proportional to the inverse square of the
distance (1/d
2
), for smaller distance the measured dose is relatively higher [19]. For
longer distances the measured dose is relatively lower as illustrated in figure 4.6.2.
Figure 4.6.2: The difference in distance in which the incident beam travels for 45 .
As reported by [20] the angular response of LiF:Mg,Cu,Na,Si (instead of
LiF:Mg,Ti) is reduced rapidly over 50-60. The main difference is that in [20] badges
were used in order to measure the deep dose. The badges have filters inside them
which affect the TL response of the TLDs. As reported by [21] where no filter was
used and the angular response of TLD 700 was measured, the results are almost stable
and reduced when TLDs are rotated to 90 (vertical).
30
According to [13] the ISO requirement states that the response over all angles
should not be more than 15%. At 90 this requirement is not met as the response is
reduced to about half of its initial value.
The raw data obtained for all the measurements made in this project are given
in Appendix II in Table form.
5. Conclusion
Personal dosimeters (Thermoluminescence dosimeters-TLDs) are worn by
workers every time they are exposed to radiation that is higher than 3/10 of the dose
equivalent limits, to make sure that a reference limit is not exceeded. When TLDs are
heated, they emit light and by measuring it with a PMT inside a reader, the dose is
measured in mGy or in mSv for the whole body.
In this project, the TLD-100, fabricated from LiF and doped with Mg and Ti,
is examined. The reader and batch calibration are carried out first using a
137
Cs
source. Then the repeatability of the TLDs is checked by repeating the same
procedure 10 times using a
137
Cs source. Their energy and angular response are also
studied at different energies and angles respectively, but at a constant dose of the
incident beam, with the aid of a
137
Cs source, a radiography and a mammography unit.
CDs are first selected as they fall within the range of 0.94-1.06. Using CDs the
RCF is calculated automatically by the reader and is found equal to 0.034127 and
0.027526. FDs are then selected falling within the range of 0.7-1.3 ( 30%) and are
used for the rest of the measurements. ECCs are also calculated automatically by the
reader, one for each TLD element, which follow a Gaussian distribution with a
theoretical mean value equal to 1. The measured Gaussian distribution is shown in
figure 4.3.1 and has a mean value of 1.0010.01.
After the calibration the charge measurements are converted into dose with a
similar sensitivity for all the TLDs. Their repeatability is found about 1% which is
31
within the limit (2%) for all the exposures. The maximum CV is measured 1.7%,
much lower than the maximum allowed one (10%).
The energy response is then measured and the curve which is found has
similar shape with the curve of Harshaw TLD-100 (manufacturer). At low energies
two different filters are used (Mo and Rh) producing two different spectra. The
measured responses of the TLDs at these energies with the different filters are not the
same, showing that the energy dependence of the TL materials, as used in Diagnostic
Radiology, is a function of the energy spectrum (energy quality) and not a function of
the nominal value of the energy used to produce the energy spectrum.
The angular dependence is studied using photons of maximum energy equal to
120 keV. The angular response was almost constant for all the angles up to about 70
for both directions and it is reduced to about half its value when the angle becomes
90. Small difference in the angular response (figure 4.6.1) for the angular range of -
30 to -65 compared with those of 30 to 65 is due to the change in the irradiation
distance as the TLDs are closer and further away from the x-ray tube. The ISO
requirement is met at all angles except at 90 for both directions.
Different results, especially for the angular response, were expected to appear
if badges with filters were used, as different spectra would be produced in order to
measure the deep and skin dose. In future work, badges can be used to check if the
response would be reduced for lower angles and not only for 90. Also,
monoenergetic beams could be used as the ISO requirements are referred to them.
Spectra produced by the x-ray tube are continuous energy distribution with the
maximum energy the one used to plot the graphs. Different filters absorb different low
energy photons and thus different spectra are produced, giving dissimilar response. In
such situation a better energy value could be the effective spectrum energy and not the
maximum energy value as used in this project.
Finally, in future work, the TLD elements could be removed from the TLD
cards. As the TLD cards are made of aluminum, the incident beam is absorbed by it
and the response of the elements is affected, especially for higher angles where the
beam hits first on the metal and is partially absorbed before it reaches the TLD.
32
Appendix I Equipment Specifications
Harshaw Bicron Model 6600E Automatic TLD Workstation
The Harshaw Automatic TLD Workstation (Model 6600E) is the reader used
for this project and is used for whole body and extremity TLD measurements. This
projects main interest is for the whole body dose measurements. A non contact
heating system is used which utilizes a stream of hot nitrogen gas. Glow curves and
data calculated, using algorithm software, are shown on an electroluminescence panel
of the Reader. The Reader can be connected to a computer where all measured data
can also be displayed and stored. The PC is connected with a printer for printing the
results [8].
