Sociological Theories of Human Emotions

SocioIogicaI TIeovies oJ Hunan Enolions
AulIov|s) JonalIan H. Tuvnev and Jan E. Slels

Bevieved vovI|s)
Souvce AnnuaI Beviev oJ SocioIog, VoI. 32 |2006), pp. 25-52
FuIIisIed I Annual Reviews
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Annu. Bev. SocioI. 2006. 3225-52
doi 10.11467annuvev.soc.32.061604.123130
CopvigIl |c)
2006
I
AnnuaI Bevievs. AII
vigIls
vesevved
Fivsl
puIIisIed
onIine as a Beviev in Advance on MavcI 23, 2006
SocioIogicaI TIeovies
oJ Hunan Enolions
JonalIan
H. Tuvnev and
Jan
E. Slels
Bepavlnenl oJ SocioIog, Univevsil oJ CaIiJovnia, Bivevside, CaIiJovnia
92521:
enaiI
JonalIan,
luvnev O ucv.
edu, jan.
slels O ucv. edu
Ke
Wovds
aJJecl, enolions,
lIeov
? AIslvacl Ovev lIe
pasl
lIvee
decades,
Jive
genevaI
lIeovelicaI
appvoacIes
lo un?
devslanding
lIe
dnanics
oJ Iunan enolions Iave
enevged
in
socioIog
dvanaluv?
gicaI lIeovies, snIoIic
inlevaclionisl
lIeovies,
inlevaclion viluaI
lIeovies, povev
and
slalus
lIeovies,
and
excIange
lIeovies. We veviev eacI oJ lIese
appvoacIes. Bespile
lIe
pvogvess
nade
I
lIese
lIeovies,
sevevaI issues venain unvesoIved lIe naluve oJ
enolions,
JeeIing,
and
aJJecl:
lIe
degvee
lo vIicI enolions ave
IioIogicaII
Iased ov
sociaII
conslvucled:
lIe
gap
Ielveen sociaI
pscIoIogicaI
lIeovies on enolions and
nacvoslvucluvaI
lIeovizing:
and lIe
veIaliveI
navvov
vange
oJ enolions
lIeovized,
cou?
pIed
vilI an
equaII
navvov Jocus on lIe slvucluvaI and cuIluvaI condilions
pvoducing
lIese enolions.
INTBOBUCTION
Aside Jvon
CooIe |1964 [1902]),
lIe
Jounding socioIogisls
did nol
pvovide nan
lIeovelicaI Ieads Jov
anaIzing
enolions,
and lIus il sIouId nol Ie
suvpvising
lIal
lIe
socioIog
oJ enolions did nol
enevge
unliI lIe Iasl decades oJ lIe lvenlielI
cenluv. Bespile
lIis Iale
slavl, Iovevev,
lIe
slud
oJ enolions Ias acceIevaled ovev
lIe
pasl
lIvee
decades,
as can Ie seen
I consuIling
eavIiev vevievs and
conpiIalions
oJ
socioIogicaI
veseavcI and
lIeovizing
on enolions
|e.g., Kenpev
1990,
SnilI
Lovin
1995,
Slels
2003,
Tuvnev & Slels
2005). Nov,
il is
possiIIe
lo isoIale a sel oJ
expIicil appvoacIes
lo
undevslanding
Iunan
enolions,
incIuding dvanaluvgicaI,
snIoIic inlevaclionisl,
inlevaclion
viluaI, povev
and
slalus,
and
excIange
lIeovies
oJ enolionaI
dnanics.
In a
vev
veaI sense,
socioIog
Ias nade
up
Jov lIe Iosl
decades oJ lIe lvenlielI
cenluv
vIen
vev
IillIe lIeovelicaI and
enpivicaI
vovI
on enolions vas conducled.
Indeed,
lIe
anaIsis
oJ enolions can nov Ie seen as
one oJ lIe
culling edges
oJ lIeovelicaI vovI in
socioIog.
In lIis
veviev,
ve Jivsl
exanine lIe nain Iines oJ
socioIogicaI lIeovizing,
vilI an
ee
lo
exlvacling
lIe
vovIing genevaIizalions
lIal
guide
veseavcI vilIin eacI lIeovelicaI
pevspeclive.
We lIen oulIine sone oJ lIe
pvoIIens
in cuvvenl lIeovies. We concIude vilI sone
lIougIls
as lo Iov lo IuiId cunuIalive
lIeov
in lIe
socioIog
oJ enolions.
0360-0572/06/0811-0025$20.00 25
26 TUBNEB
?
STETS
FIVE THEOBETICAL FEBSFECTIVES ON
HUMAN EMOTIONS
BvanaluvgicaI
TIeovies
BvanaluvgicaI
lIeovies
enpIasize
lIal individuaIs naIe dvanalic
pvesenlalions
and
engage
in
slvalegic
aclions divecled
I
a cuIluvaI
scvipl. AIlIougI
lIe levni?
noIog
vavies
anong
diJJevenl
lIeovisls,
lIe cuIluvaI
scvipl guiding
aclion incIudes
ideoIogies,
novns and
vuIes,
Iogics,
vocaIuIavies,
and
inpIicil
slocIs oJ
InovIedge
aIoul vIicI
JeeIings
sIouId Ie
expevienced
and
expvessed
in
episodes
oJ Jace-lo
Jace inlevaclion. Aclovs
pvesenl
seIJ in
slvalegic vas, enilling
lIe enolions lIal
ave diclaled
I
enolion
ideoIogies
and vuIes. WIen
necessav,
aclovs dvav
upon
lIe cuIluvaI vocaIuIavies and
Iogics
lIal deJine Iov enolions sIouId Ie
expvessed.
IndividuaIs
ave,
in
essence, dvanalic aclovs on a
slage pIaing pavls
diclaled
I
cuIluve, and,
IiIe aII
lIealev,
lIe
ave
given
sone dvanalic Iicense in Iov
lIe pIa
voIes,
as
Iong
as
lIe
do nol deviale loo Jav Jvon lIe enolionaI
scvipl pvovided I
cuIluve.
WIen individuaIs do IveaI vuIes oJ
JeeIing
and
dispIa, lIe expevience negalive
enolions,
pavlicuIavI
enIavvassnenl and sIane
|OoJJnan 1967,
ScIeJJ
1988),
and
lIe
Iecone
IigII
nolivaled lo
vepaiv
lIeiv IveacI oJ cuIluvaI
pvescviplions
and
pvoscviplions.
To avoid
IveacIes,
individuaIs
enpIo
lIe
appvopviale
eno?
lionaI vocaIuIavies and
snlax |Oovdon 1989,
BosenIevg 1991)
lo convince IolI
lIenseIves and olIevs lIal
lIe
ave indeed
aIiding I JeeIing
vuIes and
dispIa
vuIes
|HocIscIiId 1979,1983).
Fevsons aIso
consciousI nanipuIale
JaciaI
expves?
sions,
Jovns oJ
laII,
and
gesluves
lo suslain an
inpvession
lIal
JeeIing
and
dispIa
vuIes ave
Ieing
nel.
TIe
aIso use
pIsicaI pvops
sucI as
cIolIing
ov
oIjecls
on
lIe
inlevpevsonaI slage
lo connunicale lo olIevs lIal
lIe
ave
adIeving
lo enolion
ideoIogies
and novns.
IndividuaIs ave
nol, Iovevev,
vieved as
ligIlI pvogvanned I
cuIluve.
Inslead,
dvanaluvgicaI
lIeovies aII
enpIasize
lIal
pevsons engage
in a considevaIIe anounl
oJ
expvessive nanipuIalion aIong
sevevaI Jvonls. One souvce oJ
nanipuIalion
is lo
use enolionaI
dispIas
lo con olIevs in conJidence
ganes
oJ
vaving nagnilude
|OoJJnan 1961, 1967).
AnolIev
nanipuIalive slvaleg
is lo use enolions lo
gain
olIev vesouvces in nicvoecononic
excIanges.
Fov
exanpIe,
in CIavI's
|1997)
con?
cepluaIizalion
oJ
snpalI,
individuaIs oJJev
snpalI
lo olIevs in
excIange
Jov
anolIev vaIued enolionaI
vesouvce,
sucI as
gvalilude.
CIavI aIso
poinls
oul lIal
aclovs
nanipuIale
enolionaI
dispIas
in
ganes
oJ
nicvopoIilics
lo
gain povev
in
an inlevaclion. SIe
avgues
lIal lIe oJJev oJ
snpalI,
Jov
inslance,
is oJlen used
lo eslaIIisI
supeviovil
ovev lIose vIo veceive
snpalI. VivluaII
aII enolions
can Ie
slvalegicaII
used in lIis nannev Iecause individuaIs Iave lIe
capacil
Jov
expvessive
conlvoI oJ lIeiv
enolions,
using
lIe
dispIa
oJ enolions on
slage
lo
gain
vesouvce
advanlages
ovev olIevs. As OoJJnan
|1959, 1967) enpIasized, Iovevev,
vIen individuaIs cannol suslain
expvessive
conlvoI and vioIale lIe cuIluvaI
scvipl,
lIe
Iose Jace and nusl naIe viluaI
apoIogies
lIal veduce lIeiv
pveslige
and
povev
in an encounlev.
SOCIOLOOICAL THEOBIES OF HUMAN EMOTIONS 27
BvanaluvgicaI
lIeovies aIso
enpIasize
lIal individuaIs nusl
nanage
enolionaI
dispIas
vIen sociaI slvucluves and lIe cuIluvaI
scvipl
associaled vilI lIese slvuc?
luves
genevale disconlinuil
Ielveen vIal
peopIe
JeeI and vIal
lIe
nusl ex?
pvess
lo olIevs in lIeiv audience. Fov
inslance,
HocIscIiId's
|1983,1990),
TIoils's
|1990, 1991),
and
BosenIevg's |1990, 1991) vespeclive appvoacIes
aII slvess lIal
individuaIs ave oJlen
caugIl
in a conJIicl Ielveen lIe enolion
ideoIogies, JeeIing
vuIes,
and
dispIa
vuIes on lIe one side and lIeiv acluaI enolionaI
expeviences
on
lIe olIev. WIen
discvepancies
Ielveen
JeeIings
and
JeeIing
vuIes
exisl,
lIe dis?
cvepanc genevales
a nev Iind oJ
negalive
enolionaI
avousaI,
aIove and
Ieond
lIe enolions
iniliaII expevienced. TIus,
a
pevson
vIo JeeIs sad in a silualion
denanding
lIe
expvession
oJ
Iappiness na
aIso Iecone
angv
al
Iaving
lo
ap?
peav Iapp,
lIus
valcIeling up
lIe enolionaI
inlensil |sadness pIus angev)
and
Jovcing
lIis
pevson
lo
engage
in even nove
expvessive
conlvoI lo neel cuIluvaI
expeclalions.
Socielies
veveaIing IigI
IeveIs oJ slvucluvaI
diJJevenlialion,
IigI
vales oJ
noIiIil
acvoss
posilions
and
voIes,
and nedialion oJ sociaI veIalions
lIvougI
navIels ave lIe
nosl
IiIeI
lo
genevale discvepancies
Ielveen acluaI
JeeIings
and lIe diclales oJ lIe
enolion cuIluve
|HocIscIiId 1983).
Fov
exanpIe,
navIel veIalions Ielveen seIIevs
and
Iuevs
denand
IigI
IeveIs oJ enolionaI
nanagenenl
Jvon seIIevs oJ
goods
and
sevvices:
divevse suIcuIluvaI aJJiIialions can
pul
individuaIs in cuIluvaI conJIicls
ovev Iov lo
dispIa enolions:
conpIex
slalus-sels can
pIace pevsons
in enolionaI
conJIicl: sslens
oJ
aulIovil
avouse
negalive
enolions in suIovdinales lIal nusl
Ie
conlvoIIed:
ov
vigid
vuIes in lIe nane oJ
eJJicienc
and
quaIil
conlvoI oJlen Iave
lIe sane eJJecl as
sslens
oJ
aulIovil
Jov lIose vIo nusl
oIe
lIese vuIes. TIese
and
nan
olIev silualions
sslenalicaII genevaled I
diJJevenlialion and navIels
vequive
individuaIs lo
engage
in vIal HocIscIiId
|1983)
levns enolion vovI.
