TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENT

INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME

CARRY OUT AT KAZAURE GENERAL HOSPITAL

JIGAWA STATE

BY
SULEIMAN SANI MUHD
NAS/19/PHY/1010

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE SULE LAMIDO
UNIVERSITY KAFIN HAUSA
 CERTIFICATION
I, Suleiman Sani Muhammad, with the matric number Nas/19/phy/1010,
Department of Physics Sule Lamido University Jigawa State. I write to certify
that I am undergoing six months of the Student Industrial Work Experience
Scheme [SIWES] at kazaure General Hospital from May to September 2023.
This report is written by me, according to what I learned during the training
programme.
 SIWES Supervisor: MALAN LAWAN MUSA YALWA
 SIWES Coordinator: MALAN MUHAMMAD TAJUDDEEN GARBA
 Head of Department: Dr. SANI GARBA DIRMIN IYA
 ABSTRACT
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from
0.01 to 10 nanometers. In the setting of diagnostic radiology, X-rays have long
enjoyed use in the image of the body tissues and aid in the diagnosis of disease.
 DEDICATION
Praise Allah, the almighty who provides us with knowledge, guidance, protection,
and his merciful opportunity granted to me in acquiring experience through my
training programs and his sustainable assistance in writing this report.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am here to express my great rejoicing, respect and gratitude, as well as my
special thanks to my parents, brothers and sisters, and the rest of my friends and
relatives for their current support since my initial courses of the study program,
i.e. B.sc physics.

In this regard, I also wish to express my special thanks to my staff members for
their intellectual support during our work.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................. 2

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... 3

DEDICATION................................................................................................... 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................ 8

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 8

1.0 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES ................................................................. 8

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ................................................... 8

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................... 9

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 9

2.0 BRIEF HISTORY OF KAZAURE GENERAL HOSPITAL (KGH),.......9

2.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF KAZAURE GENERAL HOSPITAL ... 10

3.0 INTRODUCTION OF X-RAY .............................................................. 10

3.1 PRINCIPAL MECHANISM OF X-RAY GENERATION..................... 10

3.2 THE X-RAY MACHINE ....................................................................... 11

3.3 THE INSTRUMENT USED IN THE EXPOSURE ROOM FOR

MEDICAL X-RAY IMAGING. .................................................................. 13

3.4 RADIATION ......................................................................................... 15

3.41 TYPES OF RADIATION .................................................................... 15

3.42 EFFECT OF RADIATION .................................................................. 16

3.5 BASIC X-RAY CIRCUIT......................................................................
16
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER .....................................................................
17
3.6 X-RAY PRODUCTION...............................................................................17

3.7 THE CHEMICAL TANK AND STAGES INVOLVED IN THE

PRODUCTION OF THE RADIOGRAPHS......................................................17
PROCESSING THE RADIOGRAPH................................................................18
3.8 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE DARKROOM FOR PROCESSING A
RADIOGRAPH..................................................................................................20
CHAPTER FOUR.............................................................................................. 23
4.0 RELEVANCE OF SIWES PROGRAMME................................................ 23
4.1 DISCUSSION...............................................................................................23
4.2 RECOMMENDATION................................................................................23
4.3 CONCLUSION............................................................................................ 25
4.4 APPENDIX.................................................................................................. 26
4.5 REFERENCE............................................................................................... 27
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES
The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established by
ITF (Industrial Training Fund) in 1973 to overcome the problem of adequate
practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates.
The scheme allows the student to be out of the class to learn something that will
add more experience related to what they learn during their study and to have a
special relationship between the school and industry /organization to share
experiences anew. It allows students of tertiary institutions to familiarize
themselves and exposes them to the needed experience in handling machinery
and equipment, usually unavailable in educational institutions.
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) has
The following specific aims and objectives:
1. To make students perfect on how to handle experimental tools based on
their advantage through the industry, company, or government
organization
2. To provide an avenue for students in institutions of high learning to
acquire industrial skills and experience during their studies.
3. It sometimes proves the students offer to know where they/they can put
their regard when looking for a job after graduation
4. To allow students to apply their educational knowledge in real work
situations, between theory and practice.
 CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION
2.0 BRIEF HISTORY OF KAZAURE GENERAL HOSPITAL (KGH),
The Kazaure General Hospital Jigawa State was built by his Excellency formal
Military Government of Kano State, Alhaji Audu Bako on 2nd of March, in the
year 1970. It was open for working purposes in the year 1972. It covers at least
12 km in length and breath. It started with the following:

