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3.1 THE STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBERS 3.1 THE STRUCTURE OF OPTICAL FIBERS
3.2 MODES OF AN OPTICAL FIBER 3.2 MODES OF AN OPTICAL FIBER
3.3 NUMERICAL APERTURE AND 3.3 NUMERICAL APERTURE AND
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
3.4 DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS 3.4 DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
3.5 SINGLE 3.5 SINGLE- -MODE FIBERS: MODE PROFILE, MODE FIBERS: MODE PROFILE,
MODE MODE- -FIELD DIAMETER, AND SPOT SIZE FIELD DIAMETER, AND SPOT SIZE
3.6 NORMALIZED FREQUENCY, 3.6 NORMALIZED FREQUENCY,
NORMALIZED PROPAGATION CONSTANT, NORMALIZED PROPAGATION CONSTANT,
AND CUTOFF WAVELENGTH AND CUTOFF WAVELENGTH
Step Step- -Index Optical Fiber Index Optical Fiber
Typically the core of a single Typically the core of a single- -mode fiber will be mode fiber will be
of the order of 2 of the order of 2- -10 10 m m. .
Figure 3.1 The structure of the step-index optical fiber
Graded Graded- -Index Optical Index Optical
Fiber Fiber
Communications fibers Communications fibers
fall into this category with fall into this category with
usually being less usually being less
than 3 % than 3 %
For many applications, For many applications,
= 2 is the optimum (i.e. a = 2 is the optimum (i.e. a
parabolic profile) parabolic profile) Figure 3.2 Refractive index profile
of the graded-index optical fiber
core

=
a
r
n r n 2 1
1
a r
( ) = 2 1
1
n r n
a r
1
2 1
n
n n
=
TE TE
lm lm
or or TM TM
lm lm
modes modes
The integer The integer l l represents the fact that there will represents the fact that there will
be be 2 2l l field maxima around the circumference field maxima around the circumference
of the field distribution. of the field distribution.
The integer The integer m m refers to the refers to the m m field maxima field maxima
along a radius. along a radius.
Meridional Meridional rays rays
The propagation angles of the skew rays are The propagation angles of the skew rays are
such that it is possible for components of both such that it is possible for components of both
the the E E and and H H fields to be transverse to the fiber fields to be transverse to the fiber
axis. axis.
HE HE
lm lm
or or EH EH
lm lm
depending on whether the depending on whether the E E or or H H
field dominates the transverse field. field dominates the transverse field.
In In weakly guiding fibers weakly guiding fibers, the exact modal , the exact modal
solutions are usually approximated by solutions are usually approximated by Linearly Linearly
Polarized modes Polarized modes, designated , designated LP LP
lm lm
modes modes
Figure 3.3 Propagation constant of the exact fiber
modes plotted against normalized frequency.
Figure 3.4 Intensity
profiles of the three
lowest-order LP
modes.
Reproduced from G.P. Agrawal (1997) Fiber Optic Communica-tions Systems, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York by permission of John Wiley and Sons Inc.
HE
l+1,m
, EH
l-1,m
LP
lm
(l 0 or 1)
HE
2m
, TE
0m
, TM
0m
LP
lm
HE
22
, TE
02
, TM
02
LP
12
HE
41
, EH
21
LP
31
HE
12
LP
02
HE
31
, EH
11
LP
21
HE
21
, TE
01
, TM
01
LP
11
HE
11
LP
01
Exact modes Linearly polarized
Table 3.1 Relationship between approximate LP modes and exact
modes. Source: Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and
Practice, 2nd edn, J M Senior, Pearson Education Limited.
Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education
Consider a graded Consider a graded- -index fiber with a index fiber with a
parabolic refractive index profile (i.e. parabolic refractive index profile (i.e. = =2 2) )
Figure 3.5 Structure of the graded-
index optical fiber