SevevaI lIeovies Iisl lIe enolion
nanagenenl slvalegies
avaiIaIIe lo individuaIs
caugIl
in a silualion in vIicI
lIe
nusl
engage
in enolion vovI. Sone oJ lIese
ave Iisled in TaIIe 1.
In
sun,
dvanaluvgicaI
lIeovies
enpIasize
lIe
inpovlance
oJ cuIluve in
deJining
vIicI enolions ave lo Ie
expevienced
and
expvessed
in silualions. TIe enolion
cuIluve conslvains lIe aclions oJ individuaIs on a
slage
in Jvonl oJ
audiences,
and
el
individuaIs do Iave sone
degvee
oJ
JIexiIiIil
lo
engage
in
slvalegic
aclions. In
Jacl,
lIe
oJlen use
enolionaII
Iaden
expvessive
IeIaviov in eJJovls lo
nanipuIale
audiences aIoul lIeiv
sincevil
and
concevn,
lo exlvacl vaIued vesouvces in
ganes
oJ
nicvoecononics,
ov lo
gain povev
ovev olIevs in
ganes
oJ
nicvopoIilics. Yel,
lIese sane aclovs ave oJlen
caugIl
in a conJIicl Ielveen
JeeIing ideoIogies
and
vuIes on lIe one side and lIeiv acluaI
JeeIings
on lIe olIev. As a
vesuIl,
lIe
nusl
engage
in enolion-vovI
slvalegies
lo veduce lIe
degvee
oJ
discvepanc
Ielveen
JeeIings
and
JeeIing
vuIes. TIe
genevaIizalions
lIal
guide dvanaluvgicaI lIeovizing
and veseavcI can lIus Ie sunnavized as JoIIovs
1. TIe nove
povevJuI
lIal lIe enolion cuIluve is in a
silualion,
lIe nove indi?
viduaIs nusl
engage
in
inpvession nanagenenl
oJ lIeiv enolions
lIvougI
|a) expvessive
conlvoI oJ
Jace, voice,
and
Iod
and
|I)
use oJ
pIsicaI pvops.
28 TUBNEB
?
STETS
TABLE 1 Enolion-vovI
slvalegies
BeIaviovaI
slvalegies
1. Becile enolion
vocaIuIav
and
snlax
diclaled
I
enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
2.
Engage
in
Iod
vovI sucI as veIaxalion
|ov
ils
opposile)
lIal can avouse lIe enolions
diclaled
I
lIe enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
3.
Engage
in suvJace
acling I enilling expvessive gesluves
consislenl vilI lIe enolion
ideoIog
and novns lo avouse
cuIluvaII appvopviale
enolions.
4. Use
dvugs |and
olIev
suIslances)
ov exevcise lo
genevale appvopviale JeeIings
ov,
aIlevnaliveI,
lo dininisI
inappvopviale JeeIings.
5. BeIease lvue
JeeIings,
even iJ
lIe
vioIale lIe diclales oJ enolion
cuIluve,
in an eJJovl lo
vedeJine lIe silualion and vecaIiIvale lIe enolion cuIluve.
6. SeeI
IeIp
and advice Jvon olIevs on Iov lo
nanage
enolions.
7. Leave lIe silualion lIal
genevales discvepancies
Ielveen acluaI
JeeIings
and diclales oJ
enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
Cognilive slvalegies
1. InvoIe
lIougIls
and ideas associaled vilI lIe enolions denanded
I
lIe enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
2. Use nedilalion ov
Ipnosis
lIal can avouse lIe enolions diclaled
I
lIe cuIluve.
3. Avouse
lIvougI deep acling
lIe enolions diclaled
I
lIe enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
4. CaII
up lIougIls
and enolions lIal dislance seIJ Jvon lIe conJIicl Ielveen lIe cuIluvaI
expeclalions
and acluaI
JeeIings.
5.
Bepvess negalive
enolions and venove lIen Jvon conscious veJIeclion.
6. Fanlasize aIoul
possiIIe
aIlevnalives lo lIe conJIicl Ielveen cuIluvaI
expeclalions
and
acluaI
JeeIings,
ov,
aIlevnaliveI,
visuaIize soIulions lo lIe conJIicl.
7.
FscIoIogicaII
vilIdvav Jvon lIe silualion lo nasI lIe
discvepancies
Ielveen acluaI
JeeIings
and diclales oJ enolion
ideoIog
and novns.
Souvces HocIscIiId
|1983), BosenIevg |1991),
TIoils
|1990).
2. TIe nove lIal individuaIs
engage
in
oJ
enolions,
lIe
gvealev
is
|a)
lIe
polenliaI
Jov
slvalegic
use oJ enolionaI
dispIas
in
ganes
oJ
conJidence, nicvoecononics,
and
nicvopoIilics
and
|I)
lIe
polenliaI
lIal
individuaIs' lvue
JeeIings
viII Ie al odds vilI al Ieasl sone eIenenls oJ lIe
enolion cuIluve.
3. TIe nove lIal eJJovls oJ
vioIale lIe
ideoIog
and
novns oJ lIe enolion
cuIluve,
lIe nove inlense is lIe avousaI oJ
negalive
enolions in IolI lIe oJJendev and lIe
audience,
and lIe nove lIe oJJendev
nusl
engage
in
vepaiv
viluaIs vilI lIe audience lo veaJJivn lIe enolion cuIluve
and Iis ov Iev connilnenl lo lIe lenels oJ lIis cuIluve.
4. TIe nove lIal a
sociel
is
slvucluvaII
diJJevenlialed,
Ias
IigI
vales oJ no?
IiIil
acvoss
slvucluves,
and nediales sociaI veIalions
I
navIel
Jovces,
lIe
nove
IiIeI
lIal lIe denands oJ lIe enolion cuIluve viII cone inlo conJIicl
vilI lIe enolions lIal individuaIs
acluaII expevience.
5. TIe nove lIal lIe diclales oJ lIe enolion cuIluve and lIe slvucluve oJ a
silualion conJIicl vilI
pevsons'
acluaI
JeeIings,
lIe nove
IiIeI
ave individuaIs
lo
engage
in enolion-vovI
slvalegies
enunevaled in TaIIe 1.
SnIoIic
Inlevaclionisl TIeovies
AIlIougI dvanaluvgicaI
lIeovies ave
pvinaviI
concevned vilI
inpvession
nan?
agenenl
and
slvalegic
IeIaviov as individuaIs seeI lo
give
oJJ lIe
appeavance
oJ
conJovning
lo lIe cuIluvaI
scvipl, snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies see seIJ and
idenlil
as lIe cenlvaI
dnanics
IeIind enolionaI avousaI. SeIJ is nove lIan a
dvanalic
pvesenlalion:
il is a
povevJuI
nolive
pusIing
individuaIs lo IeIave in
vas
lIal aIIov lIen lo
veviJ
IolI lvans-silualionaI
seIJ-conceplions
and silu
alionaI voIe idenlilies. Because Mead
|1934, 1938)
Iad
vev
IillIe lo
sa
aIoul
enolions,
snIoIic
inlevaclionisls Iave
pvinaviI adopled
Mead's
pvagnalic
viev
lIal sociaI aclovs
adjusl
lIeiv IeIaviov lo naIe
lIings
vovI in silualions. In con?
lenpovav
levns,
using
lIe
Ianguage
oJ cuvvenl
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl
lIeovisls,
sociaI aclovs' IeIaviov is seIJ-divecled. Oiven Iis
anaIsis
oJ
pvide
and sIane as
naslev
enolions,
CooIe |1964 [1902])
Ias Iad a nove divecl inJIuence on cuvvenl
inlevaclion
lIeovizing
on enolions. AIso veIevanl lo
snIoIic
inlevaclionisls is lIe
OeslaIl lvadilion's
enpIasis
on
cognilive consislenc
and
congvuence.
TIe aIove
ideas Jvon
Mead,
CooIe,
and OeslaIl veseavcIevs ave IIended inlo a viev oJ seIJ as
a
cIevnelic
conlvoI
sslen |Fovevs 1973)
lIal nonilovs lIe exlenl lo vIicI seIJ
is conJivned
I
olIevs,
vilI enolions
enevging
oul oJ lIis conJivnalion
pvocess
|BuvIe 1991, 1996:
Heise
1977, 1979, 1989).
TIe Iasic
genevaIizalion
oJ aII
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies is lIal individuaIs
seeI lo conJivn lIeiv nove
gIoIaI seIJ-conceplions
as veII as lIeiv nove conlexl
dependenl
idenlilies in aII
episodes
oJ inlevaclion. WIen seIJ is veviJied
I
olIevs
vesponding
lo seIJ in a nannev lIal is consislenl vilI seIJ's ovn
viev,
lIe
pevson
expeviences posilive enolions,
sucI as
pvide
and salisJaclion. WIen seIJ is nol con?
Jivned, Iovevev,
lIe
incongvuil
Ielveen seIJ-divecled IeIaviov and lIe
vesponses
oJ olIevs
genevales negalive
enolions sucI as
dislvess,
anxiel, angev, sIane,
and
guiIl.
IndividuaIs ave seen as nolivaled lo
Iving cognilions
aIoul seIJ inlo Iine vilI
lIe
vesponses
oJ olIevs
and,
covvespondingI,
lo luvn
negalive
enolions inlo
pos?
ilive enolions. In SIoll's
|1979) lIeov,
Jov
exanpIe,
lIe avousaI oJ
guiIl,
sIane,
and enIavvassnenl
signaIs
lo seIJ lIal devialions Jvon novns Iave occuvved and
lIal covveclive IeIaviovs nusl Ie
JovlIconing.
MucI
lIeovizing
vilIin lIe
sn?
IoIic inlevaclionisl lvadilion exanines lIe vavious
slvalegies
lIal individuaIs
puvsue
lo acIieve
congvuil anong seIJ,
novns and cuIluvaI
slandavds, IeIaviov,
and lIe
vesponses
oJ olIevs. TaIIe 2 oulIines sone oJ lIe
polenliaI slvalegies enpIoed I
individuaIs.
TIese
slvalegies
ave
pavl
oJ a
Iavgev
conlvoI
sslen
vilIin vIicI
seIJ, olIevs,
and
lIe silualion ave enIedded. Fov
exanpIe,
sone
lIeovies,
sucI as
idenlil
conlvoI
lIeov |BuvIe 1991,1996),
viev seIJ as
conposed
oJ
nuIlipIe
idenlilies. Fov eacI
idenlil,
lIeve is a slandavd
consisling
oJ sloved
neanings
lIal ave used as a Jvane
oJ veJevence lo
veguIale
IeIaviov. OlIevs evaIuale seIJ on lIe Iasis oJ lIe
neanings
lIal lIe
pevson's
IeIaviov
inpIies.
IJ
pevceplions
oJ seIJ in lIe silualion
|given
lIe
vesponses
oJ
olIevs)
do nol
covvespond
lo one's
idenlil slandavd,
a
discvepanc
exisls,
and
negalive
enolion is JeIl. In
vesponse,
seIJ
adjusls IeIaviov,
nodiJies Iov
seIJ is
pevceived I
olIevs in lIe
silualion,
ov
cIanges
lIe
neaning
oJ seIJ's
idenlil
30 TUBNEB
?
STETS
TABLE 2 ConlvoI
slvalegies
enunevaled
I snIoIic-inlevaclionisl
lIeovies
BeIaviovaI
slvalegies
1.
CIange
IeIaviov lo oIlain
conJivning vesponses
Jvon olIevs.
2. SeeI lo convince olIevs lo
accepl
IeIaviov and lIe
neaning
il
inpIies,
and lIus
conJivn seIJ.
3. WilIdvav Jvon silualions in vIicI seIJ is nol conJivned.
Cognilive slvalegies
1.
CIange
seIJ and
idenlil
slandavds
I
vIicI seIJ is
judged.
2. Move unconJivned
idenlil
dovn in lIe
IievavcI
oJ
pvoninence
ov saIience.
3.
SeIecliveI pevceive
ov
inlevpvel gesluves
oJ olIevs so as lo
veviJ
an
idenlil.