Up to 200 TLD cards can be placed in the reader. Each card consists of four
chips as shown in figure 1. In this project only the two chips for each card are used,
which are made of TLD100. The holders (where the cards are placed in) are made of
two different filters thicknesses, 0.07mm (for skin dose measurements) and 0.1mm
(for deep dose measurements). One corner of the TLD card is notched to make sure it
is placed correctly in the Reader (see figure 1). The holder protects the cards from the
environment and keeps the filtration media which attenuate different types of
radiation in order to ensure selective entrapments of the TLD100. Apart from the
chips, each card has an ID number in barcode and numeric layout [8].
Figure 1: Dosimeter card [8]
33
The Reader holds two cartridges, where the first one is empty and the second
with the TLD cards to be read. When a card is read, is moved to the empty cartridge.
If its barcode can not be read, is moved to a Rejected Card Drawer in order to be
removed at the end of the whole read-out cycle.
Element Correction Coefficients are generated during the calibration and
saved in the reader together with the Reader Calibration Factors. Both are used during
the read-out cycle and the reader provides directly a dose measurement in Sv instead
of charge. A different RCF can be saved for up to ten sets of Time Temperature
Profile (TTP). In a TTP the operator can change the time and temperatures for the
heating cycle (pre-heat, heat and anneal temperatures). During the measurements of
the TLDs, the reader also measures the reference light and the PMT noise, which are
the light produced from the background and the PMT respectively.
A Quality Assurance profile is also displayed to monitor the accuracy of the
operating parameters of the Reader. The option of the electronics Quality Control, in
this menu, monitors a series of electronic measurements from the Card Reader to
identify if the reader is properly adjusted [8].
Instrument specifications [8]
Dynamic Range: 7 decades
TTP reproducibility: 1 C
Light Stability: Less than 0.5% variation
Linearity: Less than 1% deviation
High Voltage: 0.005%
Dark Current (background
noise):
Less than 1Gy
137
Cs equivalent dark current
Warm-up time: Less than 5 minutes
Tissue Equivalent: Nearly tissue equivalent
Throughput: 4 chip dosimeters 60 per hour
2 chip dosimeters 100 per hour
34
TTP Capabilities: Preheat temperature 20 to 200 C
Preheat time 0 to 300 seconds
Acquisition time 10 to 300 seconds
Temperature rate 1 to 50 C/sec
Acquisition temperature to 300 C
Post-read anneal temperature to 300 C
Specification of mammography unit (PLANMED SOPHIE
classic) [22]
Generator Potential 80 kKz (constant)
20-35 kV output
10-500 mAs
120 mA large focus
42 mA fine focus
Computer controlled
X ray tube Rotating anode
300,000 HU Mo target
0.1/0.3 mm foci
Biangular anode
High speed
Be window(1.0 mm)
Mo filter (+ Rh optional filter)
35-11 mA focus
Air and oil cooled
Bult-in spot collimator
C Arm Isocentric movement within -135 to
180 degrees
SID 65 cm
Dual Control panels
Digital display of projection angle
35
Bucky Manual cassette loading and
unloading
18 x 24 and 24 x 30 cm cassettes
5:1 grid ratio
Exposure Control Modes Advanced AEC with Auto-kV
Density control in 15 steps
Compression Efficient patient compression
Easy lock-in facility
Two foot controls plus hand controls
Base Free standing base
Specifications of Medcal EIDOS (radiography unit) [23-24]
DR system Advanced system with grid equipped
and auto-focusing device
Detector Technology a-Si
Resolution 143 m
Detector size 43 x 43 cm
Height 270 cm from the floor
Filtration 1.7 mm Al
Active Area of the detector 43 x 43 (3000 x 3000 pixels 14 bit)
Image Immediately image availability
No film or cassettes
Carbon-fiber tabletop For 90 rotation
Motorized movements Full automated control
Mode Manual
36
Other features High efficiency
DICOM 3 interface
Anatomical programming
Anatomical Tissue Harmonization
DICOM Modality Performance
Procedures Step
Image Stitching
Specifications of
137
Cs source [25]
The
137
Cs irradiation unit used is of the Irradiation type DCI-01-I Institute of
Hungarian Academy of Science. Installed in 1992, with the source activity 1900 GBq
on 01/07/1990. The TL dosimeters were irradiated on the 23/05/2001 in horizontal
beam geometry.