1. Administrative block
2. Physiotherapy Department
3. Radiology Department
4. Record Department
5. Department of Theatre
6. Emergency Department
7. Pharmacy Department and
8. Other Important Sectors
2.1 RADIOLOGY DEPARTMENT: - Is one of the departments in Kazaure
General Hospital (kgh) that exists since the establishment of the hospital, which
provides radiological services for the patients in the hospital. The department
consists of three units, which include;
 The X-ray unit
 The ultrasound unit
 The reception unit
THE X-RAY UNIT
It is a unit in the medical field where medical X-ray imaging called radiographs
are created or taken. The unit is made up of the exposure and darkroom.
Exposure room: This is the room for positioning and exposing the radiograph.
Darkroom: This is a room where exposed medical radiographs are processed.
2.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF KAZAURE GENERAL HOSPITAL
1. To provide the high maintenance of life and health of the liven community
2. To guide learners to have health profession as well as to make people
aware of how to take care of their life
3. To support and develop community health and medical services
3.0 INTRODUCTION OF X-RAY
DESCRIPTION
X-ray or radiography is the oldest and most common form of medical imaging.
An X-ray machine is a complex device used in a variety of circumstances
around the world. With the ability to penetrate hard objects, they are used for
purposes such as airport security check points to see in the back or in the
medical community to look for broken bones or problems within the body
HISTORY OF X-RAY
A German physicist, William Rontgen, is usually regarded as the discovery of
X-rays because he pioneered systematically studying them. However, he was
not the first to have observed their effect. He is also the one who got the name
"X-Ray. “As a result, many referred to this as “Rontgen ray "(x-ray radiography
or Rontgen grams). After their discovery and to this day in some languages,
including Rontgen native Germany, ray overtook popular usage.
3.1 PRINCIPAL MECHANISM OF X-RAY GENERATION.
An X-ray is produced when negatively charged electrons are heated by
electricity, and electrons are released, thereby producing Energy; that Energy is
directed toward a metal plate or Anode at high velocity, and an X-ray is
produced when the Energy collides with the atoms in the metal plate.
CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY: When a high-energy electron collides with an
inner shell electron, both are ejected from the tungsten atom, leaving a hole in the
inner layer. An outer shell electron fills this with a loss of Energy emitted as an
X-ray photon.
 It has the following property
 They are used to capture the human skeleton defect
 They are capable of traveling in a vacuum
 They have shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum
 It undergoes an electromagnetic radiation
3.2 THE X-RAY MACHINE
An X-ray machine has two main components: a ray generator and an image
detection system. An X-ray tube is a height vacuum diode consisting of a
cathode and an Anode; the ray tube generates a stream of electrons by heating a
cathode (tungsten) filament.
 FIG.3 General X-Ray Machine
X-RAY TUBE: It is an electrical device in which x-rays are produced by
receiving electrical energy and converting it into two forms: x-radiation and
heat as the result of energy loss in the electron. There are several components of
an X-ray tube which include the following;
a) Cathode
b) Anode
c) Focal spot
d) Glass envelope
e) Housing
CATHODE: - It is the negatively charged electron consisting of a tungsten
filament, and the tungsten filament has a specific dimension (diameter is 2mm,
length is <1cm). The structure which supports the filament is the focusing cup.
The concave focusing cup is made of molybdenum, which is also a negative
charge, and it helps in repelling electrons that are being released from the
tungsten filament so that these electrons are pushed toward the anode.
ANODE: The anode has a positive electrical charge and attracts electrons when
the exposure button is pressed. The anode is a tungsten disc because of its
thermal qualities. The purpose of the anode is to convert the energy of incident
electrons into x-rays, dissipating heat as a byproduct.
FOCAL SPOT: - It is a very small area on the anode where x-rays are
produced because not all the anode assemblies are involved in the production.
GLASS ENVELOPE: - It is an air-tight enclosure containing the anode and
cathode assemblies.
HOUSING: - It functions as a shield and absorbs radiation except for the
radiation that passes through the window as the useful X-ray beam; it also
encloses and supports the other components.