4.
Bepvess negalive
enolions lIal avise vIen seIJ is nol veviJied.
5. MaIe exlevnaI allviIulions lIal IIane
olIevs,
lIe
silualion,
ov sociaI slvucluve Jov
JaiIuve lo
veviJ
seIJ.
Souvces BuvIe
|1991),
McCaII & Sinnons
|1978),
ScIeJJ
|2000), SlvIev |2004),
Tuvnev
|2002).
slandavd.
ConvevseI,
iJ seIJ Ias Ieen
veviJied, IeIaviov,
seIJ-pevceplions,
and lIe
idenlil
slandavd conlinue
uninlevvupled,
and seIJ
expeviences posilive
enolion.
In sone vavianls oJ
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl
lIeovies,
an
idenlil IievavcI
is
enpIasized.
WIen an
idenlil
is
veviJied,
il noves
up
lIe saIience
|SlvIev
1980,
2004)
ov
pvoninence |McCaII
& Sinnons
1978) IievavcI,
vilI idenlilies
IigI
in lIe
IievavcI
nove
IiIeI
lo Ie
pvesenled
lIan lIose Iovev in lIe
IievavcI.
WIen individuaIs veceive
disconJivning
JeedIacI, Iovevev,
negalive
enolionaI
avousaI
pusIes
lIen lo
puvsue
one ov nove oJ lIe
slvalegies
Iisled in TaIIe 2. WIen
an
idenlil
is
consislenlI disconJivned,
il noves dovn lIe saIience ov
pvoninence
IievavcI, pavlicuIavI
iJ an individuaI cannol Ieave lIe silualion.
AIlevnaliveI,
a
pevson na cIange
lIe
idenlil pvesenled
ov lIe
idenlil
slandavd
I
vIicI
pevceplions
oJ seIJ in lIe silualion ave
conpaved |BuvIe 1991, 1996).
Sone
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies exlend lIe Iasic
avgunenl
aIoul conlvoI
sslens Ieond
a
pevson's cognilions
aIoul seIJ lo incIude
cognilions
aIoul lIe
idenlilies oJ
olIevs,
lIe voIe IeIaviovs oJ
olIevs,
and lIe
selling
in vIicI idenli?
lies ave
pvesenled
and voIes
pIaed.
Fov
exanpIe,
in aJJecl conlvoI
lIeov |Heise
1977, 1979, 1989:
SnilI-Lovin
1990:
SnilI-Lovin & Heise
1988),
individuaIs
ave seen as nolivaled lo
Ieep
lvansienl
neanings
in lIe silualion in Iine vilI lIe
nove
genevaI
JundanenlaI
neanings
aIoul
seIJ, olIev, IeIaviov,
and lIe silualion.
WIen JundanenlaI and lvansienl
neanings
veveaI a deJIeclion ov
conlvadiclion,
lIe
enolion lIal vesuIls
depends
on lIe lvansienl
neaning
and ils diveclion oJ
cIange
Jvon lIe
oviginaI,
JundanenlaI Iocalion. Fov
exanpIe,
iJ lIe lvansienl
neaning
is
nove
posilive
lIan lIe JundanenlaI
neaning,
individuaIs JeeI nove
posilive |Jov
a
posilive idenlil)
ov Iess
negalive |Jov
a
negalive idenlil)
lIan
lIe
vouId JeeI
iJ lIe
idenlil
veve conJivned. In lIis
va,
enolion
signaIs
Iov evenls in lIe
silualion ave
nainlaining |ov
nol
nainlaining) neanings.
Mosl
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies
enpIasize
lIal lIese OeslaIl
dnanics
opevale
lo
Iving idenlilies,
cognilions,
cuIluvaI
pvescviplions,
and sociaI slvucluve
inlo Iine. WIen individuaIs cannol conJivn an
idenlil, lIe
Ieave lIe
silualion, ov,
iJ
lIe
cannol
Ieave, lIe cIange
lIeiv
IeIaviovs,
cIange
lIeiv
seIJ-pevceplions,
ov
cIange
lIeiv
idenlil
lo conJovn lo cuIluvaI
expeclalions
in a silualion. TIose
idenlilies lIal cannol Ie veviJied nove dovn lIe
pvoninence
ov saIience
IievavcI,
vIeveas lIose idenlilies lIal ave veviJied nove
up
in lIe
IievavcI |McCaII
&
Sinnons
1978,
SlvIev 1980).
As individuaIs
pvesenl onI
lIose idenlilies lIal can
Ie conJivned and lIal conJovn lo cuIluvaI
expeclalions,
lIen
idenlilies,
IeIaviovaI
oulpuls,
and
pevcepluaI inpuls
Iecone
incveasingI congvuenl
ovev line.
Move
pscIoanaIlic
vevsions oJ
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl
lIeovizing enpIasize
lIal lIese OeslaIl
dnanics pusIing
Jov
congvuence anong seIJ, IeIaviovs,
seIJ
pevceplions,
sociaI
slvucluve,
and cuIluve can Ie
inlevvupled I
lIe aclivalion oJ
deJensive IeIaviovs. IndividuaIs can
seIecliveI pevceive
lIe
vesponses
oJ
olIevs:
lIe
can
seIecliveI inlevpvel
lIese
vesponses: lIe
can naIe exlevnaI allviIulions
lIal IIane olIevs Jov lIe JaiIuve lo conJivn seIJ ov
idenlil:
ov
lIe
can
Ipass
and
vepvess negalive enolions,
sucI as sIane and
guiIl,
lo lIe
poinl
vIeve lIe
individuaI venains unavave oJ lIe
negalive
enolions
avising
Jvon lIe JaiIuve lo
veviJ
seIJ ov Iive
up
lo cuIluvaI
expeclalions.
TIese nove
pscIoanaIlicaI
nodes
oJ
lIeovizing |ScIeJJ 1990, 1997:
Tuvnev
1999, 2002) enpIasize
lIal lIe avousaI
oJ
negalive enolions,
pavlicuIavI
sIane and
guiIl,
is
IigII painJuI
and, Ience,
is
IiIeI
lo dvive individuaIs lo deJensive IeIaviovs lIal
inlevvupl
lIe JeedIacI
Ioop
Jvon lIe
vesponses
oJ olIevs. As a
vesuIl,
cognilions
and IeIaviovs ave nol covvecled
vIen
encounleving negalive JeedIacI,
Ieading
individuaIs lo
engage
in
palIoIog?
icaI IeIaviovs lIal suslain
incongvuence anong seIJ, IeIaviov,
pevceplions,
sociaI
slvucluve,
and cuIluve and lIal can decvease
inlevpevsonaI
allunenenl
anong
in?
dividuaIs
|ScIeJJ 1988).
WIen
negalive
enolions ave
vepvessed, lIe
incvease in
inlensil
and oJlen Iecone lvansnuled inlo nev Iinds oJ enolions lIal JuvlIev dis?
vupl
novnaI inlevaclion
|Tuvnev 2002).
Fov
exanpIe,
in ScIeJJ's
|1988)
exlension
oJ Levis's
|1971)
insigIls, vepvessed
sIane oJlen Iecones lvansnuled inlo
angev
vIen il is nol
acInovIedged.
In Tuvnev's
|2002) lIeov, vepvessed
sIane,
guiIl,
and
anxiel
Iead lo sudden
spiIes
oJ lIese enolions lIal IveaI sociaI Ionds and IveacI
sociaI silualions.
Moveovev,
vIen individuaIs
vepvess negalive enolions, lIe
ave
nove
IiIeI
lo naIe exlevnaI allviIulions and IIane
olIevs,
lIe
silualion,
ov nove
incIusive slvucluves Jov lIeiv
negalive
enolionaI
avousaI,
lIeveI IveacIing
sociaI
Ionds and connilnenls lo sociaI silualions.
Fvon lIe
pevspeclive
oJ lIese nove
pscIoanaIlic
lIeovies,
individuaIs can Ie?
cone IocIed inlo
ccIes
oJ
evev-escaIaling negalive
enolionaI
avousaI,
vepvession,
sudden oulIuvsls oJ inlense ov lvansnuled vevsions oJ lIe
vepvessed enolions,
sIane and
guiIl
Jov
Iaving
Iosl enolionaI
conlvoI,
nove
vepvession
oJ
negalive
enolions,
and so on in a
ccIe
lIal can Iead lo seveve IeIaviovaI
palIoIog |ScIeJJ
1988). Moveovev,
iJ lIe slvucluve and cuIluve oJ a
sociel
cause
Iavgev segnenls
oJ a
popuIalion
lo
vepvess
sIane
|and pevIaps
olIev
negalive enolions),
lIis
popuIalion
can Ie noIiIized
coIIecliveI
lo JeeI
angev
and lo
puvsue vioIence,
vIelIev exlev?
naI vavJave ov inlevnaI
pvoseculion
oJ
pevceived
enenies
|ScIeJJ 1994,
ScIeJJ &
Belzingev 1991).
TIese Iinds oJ
pscIoanaIlic
addilions oJJev a useJuI covveclive
32 TUBNEB
?
STETS
lo lIe
IigII cognilive concepluaIizalions
oJ seIJ and
idenlil
in nosl
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies.
Al lIe nosl
genevaI IeveI,
snIoIic
inlevaclionisl lIeovies
|vilI
lIe
exceplion
oJ aJJecl conlvoI
lIeov)
ave
guided I
lIe
JoIIoving genevaIizalions
1. TIe nove saIienl an
idenlil
is in a
silualion,
lIe nove
IiIeI
individuaIs ave
lo enil
gesluves
and IeIaviovs lIal conJovn lo slandavds eslaIIisIed
I
lIis
idenlil.
2. TIe nove an
idenlil
is veviJied
I
lIe
vesponses
oJ
olIevs,
lIe nove
IiIeI
a
pevson
is lo
expevience posilive
enolions sucI as
pvide, Iappiness,
and
salisJaclion:
lIe nove oJlen lIis
idenlil
is
veviJied,
lIe
IigIev
il is
pIaced
in
lIe
pvoninence
ov saIience
IievavcI.
3. TIe Iess an
idenlil
is veviJied
I
lIe
vesponses
oJ
olIevs,
lIe nove
IiIeI
a
pevson
is lo
expevience negalive
enolions sucI as
enIavvassnenl, sIane,
and
guiIl:
lIe nove inlense lIese
negalive
enolions
ave,
lIe nove lIis
pevson
viII
allenpl
lo
Iving
inlo
congvuence
IeIaviov
navIing
an
idenlil, pevceplions
oJ olIevs'
vesponses,
and cuIluvaI slandavds oJ evaIualion.
4. TIe nove an individuaI
expeviences negalive
enolionaI avousaI Jvon lIe
JaiIuve lo
veviJ
an
idenlil,
lIe
gvealev
lIe IiIeIiIood lIal lIis
pevson
viII
adopl
deJensive
slvalegies:
lIe nove inlense lIe
negalive
enolions a
pevson
expeviences,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIe
pevson
is lo
enpIo vepvession
and exlevnaI
allviIulions as deJensive
slvalegies.
5. TIe nove lIal individuaIs Iave
enpIoed vepvession
as a deJensive
slvaleg
in
lIe
pasl,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal lIe
negalive
enolions avoused and
vepvessed
viII
|a)
incvease in
inlensil, |I)
lvansnule inlo nev Iinds oJ
negalive
enolions
IiIe
angev,
and
|c) evupl
in sudden
spiIes
oJ
negalive
enolions lIal
disvupl
and IveacI inlevaclions.
6. TIe nove lIal individuaIs Iave Ieen aIIe lo
veviJ
seIJ and idenlilies in
a
silualion,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal
idenlilies,
IeIaviovaI
oulpuls, pevcepluaI
inpuls,
novnalive
expeclalions,
and senlinenls aIoul
seIJ, olIev, voIes,
and
lIe silualion viII
convevge
and veveaI
congvuil.
Inlevaclion BiluaI TIeovies
TIis
gvoup
oJ lIeovies dvavs Jvon BuvIIein's
|1965 [1912])
secondav anaIsis
oJ
eavI descviplions
oJ AuslvaIian
aIoviginaIs
vIo
peviodicaII galIeved
in and
avound AIice
Spvings.