Decay chain of the
137
Cs source [26]
37
Specifications of ion chamber IONEX 2511/3 [27]
Volume 600 cc
Dimensions Height 112 mm (4.4)
Dia. 130 mm (5.1)
Charge sensitivity
Coulomb/Rontgen
1.8 x 10
-7
Weight 850 g (1 Ib 14 oz)
Cable Length 1 m (39.6)
Useful Energy range 40 to 3000 kV
Measuring ranges Provided
Exposure in R
0-1 mR
0-10 mR
0-100 mR
0-1 R
Maximum leakage rate 10 R/min
Maximum exposure rate for greater
than 99% saturation
0.2 R/ min continuous
Energy response Calibration Certificates supplied with
each Ionization chamber specifies the
measured correction factors at
various x and - rays energies.
Connector Precision Electronic Terminations
Limited, Tri-axial, Double screened,
Plug Free Type 201-DS-T3329-
P.T.F.E.
Specifications for Radcall ion chambers [28]
For the low energies (mammography unit) a 6cc Radcall ion chamber was
used (Model 100X9-6M) and for higher energies (50-110 kV radiography unit) a
38
60cc Radcall chamber was used (Model 10X9-6O). Both ion chambers have
calibration factors 1.04 at 98.3 kPa and 25.6 C. Their specifications are identical.
Operating temperature 15 to 35 C
Storage Temperature -20 to 50 C
Humidity Up to 80%
Pressure 60 to 105 kPa
Accuracy 4 % of reading, 1 digit
Repeatability 1 % of reading, 1 digit
40-160 kV Accuracy
40-160 kV Repeatability
22-40 kV Accuracy
22-40 kV Repeatability
Width ( 2ms 5s)
1kV or 1%
0.2 kV
0.5 kV
0.1 kV
0.1 % 0.2 ms measured at 75% of
peak kV
Sensitivity 20 mV/kV
0.5 mV/mA
Output 100
Sample Rate 77 s
3 db frequency 2.3 Hz
39
Appendix II Row Data
Raw Data for the Selection of CDs and FDs and their
calibration factors
40
41
42
43
Due to the large number of measurements only a small sample of data is given
below. The rest of the data records can be found at the Department of Medical Physics
in the Nicosias General Hospital.
44
Data for the Repeatability
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
4396.3 4461.2 4493.6 4576.2 4442.1 4469.9
Exposure 1
4430.1 4514.5
Exposure 4
4437.8 4474.5
Exposure 8
4455.5 4629.7
4471.9 4510.7 4417.8 4557.1 4479.3 4505.8
4459.0 4499.0 4502.2 4530.3 4432.0 4456.9
4346.8 4405.5 4409.1 4397.9 4415.9 4433.9
4417.4 4487.3 4339.7 4455.9 4536.6 4585.7
4370.4 4467.9 4373.1 4390.6 4438.0 4460.1
4400.7 4452.7 4419.2 4482.2 4528.0 4551.7
4456.6 4471.3 4487.7 4552.7 4424.0 4415.9
4398.4 4421.5 4409.2 4473.8 4517.4 4482.1
4454.2 4477.0 4437.8 4475.3 4458.9 4458.6
4277.8 4307.2 4358.5 4439.2 4455.0 4434.3
4390.2 4434.5 4473.8 4410.9 4475.0 4389.6
4344.4 4489.7 4426.3 4374.9 4484.2 4393.3
4361.2 4399.2 4424.7 4460.9 4440.7 4428.6
4297.6 4401.4 4402.3 4398.2 4399.6 4347.2
4390.6 4460.4 4469.3 4459.3 4499.2 4471.8
4472.2 4493.0 4422.8 4367.5 4423.9 4375.0
4491.8 4491.2 4360.4 4474.3 4429.8 4453.3
4385.4 4409.4 4430.6 4466.4 4442.6 4428.6
45
Data for the Energy Response
28 keV (Mo) 33 keV (Mo)
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
6513.6 6706.0 6222.4 6719.0
6486.0 6669.2 6843.0 6948.8
5848.5 6312.9 6034.6 6525.7
5747.9 6314.9 6845.8 7015.1
5706.8 6279.2 6054.3 6573.4
6517.8 6597.7 6060.9 6505.4