FIG.4 X-ray Tube

3.3 THE INSTRUMENT USED IN THE EXPOSURE ROOM FOR
MEDICAL X-RAY IMAGING.
These are as follows:
Cassette rectangle or square metallic container used to hold x-ray film (exposed
or unexposed).
 X-ray couch: This is an instrument on which a patient is laid and
positioned for an X-ray exposure.
 X-ray grid: It is the place between the cassette and the patient before
exposing an image, which aids in marking off maps or other images in
the X-ray image.
 Chest stand: This is a vertical structure that a patient would stand up
against while taking a chest X-ray. It uses a small dose of ionizing
radiation to produce pictures of the inside of a chest, neck, skull, etc.
 X-ray marker:-This instrument is attached to a cassette before positioning
a patient on it. Lead markers mark X-ray films in hospitals, clinics, and
other healthcare facilities. Most lead markers come color-coded to denote
right and left on X-ray or radiographic images to assist the radiographer
or radiologic technologist identify the right and left side of the body.
 Cupboard: It is used for storing patient shields and as a dressing room for
patients during image production.

FIG.5 X-ray Marker

FIG.6 X-ray Cassette

3.4 RADIATION
It is the energy that comes from a source and travels through space, or it is the
energy moving through space.
3.41 TYPES OF RADIATION:-There are two types of radiation, namely;
I. Ionizing radiation and
II. Non-ionizing radiation
IONIZING RADIATION: This is a type of radiation that can penetrate
through the skin, such as alpha, beta, gamma, and x-ray.
 Alpha particles travel a very short wavelength and have the least
penetrating power. For example, a paper can stop it (positive charge).
 Beta particles travel a moderate wavelength and have a moderate
penetrating power. For example, it can be stopped by an aluminum foil
(negative charge).
 Gamma rays and x-rays: It is the highest penetrating particle and neutral.
For example, it can be stopped by a lead block (neutral).
NON-IONIZING RADIATION: This is a form of radiation that cannot penetrate
the skin, such as radio waves, microwaves, visible light, ultraviolet, etc.
3.42 EFFECT OF RADIATION
1. It causes cancer in the body of the living cell
2. Low radiation levels are not dangerous, but medium levels can lead to
sickness, headaches, vomiting, and fever.
3. It sometimes affects the fetus contained by the pregnant women
4. High levels can kill you by causing damage to your internal organs. It is
difficult to treat high radiation exposure.
5. Its more sensitive to reproductive systems like females' ovaries, men's
testis, and visions of the human eye
3.5 BASIC X-RAY CIRCUIT
The main X-ray circuit: This circuit supplies power to the tube, modifies
incoming current, boost the voltage to the necessary range of X-ray production,
and permits the radiographer to adjust technical factor so that X-rays are
produced. The main X-ray circuit is composed of three circuits, namely;
THE PRIMARY CIRCUIT (CONTROL PANEL): It is made of the
following;
 Main switch:-Generate power to the x-ray tube
  Exposure switch: Remote control device that permits current to flow
through the circuit.
 Timer switch: It ends the exposure at an accurately measured time.
THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT: It is made of the following;
 Rectifier electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC).
 Transformer passive electrical device transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another. It is used to increase or decrease voltage
levels between circuits. Transformer has a wide range of application in
radiography. The mains voltage is too low to be applied directly across
the X-ray tube, so it is increased using a step-up transformer (the high
tension transformer).
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
I. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER: A transformer in which the output
(secondary) voltage exceeds its input (primary) voltage. It raises the output
voltage and has more turns in the secondary than in the primary coil.
II. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER is a transformer whose output (secondary)
voltage is less than its input (primary) voltage. It reduces the output voltage
and has more turns in the primary than in the secondary coil.
3.6 X-RAY PRODUCTION
X-rays are commonly produced in X-ray tubes by accelerating electrons
through a potential difference (voltage drop) and directing them onto a target
material. The incoming electrons release x-rays as they slowdown in the target
(breaking radiation or bremsstrahlung).
3.7 THE CHEMICAL TANK AND STAGES INVOLVED IN
THE PRODUCTION OF THE RADIOGRAPHS
THE CHEMICAL TANK: The chemical tank is designed basically for the
processing of radiographs and contains four compartments which are as follows;
 Developer solution
 Rinser
 Fixer solution
 Washer
 FIG.7 X-ray Processing Tank
PROCESSING THE RADIOGRAPH
Applying the correct projection exposure factor, etc., is not enough to achieve a
good result of the radiographic examination. Correct professional film
processing is equally important. Many radiographers who utilize manual
processing intentionally over-expose patients and under process the radiograph
to save time, resulting in inferior diagnostic quality radiographs because of
incomplete development.
When an X-ray film has been exposed, it must be processed to promote a
permanent visible radiographic image that can be kept without deterioration for
several years. Processing transforms the latent image into a visible image.
The stages involved in producing a radiograph are as follows;
1. Exposure:-latent (invisible) image created
2. Development:-Converts latent image to black metallic silver (visible
image)
3. Wash (stop bath):-Removes excess developer.