SucI
galIevings
Ied lo aninaled and eJJevvescenl
inlevaclion,
a connon Jocus oJ
allenlion,
vIlInic
novenenl oJ
Iodies,
IeigIlened enolions,
and an
enevging
sense oJ an exlevnaI
povev
ov nana
guiding lIougIls
and aclions.
As a
vesuIl,
aIovigines deveIoped
lolens lo
snIoIize
lIis
povev
oJ lIe
gods:
and vIen viluaIs veve divecled al lIe
lolens,
enolionaI avousaI ensued.
BeIigion
vas lIus lIe
vovsIip
oJ lIe coIIeclive
ovganizalion anong
individuaIs. OoJJnan
|1959,1967)
vas lIe Jivsl
socioIogisl
lo
vecognize
lIal lIe eIenenls oJ BuvIIein's
anaIsis opevale
eacI and
evev
line individuaIs inlevacl in Jace-lo-Jace encounlevs.
CoIIins
|1975, 1981, 2004)
Iovvovs Jvon IolI BuvIIein and OoJJnan lo
Jovge
a nove voIusl
lIeov
lIal seeIs lo
expIain
lIe avousaI oJ
posilive
and
negalive
enolionaI
enevg.
CoIIins
|2004) dislinguisIes
Ielveen lvo
lpes
oJ viluaIs
|a) poIile
and lvansienl
viluaIs sucI as
gveelings
lIal avouse
Iov-inlensil posilive
enolionaI
enevg,
and
|I)
nove
enduving
enolions lIal
deveIop
Jvon
copvesence,
nuluaI avaveness and
allenlion,
a connon
Jocus,
a sIaved enolionaI
nood,
vIlInic sncIvonizalion
oJ
convevsalion and
Iodies,
a
vepvesenlalion
oJ lIe Jocus and nood vilI
snIoIs,
and
a sense oJ novaI
vigIleousness.
In
essence, CoIIins vievs vIal OoJJnan
|1961,
1967)
Iad levned lIe encounlev as a nove incIusive inlevaclion viluaI
veveaIing
lIe eIenenls enunevaled
I
BuvIIein. In sucI inlevaclion
viluaIs,
enolionaI en?
evg
is IuiIl
upon
and is suslained acvoss encounlevs lIal ave
slvung logelIev
in
line and
space.
In
Jacl,
CoIIins
|1981) goes
so Jav as lo viev sucI
enolionaII
cIavged
viluaIs as lIe nicvoJoundalions oJ nacvoslvucluves.
Fov inlevaclion viluaIs lo incvease
posilive
enolionaI
enevg, lIe
nusl acli?
vale aII lIe
Ie
eIenenls
Jivsl,
lIe
galIeving
oJ individuaIs in
pvoxinale space:
nexl,
lIe enission oJ
sleveolped gveeling
viluaIs lIal vaise lIe IeveI oJ lvansienl
enolions
lIal,
in
luvn, incvease lIe sIaved nood and Jocus oJ
allenlion: lIen,
lIe
ensuing vIlInic sncIvonizalion
oJ laII and Iodies lIal incveases coIIeclive eJ?
Jevvescence,
JoIIoved
I vising
IeveIs oJ
posilive
enolionaI
enevg.
As
posilive
enolionaI
enevg escaIales, gvoup soIidavil
incveases,
Ieading
lo
snIoIizalion
oJ
lIis
soIidavil,
and vilI
gvoup snIoIs, pavlicuIavized
cuIluvaI
capilaI consisling
oJ lIe
expeviences
oJ nenIevs in lIe
gvoup
incveases. Once
snIoIs
ave IuiIl
up,
convevsalions ov even
lIougIls
veinvoIe lIe
snIoIs and,
as a
vesuIl,
cIavge up
lIe
posilive
enolionaI
enevg. ConvevseI,
vIen lIis
sequence
oJ viluaI eIenenls
IveaIs dovn
duving
lIe
inlevaclion,
individuaIs
expevience
nucI Iovev IeveIs oJ
posilive
enolionaI
enevg.
In
Jacl,
lIe IeveI oJ enolionaI
enevg
can luvn
negalive
and veduce
gvoup soIidavil.
TIeve is lIe
assunplion
in inlevaclion viluaI
lIeov
lIal individuaIs
aIvas
seeI lo naxinize lIeiv enolionaI
enevg
in an encounlev and lIal
lIe lv
lo
incvease lIeiv sloves oJ cuIluvaI
capilaI
lIal can eilIev Ie
pavlicuIavized
ov
unique
lo
pavlicuIav gvoups,
ov Ie
genevaIized
ov
acInovIedged
and undevslood
I
aII in a
sociel. Hovevev,
lIe
capacil
lo incvease
posilive
enolionaI
enevg
and
augnenl
cuIluvaI
capilaI
is nedialed
I povev
and slalus. TIose vilI
povev
and
pveslige
ave aIIe lo incvease lIeiv
posilive
enolionaI
enevg
and veveaI nove connilnenl
lo
gvoup snIoIs
and lIus
augnenl
lIeiv cuIluvaI
capilaI,
vIeveas lIose vilI Iess
povev
nusl
give
deJevence
and,
as a
consequence, expevience
Iess
posilive
and
pevIaps
even
negalive
enolionaI
enevg, Ieading
lo nucI Iess connilnenl lo
gvoup snIoIs.
A nove vecenl exlension oJ CoIIins's
lIeov I
Sunnevs-EJJIev
|2002)
lvies lo
accounl Jov lIe Jacl lIal individuaIs ave oJlen
lvapped
in inlevaclion viluaIs in vIicI
lIe
Iave IillIe
povev
and in
vIicI,
as a
vesuIl,
lIe expevience negalive
enolionaI
enevg,
sucI as
Jeav,
anxiel, sIane,
and
guiIl.
Undev lIese
condilions,
individuaIs
34 TUBNEB
?
STETS
adopl slvalegies vevoIving
avound
nininizing
lIe Ioss oJ enolionaI
enevg
valIev
lIan
naxinizing posilive
enolionaI
enevg.
AnolIev exlension
I
Sunnevs-EJJIev
|2004a,I) allenpls
lo inlvoduce eIenenls oJ
snIoIic
inlevaclionisn
I avguing
Jov
lIe veIevance oJ seIJ as a cvilicaI eIenenl in viluaIs. WIen individuaIs
expevience
posilive
enolionaI
enevg,
lIeiv sense oJ seIJ is
enIanced,
naIing
lIen nove
IiIeI
lo connil lo
gvoup snIoIs.
WIen
lIe expevience negalive
enolionaI
enevg,
seIJ-esleen is
Ioveved,
vIicI vesuIls in dininisIed connilnenl lo
gvoup snIoIs
and in Ioveved IeveIs oJ
soIidavil.
In
sun,
lIe BuvIIein-OoJJnan
Iineage
Ias
inspived
nol
onI dvanaluvgicaI
lIeovizing
on
enolions,
Iul aIso a dislinclive Jovn oJ inlevaclion viluaI
lIeov.
TIe
guiding genevaIizalions
Jvon lIis Iallev
appvoacI
incIude lIe
JoIIoving
1. TIe nove lIal individuaIs ave
copvesenl
and
excIange gveeling
viluaIs,
lIe
nove
IiIeI lIe
viII
expevience
niId lvansienl
enolions,
sIaved
nood,
and
nuluaI Jocus oJ allenlion.
2. TIe nove lIal lIe condilions in ilen
1, aIove,
pevsisl,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal
laII and
IodiI gesluves
viII JaII inlo
vIlInic sncIvonizalion, Ieading
lo
a sense oJ coIIeclive eJJevvescence lIal incveases eacI
pavlicipanl's
IeveI oJ
posilive
enolionaI
enevg.
3. TIe
IigIev
lIe IeveI oJ enolionaI eJJevvescence and lIe
Iongev
ils
duvalion,
lIe
gvealev
viII Ie lIe sense oJ
gvoup soIidavil anong pavlicipanls
and lIe
nove
IiIeI lIe
viII
snIoIize
lIe
enevging
sense oJ
soIidavil.
4. TIe nove an inlevaclion viluaI Ieads lo lIe
snIoIizalion
oJ
soIidavil
and lIe
nove lIis viluaI is ilevaled ovev
line,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal
snIoIs navIing
gvoup soIidavil
viII civcuIale
anong gvoup
nenIevs and incvease lIe IeveI
oJ
pavlicuIavized
cuIluvaI
capilaI
in lIe
gvoup.
5. TIe nove lIe condilions aIove ave
veaIized,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal individuaIs
in lIe
gvoup
viII Iave convevsalions
anong
lIenseIves lIal invoIe
gvoup
snIoIs and,
lIeveI,
avouse
posilive
enolionaI
enevg.
6. TIe nove lIal slalus and
povev
diJJevences
pvevaiI anong pavlicipanls
in
an inlevaclion
viluaI,
lIe
gvealev IigI-slalus
and
IigI-povev
individuaIs'
enolionaI
enevg
viII Ie
conpaved
lo lIal oJ Iov-slalus and
Iov-povev
in?
dividuaIs and lIe nove
IiIeI IigI-slalus
and
IigI-povev
individuaIs viII
deveIop
connilnenls lo
gvoup snIoIs and,
lIeveI, augnenl
lIeiv IeveI oJ
pavlicuIavized
cuIluvaI
capilaI conpaved
lo Iov-slalus and
Iov-povev pavlic?
ipanls.
7. TIe nove lIal
povev
and slalus ave used in aIusive and
expIoilive vas,
lIe nove lIose
suIjecl
lo sucI aIuse viII
adopl slvalegies
oJ
nininizing
lIe
Ioss oJ
posilive
enolionaI
enevg
ov,
aIlevnaliveI, nininizing
lIe avousaI oJ
negalive
enolionaI
enevg.
8. TIe nove saIienl lIal seIJ and
idenlil dnanics
ave
duving
an inlevaclion
viluaI,
lIe nove inlense aII eIenenls oJ lIe inlevaclion viluaI viII
Iecone,
vilI conJivnalion oJ seIJ and
idenlil duving
lIe couvse oJ lIe viluaI
vaising
lIe IeveI oJ
posilive
enolionaI
enevg
and JaiIuve lo
veviJ
seIJ
Ioveving
lIe IeveI oJ enolionaI
enevg
ov
luvning
lIe vaIence oJ enolions lovavd lIe
negalive poIe.
Fovev and Slalus TIeovies
LiIe inlevaclion viluaI
lIeov,
a nunIev oJ divevse lIeovies Iave
expIicilI sougIl
lo docunenl lIe eJJecls oJ
povev |aulIovil)
and slalus
|pveslige/Ionov)
on lIe
avousaI oJ enolions.
Kenpev |1978, 1984)
vas lIe Jivsl lo
pvesenl
a JuII
lIeov
on
lIe
dnanics
oJ
povev
and slalus
|deJined
as
pveslige).
Lalev,
Kenpev
& CoIIins
|1990)
exlended lIe
lIeov
lo docunenl lIe eJJecls oJ
|a)
veIalive
povev
and
pveslige
oJ
individuaIs, |I) cIanges
in veIalive
povev
and
slalus,
and
|c) expeclalion
slales Jov
povev
and slalus on enolionaI avousaI.
TIe Iasic
genevaIizalion
in lIis
lIeov
is lIal vIen individuaIs Iave
povev
ov
gain povev, lIe expevience
salisJaclion, conJidence,
and
secuvil,
vIeveas vIen
lIe
Iose
povev, lIe expevience anxiel,
Jeav,
and Ioss oJ conJidence.
Kenpev
and
CoIIins
incovpovale
lIe nolion oJ
expeclalion
slales inlo lIis
nodeI,
avguing
lIal
vIen individuaIs
expecl
lo
gain povev,
Iul in Jacl do
nol,
lIe
Iose seIJ-conJidence
and
expevience
Jeav and
anxiel. ConvevseI,
vIen
lIe
do nol
expecl
lo
gain
povev
Iul
acluaII
incvease lIeiv
povev, lIe expevience
salisJaclion and
gain
in seIJ-conJidence. WIen individuaIs
expevience gains
in
pveslige |ov
lIe
veceipl
oJ
deJevence),
salisJaclion and
veII-Ieing
ave
avoused,
and
lIe expvess posilive
senlinenls lo
olIevs,
lIeveI incveasing
lIe JIov oJ
posilive
enolions and Ionds
oJ
soIidavil
Ielveen
givevs
and veceivevs oJ deJevence.