=
a
r
n r n 2 1
1
a r
( ) = 2 1
1
n r n
a r
Figure 3.6 Total internal reflection in a graded-index fiber. Source:
Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and Practice, 2nd edn, J M
Senior, Pearson Education Limited. Reproduced by permission of
Pearson Education
Figure 3.7 Mode trajectories in graded-index fiber. Source: Optical Fiber
Commu-nications, Principles and Practice, 2nd edn, J M Senior,
Pearson Education Limited. Reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education
NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
Critical angle Critical angle
c c
, Acceptance angle , Acceptance angle
a a
. .
Figure 3.8 Acceptance angle of an optical fiber
c c c a a
n n n n
2
1 1 1
sin 1 cos 90 sin sin = = =

1
2
sin
n
n
c
=
NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
Numerical Aperture Numerical Aperture
Figure 3.8 Acceptance angle of an optical fiber
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 1
/ 1 sin n n n n n n
a a
= =
2
2
2
1
sin n n n NA
a a
= = = 2
1
n NA
NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
For skew rays For skew rays
Figure 3.9 The acceptance angle of skew rays. Source: Optical Fiber
Communications, Principles and Practice, 2nd edn, J M Senior, Pearson
Education Limited. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education
2
2
2
1
cos sin n n n NA
a a
= =
Dispersion in optical fibers means that parts of Dispersion in optical fibers means that parts of
the signal propagate through the fiber at slightly the signal propagate through the fiber at slightly
different velocities, resulting in distortion of the different velocities, resulting in distortion of the
signal. signal.
t
0
Emitter
Very short
light pulses
Input Output
Fiber
Photodetector
Digital signal
Information
Information
t
0
~2
1/2
T
t
Output Intensity
Input Intensity

1/2
~2

For a given pulse broadening, For a given pulse broadening, . . If pulses are not to If pulses are not to
overlap, then the maximum pulse broadening must be a overlap, then the maximum pulse broadening must be a
maximum of half of the transmission period, maximum of half of the transmission period, T T . .
The bit rate The bit rate B B
T T
, , is is 1/ 1/T T
Some texts use a more conservative rule of thumb, Some texts use a more conservative rule of thumb,
making making B B
T T

For a For a gaussian gaussian pulse, with an pulse, with an r.m.s r.m.s. width . width . . A typical A typical
rule of thumb is rule of thumb is B B
T T
0.2/ 0.2/
T
2
1

2
1

T
B

Intermodal Intermodal dispersion is a result of the different dispersion is a result of the different
propagation times of different modes (different propagation times of different modes (different m m) within a ) within a
fiber. fiber.
Low order mode High order mode
Cladding
Core
Light pulse
t
0
t
Spread,
Broadened
light pulse
Intensity
Intensity
Axial
Schematic illustration of light propagation in a slab dielectric waveguide. Light pulse
entering the waveguide breaks up into various modes which then propagate at different
group velocities down the guide. At the end of the guide, the modes combine to
constitute the output light pulse which is broader than the input light pulse.
The fastest and slowest modes possible in such a fiber The fastest and slowest modes possible in such a fiber
will be the axial ray, and the ray propagating at the critical will be the axial ray, and the ray propagating at the critical
angle angle
c c
. ( . ( sin sin
c c
= = n n
2 2
/ /n n
1 1
) )
Figure 3.10 The origin of modal dispersion
In a multimode fiber, generally In a multimode fiber, generally
c
Ln
n c
L
t
1
1
min
/ velocity
distance
= = =
c
c
n
c
L
n c
L
t

sin /
sin /
1
1
max
= =
2
2
1
1
max
/
sin /
n
n
c
L
n c
L
t
c
= =

or
is the relative refractive index is the relative refractive index ( (n n
1 1
- -n n
2 2
)/ )/n n
1 1
For n For n
1 1
n n
2 2
If we let If we let = 0.01 and = 0.01 and n n
1 1
= 1.49. Hence = 1.49. Hence = =
49.6 ns/km. The maximum bit rate becomes 49.6 ns/km. The maximum bit rate becomes
10 10 Mbit/s Mbit/s km km
=