4. Fixing: Dissolves out unexposed silver halide crystals.

5. Washing: Removes products of processing.
6. Dry:-Removes water.
A floating thermometer, timer, and time-temperature chart are essential for
manual processing.
 LATENT IMAGE FORMATION: The latent (invisible) image
formation is the ionization of the exposed silver bromide crystals (by
photon energy that emerges from the patient) occurring in the emulsion
layer before processing occurs. The primary interaction with the bromide
crystals is by Compton and photoelectric interactions, thereby knocking
out electrons. Thus, a physical change occurs when the radiograph is
exposed. When X-ray photons (or light photons) strike the silver bromide
crystals in the emulsion, minute amounts of silver ions are formed on the
surface of the crystal, and bromine is liberated and absorbed by the
gelatin. Crystals are purposely constructed with electron traps (sensitivity
specks) consisting of sulfur impurities but also because of the addition of
silver iodide. Electrons are trapped by the sulfur in the sensitivity specks,
giving it a negative charge. A latent image is produced in the film
emulsion when this situation is created.
 DEVELOPMENT: Exposed radiographs containing a latent image
should be processed as soon as possible as they are more energy-
sensitive. Film packets can only be opened in the darkroom or under safe-
light conditions (in a daylight loader). The developer solution is the first
solution into which the films are placed. The developer chemically
reduces the energized ionized silver bromide crystals by donating
electrons, removing the halides, and precipitating metallic silver in the
emulsion layer. The negative charge attracts positively charged free silver
ions and is reduced to black metallic atoms.
 RINSING PROCESS/STOP BATH: When the film is removed from the
developer, the gelatin emulsion is soft and swollen and contains chemicals,
which are removed by placing the film in a water bath. By rinsing the film
in the water, the soluble chemicals are removed, the development reaction is
stopped, and the alkalinity of the residual developer is reduced.
 FIXING: The acidic fixing solution removes the unexposed and
undeveloped silver bromide crystals from the film emulsion and re-hardens
the emulsion that has softened during the development process. For manual
 processing, if the film is placed in the developer solution for X amount of
time, it should be placed in the fixer for 2X and in the final rinse for 3X
amount of time. “X” is determined by the time-temperature chart.
 WASHING: The purpose of the final wash is to remove residual fixer
chemicals, i.e., acid, thiosulfate, and silver salts, from the film.
Insufficient washing results in the film turning brown as all the chemicals
have not been washed away.
 DRYING: In most offices, films are dried merely by hanging them on a
rack in the darkroom above a drip tray designed to catch the run-off
excess water. Others are fans of drying the film. The fun should not blow
directly on the films. Cabinet dryers are available, equipped with a fan
and heating elements. Do not remove wet radiographs from their hangers
until they are completely dry.
3.8 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE DARKROOM FOR PROCESSING A
RADIOGRAPH
 SAFELIGHT: A light source suitable for a photographic darkroom that does
not fog X-ray films. Darkroom light is a special light source designed to
emit specific wavelengths of light, which provides sufficient illumination
for darkroom workers but does not affect X-ray films or other kinds of
radiographic films being loaded, stored, or developed. The lightor light
bulb usually emits a red light, sometimes known as a safelight or
darkroom light.

FIG.8 Darkroom Safelight

 HANGERS: A device with clamps that secures radiographic films.
 DARKROOM BENCH: It is located on the side of the darkroom and is used
for keeping the x-ray films, hangers, film boxes, and cassettes sent into the
darkroom with exposed films. It must be impossible for splashes of
developers to reach the dry bench or darkroom bench surface. The top of the
dry bench must be large enough to accommodate the largest cassette in use
when opened out. The top surface should be either of wood.