WIen individuaIs Iose
slalus,
lIe
dnanics
Iecone nove
conpIicaled
Iecause
lIe enolions
expevienced
and
expvessed depend
on lIe allviIulions nade. WIen
individuaIs see lIenseIves as
vesponsiIIe
Jov lIe Ioss oJ
slalus,
lIe expevience
sIane and
enIavvassnenl,
and vIen lIe Ioss is
gveal, lIe
JeeI sad and Iecone
depvessed.
WIen individuaIs IIane olIevs Jov lIeiv Ioss oJ
slalus,
lIe
Iecone
angv
and sIiJl inlo an
aggvessive povev
node and seeI lo Jovce olIevs lo Ionov
lIeiv cIains lo slalus
|Kenpev
& CoIIins
1990). Expeclalions
add nove enolionaI
JueI lo lIese
dnanics.
IJ individuaIs Iad
expecled
lo veceive ov
gain
slalus and
IIane lIenseIves Jov lIe JaiIuve lo do
so,
lIe
JeeI nove inlense sIane and sadness.
IJ
lIe
IIane olIevs Jov lIis
JaiIuve,
lIe expevience IigIev
IeveIs oJ
angev. IJ,
Iovevev, pevsons
Iad
expecled
no
gain
ov even a Ioss oJ
pveslige,
Iul in Jacl
veceive nove deJevence lIan
expecled, lIe
JeeI salisJaclion and ave nove
IiIeI
lo
expvess posilive
senlinenls lo lIose vIo Iave
given
lIen slalus.
TIe
lIeov
aIso
pvesenls pvoposilions
on lIe enolionaI veaclion oJ individuaIs
vIo
give,
ov JaiI lo
give,
slalus lo olIevs. WIen slalus is desevved
I anolIev,
Iul nol
given I
a
pevson,
lIe Iallev
expeviences
sIane and
guiIl.
WIen slalus
is desevved and
given
vilIoul
conpuIsion,
lIe
givev
oJ slalus JeeIs
salisJaclion,
vIeveas lIe
vecipienl expeviences appvecialion
and
gvalilude lIal,
in
luvn,
naIes
lIe
givev
oJ deJevence JeeI even nove salisJied.
TIeve Iave Ieen cvealive exlensions oJ
Kenpev's lIeov:
lIe nosl
inpovlanl
is TIann's
|1992, 2004a,I)
eJJovl lo
speciJ
in nove delaiI lIe
genevic
slvucluvaI
36 TUBNEB
?
STETS
condilions lIal
pvoduce speciJic
enolionaI
vesponses.
Fov
TIann,
diJJevenl
eno?
lions ave avoused
depending
on lIe exlensiveness oJ
appvaisaIs I
an individuaI.
EacI individuaI Ias Jouv
polenliaI lpes
oJ
appvaisaIs |a)
seIJ neels ov JaiIs lo
neel
expeclalions, |I)
seIJ veceives ov JaiIs lo veceive
vevavds, |c) olIev|s)
in lIe
silualion neel
expeclalions
ov JaiI lo do
so,
and
|d) olIev|s)
veceive ov do nol veceive
vevavds.
SpeciJic
enolions
enevge depending
on lIe
pavlicuIav conJiguvalion
oJ
appvaisaIs
lIal a
pevson
naIes Jov lIese Jouv
possiIiIilies.
Fov
exanpIe,
iJ a
pevson
onI
assesses vIelIev olIev neels ov JaiIs lo neel
expeclalions,
lIis individuaI
viII Ie
pIeased
and
Iapp
vIen olIev neels
expeclalions,
vIeveas iJ olIev does
nol neel
expeclalions,
lIe
pevson
viII Ie
unIapp
ov
disappoinled.
IJ nove inlense
enolions ave
avoused,
lIe individuaI viII Ie
pvoud
oJ olIev vIen
expeclalions
ave
veaIized
and,
convevseI,
asIaned oJ olIev iJ lIe Iallev does nol neel
expeclalions.
FoIIoving Kenpev,
TIann inlvoduces
povev
and slalus vaviaIIes lo Iis
concep?
luaIizalion. Fovev is lIe
aIiIil
lo veceive vevavds vilIoul
neeling expeclalions,
and slalus is lIe
capacil
lo neel
expeclalions,
do
sonelIing posilive,
and
lIeveI
veceive vevavds. A IacI oJ
povev
and a IacI oJ slalus
ave,
vespecliveI, neeling
expeclalions
Iul nol
veceiving
vevavds and nol
neeling expeclalions, doing
sone?
lIing negalive,
and lIus nol
veceiving
vevavds.
B caveJuII vovIing lIvougI
lIe
conIinalions oJ lIe Jouv slvucluvaI condilions and lIe vavious
degvees
oJ
povev
|povevIessness)
and slalus
|slalusIessness),
TIann is aIIe lo cveale
apeviodic
laIIe
oJ enolionaI
vesponses
lIal
pvedicls
vIicI
pavlicuIav
enolions
enevge depending
on
appvaisaIs
oJ seIJ and/ov olIev vilI
vespecl
lo
expeclalions
and/ov vevavds and
lIe
degvee
oJ
povev
and slalus
|and povevIessness
and
slalusIessness).
OJ aII lIe
lIeovies vevieved in lIis
essa,
TIann oJJevs lIe nosl
pvediclions
aIoul lIe
spe?
ciJic enolions lIal viII Ie avoused undev
vaving
sociaI slvucluvaI condilions oJ
povev/slalus
and
appvaisaI.
In IolI
Kenpev's
and TIann's
povev-slalus lIeovies,
expeclalions |Jov gains
ov Iosses oJ
povev
and
slalus)
ave cenlvaI lo
naIing pvediclions
aIoul lIe
pavlicuIav
enolions lIal viII Ie
expevienced I
individuaIs. In
expeclalion
slales
lIeovizing,
lIis vaviaIIe is al lIe Ieavl oJ aII
lIeovizing |Bevgev 1988). Expeclalions
aIoul lIe
cIavaclevislics oJ individuaIs and lIeiv
pevJovnance capacilies
avise in aII inlevac?
lions,
pavlicuIavI
in lasI
gvoups.
TIose vIo ave
conpelenl
ave
given povev
and
pveslige,
vIeveas lIose vIo ave Iess
conpelenl
veceive Iovev IeveIs oJ
povev
and
pveslige.
IndividuaIs
Iving
vilI lIen inlo
gvoups
diJJuse slalus cIavaclevislics sucI
as
gendev, elInicil,
and
age
lIal ave
diJJevenliaII
evaIualed in lIe Ivoadev cuIluve
and,
IiIe aII slalus
cIavaclevislics,
eslaIIisI
expeclalions
Jov
pevJovnance
in
gvoups.
HigIev-vanIing pevsons
in
gvoups
ave
expecled
lo Iave
gvealev conpelence
lIan
Iovev-vanIing nenIevs,
and lIese
expeclalion
slales aIIov lIen lo iniliale inlev?
aclion vilI
olIevs,
leII olIevs vIal lo do
|povev/aulIovil),
and veceive deJevence
Jvon olIevs
|slalus).
EnolionaI
dnanics
lIus vevoIve avound lIe exlenl lo vIicI
individuaIs neel
expeclalion
slales associaled vilI lIeiv vanI in lIe
gvoup
and lIe
degvee
lo vIicI individuaIs
accepl
as
Iegilinale
lIe
vanIs,
associaled
expeclalion
slales,
and
vesuIling
IeIaviovs oJ
peopIe
al diJJevenl vanIs. SevevaI lIeovies oJ
enolions can Ie Jound vilIin lIis lIeovelicaI and veseavcI lvadilion.
One
pveIininav lIeov I Bevgev |1988),
vIo Jounded lIe
expeclalion
slales
lIeovelicaI lvadilion in lIe Iale
1950s,
enpIasizes
lIal aJJecl
expeclalion
slales
genevaII
avise vIen individuaIs inlevacl. IJ lIese senlinenls
pevsisl
acvoss ilevaled
inlevaclions,
lIe
Iecone nove
pevnanenl expeclalion
slales Jov lIe enolions
lIal viII Ie
expevienced
and
expvessed,
nov and in lIe Juluve.
Moveovev,
aJJecl
expeclalions
Jov individuaIs in a
gvoup
ave lvansIaled inlo
pevceplions
oJ lIeiv
pevsonaIil
lIal,
in
luvn,
eslaIIisI anolIev sevies oJ enolion
expeclalion
slales Jov
eacI
pevson
in an inlevaclion.
One deIale vilIin lIe
expeclalion
slales Iilevaluve on enolions JoIIovs Jvon
Bevgev's enpIasis
on enolion
expeclalion
slales. TIis deIale vevoIves avound lIe
exlenl lo vIicI enolions exevl an
independenl
eJJecl on
expeclalion
slales,
aIove
and
Ieond
lIe eJJecls oJ
povev
and
pveslige.
Sone
veseavcIevs,
sucI as
SIeII
|1993, 2001, 2004),
viev senlinenls
|niId JeeIings
sucI as
IiIing
ov
disIiIing)
as an
independenl
inJIuence on
expeclalion
slales and IeIaviov in
gvoups.
WIen
lIe slalus
|povev
and
pveslige)
and senlinenls
|niId enolions)
ave
congvuenl,
lIe
IolI exevl an
independenl
eJJecl on
expeclalion
slales and
IeIaviov,
and
IeIaviov veinJovces aII
expeclalion
slales.
WIen, Iovevev,
senlinenls and slalus
ave
inconpaliIIe,
Jov
exanpIe,
a
IigI-slalus pevson
is
disIiIed,
slalus
genevaII
lvunps
senlinenls
and, Ience,
Ias
gvealev
inJIuence on
expeclalions
and IeIaviov.
In conlvasl lo
SIeII
's nodeI is one lIal sees senlinenls as
nedialing
Ielveen slalus
expeclalions
on lIe one side and IeIaviov on lIe olIev
|BiancIi 2004,
BvisIeII &
WeIslev
1997).
In lIis
nodeI,
senlinenls ave vieved as
avising
Jvon
expeclalions
associaled vilI
slalus,
adding
exlva
|Iul
nol
independenl)
Jovce lo
expeclalion
slales and
IeIaviovs,
vilI IeIaviovs
veinJovcing
senlinenls and vilI senlinenls
veinJovcing
slalus dislinclions. Fov
exanpIe, IigI-slalus
aclovs ave
expecled
lo
conlviIule nove in a
gvoup
and lo veceive
gvealev
deJevence Jvon
olIevs,
and vIen
IigI-slalus
aclovs aIso ave
IiIed,
lIe
veceive even
gvealev
deJevence Jvon olIevs.
AnolIev
lIeov I Bidgeva |1994),
sonelines in coIIaIovalion vilI JoInson
|1990),
IIends
expeclalion
slales
lIeov
vilI eIenenls oJ
dvanaluvgicaI
lIeoviz?
ing.
AII silualions Iave
IIuepvinl
vuIes Jov lIe Iinds oJ senlinenls lIal sIouId and
sIouId nol Ie
expevienced
and
expvessed
in silualions. TIese
vuIes,
coupIed
vilI
lIe
expeclalion
slales lIal
naluvaII
avise in
gvoups,
conslvain lIe JIov oJ enolions.
OJ
pavlicuIav inpovlance
in lIis
lIeov
is lIe enolionaI veaclion lo
disagveenenls
lIal avise in lasI
gvoups,
vilI lIe naluve oJ lIe enolions avoused
Ieing
a Junclion oJ
lIe veIalive slalus oJ lIe individuaIs invoIved and lIe allviIulions nade
I
individu?
aIs ovev lIe cause oJ lIe
disagveenenl.