= = =
2
2
1
1
2 1
2
2
1 1
2
2
1
min max
n
n
c
L
n
n n
n
n
c
L
c
Ln
n
n
c
L
t t t
si

c
Ln
t
si

=
1

2
1
=
T
B
n
1
n
2
2
1
3
n
O
n
1
2
1
3
n
n
2
O
O' O''
n
2
(a) Multimode step
index fiber. Ray paths
are different so that
rays arrive at different
times.
(b) Graded index fiber.
Ray paths are different
but so are the velocities
along the paths so that
all the rays arrive at the
same time.
2
3
For graded For graded- -index multimode fiber, the velocity of the ray index multimode fiber, the velocity of the ray
is inversely proportional to the local refractive index, it is inversely proportional to the local refractive index, it
can be shown that can be shown that
If we let If we let = 0.01 and = 0.01 and n n
1 1
= 1.49. Hence = 1.49. Hence = 62 = 62 ps ps/km. /km.
The maximum bit rate becomes The maximum bit rate becomes
8 8 Gbit/s Gbit/s km km
c
Ln
t
gi
8
2
1

=
2
1
=
T
B
Different spectral components Different spectral components
of the light source may have of the light source may have
different propagation delays, different propagation delays,
and hence pulse broadening and hence pulse broadening
may occur, even if transmitted may occur, even if transmitted
by a single mode. by a single mode.
y
E(y)
Cladding
Cladding
Core

2
>
1
1
>
c

2
<
1

1
<
cut-off
v
g1
y
v
g2
> v
g1

t
Spread,
t
0

Spectrum,

1

2

o
Intensity
Intensity Intensity
Cladding
Core
Emitter
Very short
light pulse
v
g
(
2
)
v
g
(
1
)
Input
Output

Phase velocity Phase velocity

Group velocity Group velocity
Traveling time required for each frequency Traveling time required for each frequency
(wavelength) component (wavelength) component
Hence Hence
Thus Thus
/ =
p
v
/ =
g
v
g
v L/ =
2
2

g
v
L
1

2
For
1
<
2

2
Vg
Vp
2
Vp
1

1
&
2

1
&
2
Zero dispersion D = 0, Vp
1
= Vp
2
(Light Packet at the same speed Vg = Vp)
Normal dispersion D < 0, Vp
1
< Vp
2
(Slow Light Packet Vg < Vp)
Anomalous dispersion D> 0, Vp
1
> Vp
2
(Fast Light Packet Vg > Vp)
For
1
<
2
Delay time for a pulse with a specific frequency Delay time for a pulse with a specific frequency
bandwidth bandwidth
Group velocity dispersion (GVD) parameter, Group velocity dispersion (GVD) parameter, D D
ps/(km ps/(km nm nm). ).
Thus Thus