6396.4 6663.9 6865.5 6946.8
5819.8 6253.3 6136.6 6602.4
6595.2 6770.6 6809.9 6997.8
5859.2 6295.9 6109.2 6479.5
28 keV (Rh) 33 keV (Rh)
6548.6 7140.5 6150.5 6552.8
7224.0 7411.5 6655.5 6687.2
6522.0 7008.3 5946.4 6309.0
7288.7 7495.7 6685.1 6832.0
6382.4 6930.4 6575.0 6656.6
6525.3 7096.3 6048.6 6520.0
6358.3 6921.0 6678.9 6767.8
7159.4 7341.6 5988.8 6338.8
7378.7 7505.2 6639.0 6622.0
6486.4 7031.8 6574.5 6671.7
47 keV 60 keV
5770.0 6367.3 5270.1 5806.7
6697.6 7132.4 6107.1 6513.4
6832.2 7186.6 5948.7 6427.9
46
5635.1 6277.2 5121.2 5803.5
5684.0 6212.5 5211.5 5759.9
6731.1 7060.9 5120.5 5681.9
5897.2 6321.2 5778.7 6301.9
6606.6 6938.6 5191.5 5741.1
5514.2 5969.9 5976.0 6509.4
5714.8 6189.2 5993.1 6431.0
80 keV 100 keV
5536.1 5928.0 4259.2 4751.3
4711.0 5281.8 4867.7 5373.6
4678.8 5302.5 4857.3 5334.4
5644.6 6007.1 4264.8 4717.7
4822.6 5332.1 4772.3 5245.4
5551.0 5903.8 4180.9 4747.6
4738.0 5218.6 4854.7 5269.1
4577.6 5063.4 4092.1 4672.2
5392.5 5768.7 4248.8 4847.7
5450.4 5813.6 4979.6 5424.1
120 keV
3995.1 4406.0
4546.0 5011.6
4553.8 4960.6
3927.2 4370.3
4682.2 4974.8
4592.6 4898.8
3957.6 4371.0
3905.3 4326.1
3934.5 4398.7
4631.8 5045.9
47
Data for the Angular Dependence
-90 -70
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
Position ii
(Sv)
Position iii
(Sv)
2160.3 2572.2 3859.2 4439.6
1701.6 2025.9 3769.7 4296.0
1859.4 2281.9 4738.9 5078.7
2476.1 2419.8 4302.8 4788.0
1980.3 2498.4 3966.3 4451.5
3316.6 3454.3 3716.5 4175.4
2254.1 2449.8 4738.4 5006.0
2592.6 2415.4 4383.6 4705.2
1770.9 2037.6 4738.7 5094.0
2296.5 2427.2 4478.9 4825.4
-50 -30
4685.7 5055.2 3928.9 4477.8
4409.3 4920.6 4820.0 5063.5
3942.0 4453.7 4462.7 4998.5
4438.2 4785.4 3997.2 4463.7
4780.5 5132.5 4505.9 4836.3
4545.1 4890.5 4801.7 5159.4
3782.6 4271.1 4667.1 5041.2
4558.1 4925.6 4020.3 4484.2
4452.3 4808.9 4554.1 4916.2
4747.9 5133.6 4554.1 4916.2
-10 10
3838.8 4414.8 4101.7 4418.8
4545.4 4879.8 4650.6 4901.3
4415.0 4890.9 4607.0 4993.9
48
3839.8 4297.6 3930.0 4304.1
4575.2 4900.0 3899.2 4358.3
4625.8 4967.7 4691.3 4965.7
4604.9 4922.6 4703.5 4955.0
3861.8 4341.1 3902.9 4343.1
4518.8 4793.2 3837.8 4284.9
4445.1 4788.2 4572.0 4862.7
30 50
4070.4 4644.8 3764.8 4301.8
4602.3 4944.2 4109.6 4683.3
4635.6 5163.4 4570.6 4854.3
3859.8 4344.4 4682.5 5196.6
3966.6 4494.7 3826.4 4283.5
4676.6 5043.7 3972.0 4497.0
4833.0 5205.5 4655.7 4967.6
3879.4 4376.1 4850.5 5216.9
3932.1 4456.4 3970.4 4494.5
4464.9 4826.7 4436.7 4779.6
70 90
4112.7 4675.7 1784.1 1863.8
5411.5 4752.2 2979.9 3178.7
4743.8 5050.0 1905.9 1629.1
3921.4 4289.8 2781.6 3152.5
4058.7 4560.0 1506.9 1886.9
4634.9 4963.2 2483.0 2985.9
4924.5 5235.0 1505.7 2007.5
3970.2 4463.7 2838.1 3029.2
4363.3 4684.5 1520.3 1377.7
4717.1 5019.6 2301.2 2668.2
49
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ECC= Element Correction Coefficient
RCF= Reader Calibration Factor
CD= Calibration Dosimeter
FD= Field Dosimeter
TTP= Time Temperature Profile
CV= Coefficient of Variation
ISO= International Standard Organization
50
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