IJ an individuaI is al lIe sane ov
IigIev
vanI
lIan anolIev vilI vIon a
disagveenenl avises,
lIe individuaI
genevaII
naIes an
exlevnaI allviIulion and veveaIs niId
angev |annoance)
lovavd lIe olIev. IJ lIe indi?
viduaI is oJ Iovev slalus lIan lIe
olIev,
lIen sadness
and,
polenliaII, depvession
ave
IiIeI
lo Ie
expevienced.
Because lIeve ave diJJevenl
expeclalions
Jov
IigIev-
and
Iovev-slalus
individuaIs,
IigIev-slalus
individuaIs ave
expecled
lo Ie nove con?
pelenl and, Ience,
covvecl vIen
disagveenenls enevge.
Lovev-slalus individuaIs
genevaII suppovl
lIese
expeclalions
and oJlen sanclion JeIIov Iovev-slalus nen?
Ievs vIo
cIaIIenge
lIe
expeclalion
slales
govevning
lIose in
IigI
and Iov slalus.
38 TUBNEB
?
STETS
In conlvasl lo
disagveenenls, agveenenls anong
nenIevs
possessing
diJJevenl
IeveIs oJ slalus incvease lIe JIov oJ
posilive
enolions
anong gvoup nenIevs,
vilI
IigIev-slalus
individuaIs
expeviencing
niId Jovns oJ
Iappiness
sucI as salisJaclion
and,
as an
oulcone,
expvessing posilive
senlinenls lo Iovev-slalus
gvoup
nenIevs
|Bidgeva 1994).
WIen individuaIs ave oJ
equaI
slalus,
pIeasuve
and
gvalilude
ave
expevienced
and
expvessed
vIen
agveenenl
on lasI aclivilies occuvs. TIe
posilive
enolions
JIoving
Jvon
agveenenls genevaII
Iias
gvoup
decision
naIing
lovavd
agveenenls
valIev lIan
disagveenenls
Iecause
posilive
enolions ave nove
vevavding
lIan
negalive
enolions. As
agveenenls enevge, lIe
add enolionaI
expeclalion
slales lo Iov individuaIs vilI
vaving degvees
oJ slalus sIouId IeIave.
Agveenenls
and lIe enolion
expeclalion
slales lIal
lIe genevale
veinJovce
genevaI
expeclalion
slales
Iecause,
undev condilions oJ
posilive
enolions in lIe
gvoup,
Iovev-slalus individuaIs see
IigIev-slalus
individuaIs as nove
conpelenl,
and as
a vesuIl Iovev-slalus individuaIs ave nove
IiIeI
lo
accepl
lIe Iallev's
decisions,
lIus
veinJovcing
and
pevIaps escaIaling
lIe diJJevenliaI
expeclalions
Jov
IigIev
and Iovev-slalus individuaIs.
LovagIia's
and Housev's
lIeov
adds sone addilionaI
dnanics
lo lIe
expec?
lalion slale
appvoacI |Housev
&
LovagIia
2002,
LovagIia
& Housev
1996).
WIen
IigIev-slalus
individuaIs
expevience
lIe
posilive
enolions
conpaliIIe
vilI lIeiv
slalus,
lIe expvess posilive
enolions lo Iovev-slalus
pevsons
and oJlen aIIov lIen
lo Iave nove inJIuence in lIe
gvoup,
lIus
veducing
lIe
gap
Ielveen
IigIev-
and
Iovev-vanIing
individuaIs. In
conlvasl,
Iovev-slalus
pevsons,
vIo
genevaII expevi?
ence nove
negalive
enolions lIan
IigIev-slalus individuaIs,
oJlen acl lo veduce lIe
slalus oJ
IigIev-vanIing
individuaIs
I evaIualing
lIen
negaliveI
and
pvoviding
Jevev
oppovlunilies
Jov
IigIev-slalus pevsons
lo exevl lIeiv
vanI,
lIeveI Ioveving
lIe slalus oJ lIe
IigIev-vanIing pevson
and
veducing
slalus diJJevences.
LovagIia
and Housev aIso inlvoduce an allviIulion
dnanic
lo lIese
pvocesses.
WIen
IigIev-vanIing gvoup
nenIevs see lIeiv ovn
aIiIil
as
vesponsiIIe
Jov
lIeiv
vanI,
lIe expevience slalus-conpaliIIe
enolions sucI as salisJaclion and
pvide
and ave lIus Iess vesislanl lo lIe inJIuence oJ
Iovev-vanIing
individuaIs,
lIeveI Ioveving
slalus diJJevences and
incveasing gvoup soIidavil. WIen,
Iov?
evev,
IigIev-slalus
individuaIs naIe an exlevnaI allviIulion and see lIeiv vanI as
lIe vesuIl oJ IucI ov exlevnaI
Jovces,
lIe expevience slalus-inconpaliIIe
enolions
sucI as
anxiel, guiIl,
and
Jeav,
vIiIe
Ieconing
deJensive and
vesisling
inJIuence
I Iovev-vanIing pevsons,
lIus
suslaining
lIe slalus
gap
and
veducing gvoup
soI?
idavil.
AllviIulion
pvocesses
aIso
opevale
on
Iovev-slalus
gvoup
nenIevs. WIen
Iovev-vanIing pevsons
see lIeiv vanI as lIe vesuIl oJ lIeiv ovn aclions
|inlevnaI
allviIulion), lIe accepl
lIeiv
vanI,
Jvee vide oJJ lIe
gvoup's
success,
and lIus sus?
lain lIe
gap
Ielveen
IigI-
and
Iov-vanIing pevsons lIal,
in
luvn,
Iovevs
gvoup
soIidavil.
WIen
lIe
naIe exlevnaI allviIulions and see lIeiv vanI as lIe vesuIl
oJ exlevnaI Jovces
Ieond
lIeiv
conlvoI,
lIe pevceive
lIeiv Iovev vanI lo Ie in?
pvopev, expevience
enolions sucI as
angev
and
vesenlnenl,
cIaIIenge IigI-vanIing
nenIevs,
and
lIeveI
veduce lIe
gap
Ielveen
vanIs,
vilI lIe vesuIl lIal
gvoup
soIidavil
incveases.
Mosl
povev
and slalus lIeovies ave
decidedI
nicvo in lIeiv Jocus on lIe veIa?
lions
anong povev, pveslige,
and enolions.
BeIaliveI
Jev oJ lIese lIeovies ave
nacvoIeveI,
Jocusing
on lIe enolions
anong Iavgev suIpopuIalions
in a nove in?
cIusive socielaI
sslen. Anong
lIe
vev
Jev nacvoslvucluvaI lIeovies oJ enolions
is BavIaIel's
|1998) anaIsis
oJ Iov enolions sucI as
conJidence, vesenlnenl,
sIane, vengeJuIness,
and Jeav can Ie
diJJevenliaII
dislviIuled acvoss
segnenls
oJ a
popuIalion
lIal
possess vaving
IeveIs oJ
povev
and
pveslige.
In
nan vas,
lIis
appvoacI
IavIens IacI lo Mavx's vievs oJ slvaliJicalion as
genevaling negalive
enolionaI avousaI and lo nove vecenl lIeovies oJ coIIeclive IeIaviov and sociaI
novenenls.
Fov
BavIaIel,
vIen
cIanges
occuv in sociaI
slvucluves,
individuaIs veacl eno?
lionaII
and
coIIecliveI
lo lIeiv nev
civcunslances,
especiaII
lIe vedislviIulion
oJ vaIued vesouvces sucI as
povev, Ionov,
and naleviaI
veII-Ieing.
WIen
lIe
pevceive
lIal olIevs Iave
gained povev
and olIev vesouvces in vioIalion oJ novns
and cuIluvaI
IeIieJs,
lIe expevience
vesenlnenl,
sonelines
consciousI
Iul oJlen
suIIininaII,
and vesenlnenl incveases
dvanalicaII
vIen one
suIpopuIalion
sees
olIevs as
gaining
al ils
expense.
TIe
IigIs
and Iovs oJ lIe
genevaI
Iusiness
c?
cIe,
vIicI
aIvas cIange
lIe dislviIulion oJ
vesouvces,
ave one Jovce IeIind lIe
vesenlnenl lIal
enevges
in lIose seclovs oJ lIe
sociel
lIal Iose vesouvces. WIen
lIose vIo Iave Iosl vesouvces ave avave oJ lIeiv
vesenlnenl,
lIe
oJlen
ovganize
coIIecliveI
lo seeI
vedislviIulion,
Iul vIen vesenlnenl is
pavliaII vepvessed
and
suIIinaled,
individuaIs ave nove
IiIeI
lo
engage
in devianl IeIaviov.
Feav is anolIev enolion lIal can Ie
diJJevenliaII
dislviIuled. WIen individuaIs
pevceive
lIal
lIe
IacI lIe
povev
lo
puvsue
lIeiv inlevesls ov lIal olIev
segnenls
oJ
sociel
ave loo
povevJuI
Jov lIen lo veaIize lIeiv
inlevesls,
lIe expevience
Jeav, and,
depending
on Iov
lIe
allviIule lIeiv IacI oJ
povev,
lIis Jeav Ieads lo
eilIev a
JIigIl
ov
JigIl vesponse.
IJ
segnenls
oJ a
popuIalion
see lIeiv IacI oJ
povev
as lIe vesuIl oJ lIeiv ovn
JaiIings
and
incapacilies,
Jeav Ieads lo vilIdvavaI and
JIigIl vesponses,
vIeveas vIen olIev
segnenls
oJ lIe
popuIalion
ave
pevceived
lo
Ie
vesponsiIIe
Jov lIeiv IacI oJ
povev,
Jeav luvns lo
angev, aggvession,
and
JigIl
vesponses.
OlIev
negalive
enolions IiIe
vengeJuIness
avise vIen
segnenls
oJ a
popuIalion
pevceive
lIal lIose vilI
povev
Iave
inJvinged upon
lIeiv Iasic
vigIl
lo Jovn nean?
ingJuI
sociaI
veIalionsIips
oJ
coopevalion
vilI olIevs. LiIe
negalive enolions,
nove
posilive
enolions sucI as conJidence can aIso Ie
diJJevenliaII
dislviIuled
acvoss nacvoslvucluves. ConJidence avises vIen
segnenls
oJ lIe
popuIalion pev?
ceive lIal lIeiv Juluve is
pvedicaIIe
and undev
conlvoI:
genevaII,
lIis enolion is
dislviIuled
anong
lIose vilI
povev
and naleviaI vesouvces.
WilI a Jev
exceplions,
IiIe BavIaIel's
anaIsis, povev
and slalus lIeovies oJ
enolions venain nicvo in
Jocus,
aIlIougI pevIaps genevaIizalions
aIoul inlev?
pevsonaI pvocesses
vevoIving
avound
povev, slalus,
expeclalions,
and allviIulions
couId Ie exlended lo nove nacvoslvucluvaI
dnanics aJJecling
enolionaI avousaI
oJ
suIpopuIalions
and coIIeclive aclovs. TIe cuvvenl lIeovies do
convevge
on sone
Iasic
genevaIizalions
40 TUBNEB
?
STETS
1. TIe nove
unequaI
lIe dislviIulion oJ
povev |aulIovil),
slalus
|pveslige),
and naleviaI
veII-Ieing |none),
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal lIis dislviIulion viII
genevale expeclalions
and IeIieJs aIoul lIe
conpelence
and aIiIilies oJ lIose
al diJJevenl vanIs in lIis dislviIulion.
inlevacl,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal enolion
expecla?
lion slales viII
enevge:
lIe nove
congvuenl
lIal lIese enolion
expeclalion
slales ave vilI
expeclalions
slales
avising
Jvon lIe dislviIulion oJ
povev
and
pveslige,
lIe nove
conpeIIing
aII
expeclalion
slales viII Ie on individuaIs.
3.
ConvevseI,
lIe Iess
congvuenl
lIal enolion
expeclalion
slales ave vilI lIose
avising
Jvon diJJevences in
povev
and
pveslige
|and none),
lIe
gvealev
lIe
eJJecl oJ slalus
|povev
and
pveslige)
viII Ie ovev enolion
expeclalion
slales
on IeIaviov.