FIG.9 Darkroom dry bench

 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RELEVANCE OF SIWES PROGRAMME
Training is an essential factor in enhancing the efficiency and expertise of the
workforce. The SIWES program prepares the students for the labor market. It has
become an invention phenomenon in human resources development and training in
Nigeria. The relevance of the SIWES program includes the following;
 It provides the student with an opportunity to apply their theoretical
knowledge.
 Industries make good use of students in industrial training to achieve
organizational goals, all for the country's development.
 This program also exposes the students to some realities and practices of
what they were taught while in school, as well as helps them make an
informed decision about their careers in the future.
4.1 DISCUSSION
GENERAL APPRAISAL OF THE PROGRAM
The SIWES program has contributed immensely to my previous knowledge
concerning x-ray imaging examination. I had the opportunity not just to see but
also to work in a darkroom unit, which is the unit where medical X-ray images
are produced and made use of equipment such as X-ray films, safelight, etc.,
thereby exposing me to some practical knowledge with the course of my study
physics.
4.2 RECOMMENDATION
 The following are the ways that will lead to improving the SIWES
program;
 There should be good cooperation between the department and the
industries so that their employers will recognize and train the attaches
and avoid rejection.
 The students should realize that their potential will be discovered through
active participation in the SIWES program, which will lead to their
permanent employment.
 The student and the supervisor should realize the importance of
supervised SIWES to the student in the school, industry, and society.
4.3 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a very
relevant and necessary program because it greatly impacts all tertiary institutions.
From the evaluation, a wide margin in the reality and actualization of SIWES
seems to exist. It is disheartening to note that proper coordination and supervision
of the exercise is the factor limiting the full actualization of the objectives of the
SIWES. This, however, implies that for the student to be fully equipped with the
skills and knowledge required for efficiency in the place of work, all hands must
be on deck. The federal government, through the industrial training fund and other
agencies involved in the SIWES program, should wake up and address the
situation to ensure that the loopholes in the system are covered.
4.4 APPENDIX
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE X-RAY CASSETTE
 The X-ray cassette must be properly handled and maintained for a clear
medical X-ray image. Below are the care and maintainers;
 The cassette should be stored in a dust-free environment to avoid dust
penetrating the screen.
 Do not keep weight on the cassette as this will cause fogged to x-ray
images exposed using the cassette.
 Moisten a cellulose agent, periodically clean the screen and cassette when
dirty, leave the cassette open for approximately 10 minutes, then close it
when dried to ensure quality images.
 The cassette should also be stored in an area of free x-ray radiation and
chemical fumes.
SAVE RULES USED IN THE DARKROOM
 The following are rules used in the darkroom for quality processing of X-
ray imaging.
 All the other lights, except for the safelight, should be off and the door
closed before you start processing.
 The chemicals used during processing can damage the cassette and x-ray
films. Therefore, the darkroom must always be kept clean and tidy.
 The films are kept in dark boxes which must never opened in daylight or
white light; otherwise, the films will be spoiled and unusable.
 Fresh chemicals must be made monthly for sharp and clear x-ray images.
4.5 REFERENCE
An Introduction to Physics, Optics, and Applications, by C.A MacDonald
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2017
Alexander M.O. et al., Assessment of the Availability and Accessibility of
Emergency Obstetric Care Services in Murtala Mohammed Specialist Hospital,
Kano, Nigeria Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care. 29 (1)
35-43
Habib MS. The Kano State Free Maternal Services Programme: Success,
constraints and challenges. A paper presented at the National Conference on
promoting partnership for Scaling up maternal, newborn, and child health
interventions Abuja, Nigeria, 2007
National Population Commission, Nigeria. 2006 national census. [Cited2016
1st July]; Available from: www.population.gov. ng/index.php/publications/140-
population-distribution-by-sex-state-gas and-senatorial-district-2006-census
priority-tables-vol-3.s
www.healthofchildren.com/U-Z/X-Rays.html
www.explainthatstuff.com/xrays.html
www.wikiradiography.net/page/physics+of+the+X-Ray+Tube
www.vetmansoura.com/Radiology/X-RayMachine1,html
www.genesis.net.au/~ajs/projects/medical_physics/x-rays/