= L
ch
2
2
= L D
ch

=
2
2
2
2

c
D
There are two main contributions to chromatic There are two main contributions to chromatic
dispersion: dispersion:
Material dispersion. Material dispersion. The refractive index of any The refractive index of any
medium is a function of wavelength, and hence medium is a function of wavelength, and hence
different wavelengths that see different refractive different wavelengths that see different refractive
indices will propagate with different velocities, indices will propagate with different velocities,
resulting in resulting in intramodal intramodal dispersion. dispersion.
Waveguide dispersion. Waveguide dispersion. Even if the refractive index is Even if the refractive index is
constant, and material dispersion eliminated, the constant, and material dispersion eliminated, the
propagation constant propagation constant would vary with wavelength would vary with wavelength
for any waveguide structure, resulting in for any waveguide structure, resulting in intramodal intramodal
dispersion. dispersion.
Total chromatic dispersion Total chromatic dispersion D D is the sum of the material is the sum of the material
dispersion dispersion D D
M M
and the waveguide dispersion and the waveguide dispersion D D
w w
. .
There is zero dispersion close to 1.31 There is zero dispersion close to 1.31 m m ( (
ZD ZD
) in glass ) in glass
optical fiber. optical fiber.
Figure 3.11 The variation in chromatic dispersion with wavelength.
Intramodal Intramodal (Chromatic) Dispersion (Chromatic) Dispersion
in Dispersion in Dispersion- -modified Single modified Single- -mode Optical Fiber mode Optical Fiber
The contribution of waveguide dispersion is dependent on fiber The contribution of waveguide dispersion is dependent on fiber
parameters such as refractive indices and core diameter. parameters such as refractive indices and core diameter.
Dispersion shifted fibers Dispersion shifted fibers: : shift shift
ZD ZD
typically to 1.55 typically to 1.55 m m, where the , where the
optical loss of optical fiber is a minimum. optical loss of optical fiber is a minimum.
Dispersion flattened fibers Dispersion flattened fibers: the total chromatic dispersion is relatively : the total chromatic dispersion is relatively
small over the wavelength range 1.3 small over the wavelength range 1.3- -1.6 1.6 m m. .
Figure 3.12 Dispersion-shifted and dispersion-flattened fibers.
Intramodal Intramodal (Chromatic) Dispersion (Chromatic) Dispersion
in Single in Single- -mode Optical Fiber mode Optical Fiber
For dispersion flattened single For dispersion flattened single- -mode optical fiber, mode optical fiber,
operated near operated near
ZD ZD
, e.g. , e.g. D D = = 1 1 ps/(nm ps/(nm km km) )
500 500 Gbit/s Gbit/s km km
Comparison Comparison
SI MM fiber SI MM fiber B B
T T
10 10 Mbit/s Mbit/s km km
GI MM fiber GI MM fiber B B
T T
8 8 Gbit/s Gbit/s km km
SI SM fiber SI SM fiber B B
T T
500 500 Gbit/s Gbit/s km km
ch

=
T
B
SINGLE SINGLE- -MODE FIBERS: MODE PROFILE, MODE FIBERS: MODE PROFILE,
MODE MODE- -FIELD DIAMETER, AND SPOT SIZE FIELD DIAMETER, AND SPOT SIZE
Cylindrical coordinates Cylindrical coordinates
( (r, r, and and z z) )
exp exp j j z z
exp exp jm jm
J J
m m
( (r r), ), K K
m m
( (r r) )
Cartesian coordinates Cartesian coordinates
( (x, y x, y and and z z) )
exp exp j j z z
exp exp jmx jmx or or indep indep. of . of x x
cos cos k k
ym ym
y y, exp , exp - -k k
ym ym
y y
Figure 3.13 (a) Variation of the first four Bessel functions. (b) Variation of the
first two modified Bessel functions.
) ( exp ) , ( z t j r E E
lm lm LP
=
) ( exp ) ( z t j y E E
m m m
=
MODE PROFILE MODE PROFILE
J J
0 0
( (r r), ), K K
0 0
( (r r) )
Figure 3.14 Field shape of the fundamental mode of a step-index fiber, for
normalized frequencies of V = 1.5 and V = 2.4.
Mode Field Diameter = Mode Field Diameter = 2 2w w
0 0
Spot size = Spot size = w w
0 0
Figure 3.15 Approximation to the fundamental mode, showing the mode-field
diameter (MFD) and the spot size w
0
V
V
a w
1
2 2
0
+
=
Normalized Frequency: Normalized Frequency: V V number number
Normalized propagation constant: Normalized propagation constant: b b
a a: fiber core radius : fiber core radius
: relative refractive index difference : relative refractive index difference

0 0
operating wavelength operating wavelength
= = 2
2 2
1
0
2
2
2
1
0
an n n a V

=
2
1
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
0
2
/ /
n
n k
n n
n k
b

Figure 3.16 Propagation constant of the exact fiber modes
plotted against normalized frequency.
2.405
Fitting curve for LP Fitting curve for LP
01 01
Cut Cut- -off Condition for Single Mode Fiber off Condition for Single Mode Fiber
V V
c c
= 2.405 for step = 2.405 for step- -index fibers index fibers

c c
/ /
0 0
= = V V/ /V V
c c
. .
= 2
2
1
c
c
an
V

405 . 2
0
c

V
=
) 5 . 2 5 . 1 (
996 . 0
1428 . 1
2
< <

V
V
b