4. TIe nove lIal
expeclalion
slales associaled vilI diJJuse slalus cIavaclev?
islics Iecone
pavl
oJ
genevaIized
IeIieJs aIoul lIe
vespeclive quaIilies
oJ
individuaIs,
lIe
gvealev
lIe
povev
oJ
expeclalion
slales viII Ie on IeIaviov
and enolions.
5. TIe nove lIal individuaIs and coIIeclive aclovs IoId
povev, pveslige,
and
olIev vesouvces ov
gain
lIese
vesouvces,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience
sucI
posilive
enolions as
salisJaclion,
Iappiness, pvide, veII-Ieing,
and
conJidence and lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
give
oJJ
posilive
enolions lo
olIevs.
6. TIe Iess lIal individuaIs and coIIeclive aclovs IoId
povev, pveslige,
and olIev
vesouvces ov JaiI lo
gain
lIese
vesouvces,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience
sucI
negalive
enolions as
angev, anxiel, sadness,
and
Jeav:
lIese enolions
viII incvease in
inlensil
vIen
|a)
aclovs do nol veceive vesouvces lIal ave
consislenl
vilI,
and
pvopovlionale
lo,
expeclalion
slales and slalus
IeIieJs,
ov
|I)
aclovs do nol veceive vesouvces in
pvopovlion
lo lIeiv slalus and
povev.
7. TIe nove lIal individuaIs naIe allviIulions lo seIJ Jov lIe JaiIuve lo veceive
vesouvces,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience
enolions IiIe sadness
and,
iJ vesouvces veve
expecled, sIane, enIavvassnenl,
guiIl,
and
depvession.
8. TIe nove lIal individuaIs JaiI lo
give
deJevence and
conpIiance
lo olIevs
vIen
lIe
ave
due,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIe individuaIs ave lo JeeI
guiIl
and
sIane,
and lIe nove
IiIeI
lIose vIo ave
desevving
oJ deJevence and
conpIiance
ave lo
expevience angev
and Jeav.
9. TIe nove lIal individuaIs naIe exlevnaI allviIulions Jov lIeiv JaiIuve lo ve?
ceive vesouvces lIal veve
expecled,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience
and
expvess angev
al lIose vIo ave
pevceived
lo Ie
vesponsiIIe
Jov lIeiv
JaiIuve.
10. TIe nove lIal individuaIs veceive vesouvces lIal olIevs
pevceive
as lIeiv
due,
lIe
gvealev
lIe Iallev's vesenlnenl viII Ie oJ lIe Jovnev and lIe nove inlense
lIis vesenlnenl viII Ie vIen individuaIs
veceiving
vevavds Iave nol nel
expeclalions.
ExcIange
TIeovies
AII
excIange
lIeovies viev Iunans as nolivaled lo veceive vevavds ov uliIilies
and avoid cosls and
punisInenls. AIlIougI
lIe vocaIuIavies oJ
excIange
lIeovies
vav sonevIal,
lIe Iasic nodeI is lIal individuaIs incuv cosls
|giving up
vesouvces
ov
Jovgoing
aIlevnalive souvces oJ
vesouvces)
and naIe inveslnenls
|accunuIaled
cosls)
in ovdev lo veceive vesouvces Jvon olIev aclovs. IndividuaIs IeIave in lIis
va
lo veceive a
pvoJil |vesouvces veceived,
Iess cosls and
inveslnenls). Moveovev,
paoJJs
ave assessed
againsl
novnalive slandavds oJ
juslice
and Jaiv
excIange
lIal
can Ie delevnined
I
sucI Jaclovs as
conpavison
oJ one's
paoJJs
and cosls veIalive
lo lIose oJ
olIevs,
pvevious paoJJ
scIeduIes,
expeclalions
Jov
paoJJ
as diclaled
I
novns ov
pasl excIanges,
and lIe veIalive
povev
oJ
excIange pavlnevs.
TIe Iasic
genevaIizalion
in
excIange lIeovizing
on enolions is lIal individuaIs
expevience posilive
enolions vIen
paoJJs
exceed cosls and inveslnenls vIiIe
neeling
slandavds oJ
juslice. ConvevseI,
vIen
paoJJs
do nol exceed cosls and in?
veslnenls and JaII IeIov slandavds oJ vIal is consideved Jaiv and
jusl,
individuaIs
expevience negalive
enolions. TIe naluve and
inlensil
oJ lIe enolions
expevi?
enced
I
individuaIs
vav
vilI a nunIev oJ condilions lIe
lpe
oJ
excIange,
lIe
lpes
oJ slvucluves in vIicI
excIanges
oJ vesouvces
occuv,
lIe veIalive
povev
and
dependence
oJ aclovs on eacI olIev Jov
vesouvces,
lIe
expeclalions
Jov
vesouvces,
lIe slandavds oJ
juslice
lIal
appI
lo lIe
excIange,
and lIe allviIulions lIal ac?
lovs naIe Jov success ov JaiIuve in
veceiving pvoJilaIIe paoJJs.
We veviev eacI oJ
lIese condilions IeIov and discuss Iov
excIange
lIeovisls
deveIop genevaIizalions
aIoul lIe avousaI oJ enolions.
ExcIanges
can Ie oJ Jouv Iasic
lpes |a) pvoduclive
vIen individuaIs nusl co?
ovdinale lIeiv IeIaviovs lo veceive
paoJJs: |I) negolialed
vIen individuaIs
acliveI
Iavgain
ovev line vilI oJJevs and counlevoJJevs lo eslaIIisI vIal vesouvces nusl
Ie
given up
in ovdev lo veceive olIev
vesouvces:
|c) vecipvocaI
vIen one
pavl gives
vesouvces lo anolIev vilI lIe
inpIicil expeclalion
lIal lIis
giJl
oJ vesouvces viII
Ie
vecipvocaled I
lIe
vecipienl
al a
suIsequenl poinl
in
line:
and
|d) genevaIized
vIen individuaIs do nol
diveclI excIange
vesouvces and inslead
pass
vesouvces on
lo aclovs
vIo,
in
luvn,
pass
lIen
aIong
in cIains oJ
excIange
lIal
evenluaII
vovI
lIeiv
va
IacI lo an individuaI
|LavIev 2001).
LavIev Ias
avgued
lIal
pvoduclive
excIanges
lIal occuv vIen individuaIs nusl
coopevale
and cannol
JuII sepavale
lIeiv
vespeclive
conlviIulions
genevale
nove inlense
enolions,
vIelIev
posilive
ov
negalive,
lIan lIe olIev Jovns oJ
excIange. Negolialed excIanges genevale
lIe
nexl nosl enolionaI
avousaI,
aIlIougI
MoIn
|1997)
Ias
avgued
lIal IuiIl in lo ne?
golialed excIanges
ave conJIicl
dnanics |oJJevs
and
counlevoJJevs)
lIal incvease
lIe
negalive
enolionaI JIov in lIe
excIange,
al Ieasl
up
lo lIe
poinl
vIen aclovs
veceive
paoJJs
lIal ave
acceplaIIe
lo lIen.
Indeed,
negolialed excIanges
ave oJlen
cIosed in
IigII
viluaIized
vas
lo veslavl lIe JIov oJ
posilive
aJJecl lIal can nili?
gale
lIe lension and conJIicl
avising
Jvon aclive
Iavgaining. BecipvocaI excIanges
genevale
lIe nexl nosl inlense
enolions,
vIelIev
posilive
vIen
giJls
ave
vecipvo?
caled ov
negalive
vIen
giJls
ave nol
vecipvocaled.
OenevaIized
excIanges
avouse
lIe Ieasl enolion Iecause aclovs
onI indiveclI excIange
vilI eacI olIev.
42 TUBNEB
?
STETS
LavIev
avgues
lIal lIe
Ie
Jovce IeIind lIis diJJevenliaI
capacil
oJ
vaving lpes
oJ
excIanges
lo avouse enolions is veIaled lo lIe
nonsepavaIiIil
oJ aclovs
engaged
in
excIange.
WIen
nonsepavaIiIil
is
IigI,
as in aII
pvoduclive excIange,
aclovs
nusl coovdinale lIeiv eJJovls lo veceive
paoJJs,
and
lIe
cannol
easiI
delevnine
lIeiv veIalive conlviIulions. TIe vesuIl is lIal enolionaI veaclions ave nove
inlense,
vIelIev in a
posilive
ov
negalive
diveclion. BalionaI cIoice lIeovies
concepluaIize
lIis vaviaIIe sonevIal
diJJevenlI, vieving dependence
on lIe
gvoup
as
genevaling
pvivale joinl goods
lIal add a nev vesouvce?lIe eJJecl lIal cones vilI Jace-lo
Jace inlevaclion?vIicI
lIeveI
incveases lIe JIov oJ
posilive
enolions
|HecIlev
1987). Negolialed excIanges
veveaI
onI
a nediun IeveI oJ
nonsepavaIiIil,
and
so lIe enolionaI slaIes ave sonevIal Iovev lIan is lIe case vilI
pvoduclive
excIanges. BecipvocaI excIanges
invoIve even nove
sepavaIiIil
Iecause oJ lIe
line
Iag
Ielveen lIe
giving
and
veceiving
oJ vesouvces. And
genevaIized excIanges
sepavale
lIe
giving
and
veceiving
oJ vesouvces in
pvolvacled
cIains oJ vesouvce
JIovs.
ExcIanges
occuv vilIin diJJevenl
lpes
oJ slvucluves. One
poinl
oJ
vaviaIiIil
is
lIe
degvee
oJ cIose coovdinalion oJ IeIaviovs
anong
individuaIs lo veceive
paoJJs
|i.e.,
vIal LavIev caIIs
pvoduclive excIange).
TIus,
as noled
aIove,
lIe nove lIal
excIanges
invoIve cIose
coovdinalion,
lIe nove inlense ave lIe enolions avoused.
AnolIev veIaled vavialion is lIe naluve oJ lIe nelvovIs vilIin vIicI an
excIange
occuvs.
FosiliveI
connecled
nelvovIs,
in vIicI
excIanges
Ielveen
an
lvo
pavl?
nevs incvease lIe IiIeIiIood lIal
lIe
viII
excIange
vilI olIevs in lIe
nelvovI,
aIso incvease lIe novenenl oJ
posilive
enolions
lIvougI
lIe nelvovI.
Bensil
oJ
nelvovIs aIso incveases lIe JIov oJ
enolions,
vIelIev
lIvougI
lIe eJJecl oJ
posi?
live conneclions
anong
aclovs ov coovdinalion oJ lIeiv aclivilies lo veceive
paoJJs.
MavIovsI
& LavIev
|1994)
Iave
pvoposed
lIal lIis eJJecl oJ nelvovIs is lIe vesuIl
oJ
veacIaIiIil anong
aclovs in a nelvovI and lIe
lendenc
oJ aclovs lo
ovevgen
evaIize Jvon
posilive excIanges
al one
poinl
in lIe nelvovI lo lIe
expeclalions
Jov
posilive excIanges
vilI olIevs in lIe nelvovI vIo ave veacIaIIe.
ConvevseI,
negalive paoJJs
Jov aclovs in a nelvovI veduce
posilive
conneclions and
densil,
lIeveI undevnining
lIe eJJecls oJ lIese slvucluvaI vaviaIIes on enolionaI avousaI.
TIe veIalive
povev
oJ aclovs in an
excIange
is anolIev slvucluvaI condilion in?
JIuencing
enolionaI avousaI. Fov Enevson
|1962),
lIe
povev
oJ aclov A ovev B is a
Junclion oJ lIe
dependence
oJ aclov B on aclov A Jov
vesouvces,
vilI
dependence
oJ B
incveasing |1)
lIe nove A is lIe
onI
souvce oJ vesouvces Jov
B, |2)
lIe nove
B cannol do vilIoul lIe vesouvces
possessed I
A, |3)
lIe nove A Ias aIlevna?
lives Jov lIe vesouvces
pvovided I
B,
and
|4)
lIe Iess B can coevce A.
HigI
lolaI
povev
exisls in an
excIange
vIen A and B ave
equaII dependenl
on eacI olIev
Jov
vesouvces: undev lIese
condilions,
lIe
Iave
Jvequenl excIanges
lIal avouse
posilive
enolions
|LavIev
& Yoon
1993, 1996, 1998:
TIe
el aI.
2002).
Even
vIen lIeve is
inequaIil
in lIe veIalive
povev, Jvequenl excIanges
incvease con?
nilnenls lo
excIange pavlnevs |CooI
& Enevson
1978).
One necIanisn
I
vIicI
Jvequenl excIanges
undev
vaving degvees
oJ veIalive
povev
incvease connilnenl
is veniniscenl oJ BuvIIein's
|1965 [1912]) anaIsis
oJ
veIigious
viles and CoIIins's
|2004)
inlevaclion viluaI
lIeov. Fvequenl excIanges
in vIicI individuaIs veceive
expecled paoJJs genevale posilive
enolions IiIe
pIeasuve,
salisJaclion, inlevesl,
and excilenenl lIal Iecone
oIjecliJied
and,
lIeveI, snIoIized
in
vas
lIal in?
cvease lIe
posilive
enolionaI JIov
|LavIev
& Yoon
1993).
AnolIev necIanisn
is connilnenl lo an
excIange veIalionsIip,
even undev condilions oJ
inequaIil
in vIicI
dependenl
aclovs
na
veceive
suIoplinaI paoJJs.
Connilnenl lo an
excIange
veduces sucI
negalive
enolions as Jeav and
anxiel
lIal cone vilI un?
cevlainl
ovev
paoJJs
Jov IolI lIe
dependenl
and
povevJuI
aclovs,
and in so
doing,
connilnenls veduce lIe enolionaI cosls and
lIeveI
vaise
pvoJils
in lIe
excIange
|KoIIocI 1994).
Expeclalions
aIso inJIuence lIe IeveI oJ enolionaI avousaI. TIe
IigIev
individ?
uaIs'
expeclalions
Jov
paoJJs
and lIe nove
paoJJs
JaII IeIov lIis
expeclalion
slale,
lIe nove inlense ave
negalive
enolions IiIe
angev, Jeav,
and Jvuslvalion. Con?
vevseI,
vIen
paoJJs
neel
expeclalions,
individuaIs
expevience posilive
enolions
IiIe salisJaclion.
Expeclalion
slales cone Jvon a
vaviel
oJ
souvces,
incIuding pasl
expevience
in a
given excIange,
slandavds oJ
juslice
and Jaiv
excIange,
and con?
pavison
IeveIs. TIe
Ie poinl
is
lIal,
vIalevev lIeiv
ovigin, expeclalion
slales cveale
lIe
polenliaI
Jov nove inlense enolionaI veaclions Iecause even
pvoJilaIIe paoJJs
lIal JaII IeIov
expeclalions genevale negalive
enolions.
ConvevseI, paoJJs
lIal
exceed
expeclalions
Iead lo addilionaI
posilive
enolions,
aIlIougI juslice
novns
can veduce lIis
posilive
aJJecl iJ
paoJJs
exceed
I
loo Jav lIe
juslice
slandavds oJ
equil |lIal is,
paoJJs
sIouId Ie
pvopovlionale
lo cosls and inveslnenls veIalive
lo lIe cosls and inveslnenls oJ
olIevs).
Novns oJ
juslice
nol
onI
eslaIIisI
expeclalions
Jov Jaiv
paoJJs,
Iul
lIe
aIso
opevale independenlI
oJ enolionaI avousaI. TIeve is a sonevIal
anIiguous
en?
pivicaI
Iilevaluve on vIicI vuIes ave
enpIoed I
individuaIs in
delevnining juslice
in
excIanges?Jov exanpIe, equil, equaIil,
ov
pvoceduve?Iul
lIe dala
appeav
lo
JaII lovavd
equil, vIeveI
individuaIs deJine as
jusl paoJJs
lIal ave
pvopovlion?
ale lo lIeiv cosls and inveslnenls. Even vIen
pvoceduves
Jov
aIIocaling paoJJs
ave
pevceived
as
unJaiv,
lIe
excIange
is vieved as
jusl
iJ
equil
slandavds Iave
Ieen nel. Honans's
|1961) oviginaI
JovnuIalion oJ lIe Iav oJ dislviIulive
juslice
avgued
lIal individuaIs caIcuIale lIeiv
paoJJs
veIalive nol
onI
lo lIeiv cosls and
inveslnenls Iul aIso lo lIe
cosls, inveslnenls,
and
paoJJs
oJ olIevs. IJ
paoJJs
covvespond
lo lIe
pevson's
and olIevs' veIalive cosls and
inveslnenls,
dislviIulive
juslice pvevaiIs,
and individuaIs
expevience posilive
enolions.
IJ, Iovevev,
lIe
paoJJs
lo seIJ do nol
covvespond
lo cosls and
inveslnenls,
ov iJ olIevs veceive
vevavds vilIoul
incuvving
suJJicienl cosls and
inveslnenls,
a
pevson expeviences
a
sense oJ
injuslice
and Iecones
angv. Lalev,
Honans
|1974)
aIandoned lIis idea
and avlicuIaled lIe
aggvession-appvovaI pvoposilion
lIal
enpIasizes expeclalion
slales WIen individuaIs veceive vevavds lIal ave
expecled, especiaII
a
gvealev
ve?
vavd lIan
expecled, lIe expevience pIeasuve
and enil
posilive
enolions lo
olIevs,
vIeveas vIen a
pevson
does nol veceive vevavds lIal ave
expecled,
lIe individuaI
Iecones
angv
and IeIaves
aggvessiveI.
Honans aIso
avgued
lIal iJ individuaIs
ave ovev-vevavded
I
a
signiJicanl Jaclov,
lIe
JeeI
guiIl.
44 TUBNEB
?
STETS
Move vecenl
lIeovizing
on
juslice adopls
lIe nain eIenenls oJ Honans's
oviginaI
JovnuIalion on dislviIulive
juslice
and adds a nunIev oJ veJinenenls.
MavIovsI
|1985) avgues
lIal caIcuIalions oJ dislviIulive
juslice
vevoIve avound a slandavd
oJ
juslice:
a
conpavison pvocess I
vIicI acluaI
paoJJs
and oulcones in an ex?
cIange
ave neasuved
againsl
lIis
juslice
slandavd:
and a sense oJ
congvuil
ov a
discvepanc
Ielveen oulcones and
slandavds,
vilI
discvepanc
Ielveen
paoJJs
and lIe
juslice
slandavds
pvoducing negalive
enolions
|and
vilI no
discvepanc
genevaling posilive enolions).
In a siniIav
vein,
Jasso
|1980, 1990, 1993) avgues
lIal
juslice
is a
IogavilInic
Junclion oJ lIe valio Ielveen a
pevson's
acluaI sIave
oJ vesouvces and vIal lIis
pevson pevceives
as
jusl
ov Jaiv. TIe
veIalionsIip
is
Iog?
avilInic Iecause il laIes nove ovev-vevavd lIan undev-vevavd lo
genevale
a sense
oJ
injuslice.
Hence,
individuaIs ave nove
IigII
alluned lo undev-vevavds lIan
ovev-vevavds. A veIaled
Jinding I Heglvedl
& KiIIian
|1999)
is lIal individuaIs
expevience guiIl onI
vIen
lIe pevceive
lIal lIeiv vevavds and
paoJJs
Iave
neg?
alive
consequences
Jov lIe
jusl paoJJs
lo olIevs.
Moveovev,
individuaIs'
juslice
evaIualions ave nol
onI
inJIuenced
I
vevavds
|jusl,
ovev-, and
undev-vevavds)
Iul
aIso
I punisInenls.
BeIalive lo
expeclalions,
a snaIIev anounl oJ
punisInenl
genevales
as nucI oJ a sense oJ
injuslice
as
gvealev
anounls oJ
punisInenl.
TIus,
lIe iniliaI
punisInenls
exevl lIe nosl enolionaI
inpacl
on individuaIs'
negalive
enolionaI avousaI. A JinaI eIenenl oJ Jasso's
lIeov
cones IacI lo Honans's con?
cevn vilI
conpavison pvocesses.
IndividuaIs
expevience posilive
enolions sucI
as
Iappiness
and salisJaclion vIen lIeiv
paoJJs
ave
gvealev
lIan lIose
given
lo olIevs.
ConvevseI, lIe expevience negalive
enolions IiIe
angev
vIen lIeiv
paoJJs
ave Iess lIan lIe vevavds oJ olIevs avound lIen. Fovev
advanlage
and
disadvanlage
aIso inJIuence individuaIs' sense oJ
juslice
ov
injuslice |Heglvedl
1990).
TIose in a
povev-advanlaged posilion
vIo veceive an ovev-vevavd ave
nove
IiIeI
lo JeeI lIal lIis oulcone is desevved
and,
as a
vesuIl,
ave Iess
IiIeI
lo
expvess gvalilude
and veIaled
posilive
enolions lo lIose vIo Iave
pvovided
lIe
ovev-vevavd.
AllviIulion
pvocesses
aIso aJJecl lIe enolions lIal individuaIs
expevience
in ex?
cIange
veIalions. LavIev
|2001) avgues
lIal individuaIs can naIe allviIulions Jov
causes oJ
excIange
oulcones lo a
vaviel
oJ
oIjecls, incIuding
lasI, seIJ, olIev,
and
sociaI unil. IJ allviIulions Jov
excIange paoJJs
ave allviIuled lo lIe
lasI,
individu?
aIs
expevience pIeasanlness
vIen lasI IeIaviovs ave
pvoJilaIIe
and
unpIeasanlness
vIen
lIe
ave nol. IJ allviIulions ave nade lo
seIJ,
individuaIs
expevience pvide
vIen
excIanges
ave
pvoJilaIIe
and sIane vIen
lIe
ave nol. IJ allviIulions ave
nade lo
olIev,
gvalilude
is
expvessed
lo lIose vIo ave seen as lIe cause oJ
pvoJilaIIe
paoJJs
and
angev
al olIevs vIen
paoJJs
ave nol
vevavding. FinaII,
iJ allviIulions
ave nade lo lIe sociaI unil in vIicI
excIange
occuvs, individuaIs
expevience
aJJec?
live allacInenl vIen
paoJJs pvoduce posilive
enolions and aJJeclive delacInenl
vIen
lIe
ave nol.
AllviIulions,
LavIev
|2001) avgues,
veveaI a
pvoxinaI
Iias,
vilI
posilive
ex?
cIange paoJJs
in
negolialed
and
vecipvocaI excIanges
nosl
IiIeI
lo Ie nade lo
seIJ,
lIus
genevaling JeeIings
oJ
pvide.
TIe
angev
lIal is avoused Jvon
unpvoJilaIIe
excIanges
is nosl
IiIeI
lo veveaI a dislaI Iias
and, Ience,
Ie allviIuled lo olIevs
and,
polenliaII,
lo lIe lasI ov lIe sociaI unil. Bul in
pvoduclive excIanges
in vIicI
individuaIs nusl coovdinale aclions lo acIieve
paoJJs,
sone oJ lIe
pvoxinaI
Iias
can Ie ovevcone Iecause individuaIs cannol
sepavale cIeavI
lIeiv conlviIulions
lo lIe
paoJJs,
and lIus allviIulions ave nosl
IiIeI
lo Ie nade lo lIe sociaI unil
in
pvoduclive excIanges.
As a
vesuIl,
individuaIs JeeI aJJeclive allacInenl lo lIe
sociaI unil. Oiven lIe dislaI Iias Jov
negalive
oulcones,
allviIulions in
pvoduclive
excIanges
ave nade lo lIe sociaI unil vIen
paoJJs
ave nol
pvoJilaIIe
ov ave nol as
pvoJilaIIe
as
expecled,
and individuaIs
expevience
aJJeclive delacInenl ov aIien?
alion Jvon lIe sociaI unil.
Fovev-dependence dnanics
aIso inJIuence allviIulions
and enolions. WIien
povev-advanlaged
aclovs
expevience juslice
in
excIange
ve?
Ialions,
lIe
ave nosl
IiIeI
lo naIe seIJ-allviIulions
and,
lIeveI, expevience
posilive
enolions IiIe seIJ-salisJaclion and
pvide
lovavd seIJ
|CooI
&
Heglvedl
1983,
Heglvedl
& CooI
1987,
Heglvedl
el aI.
1993).
In
sun,
excIange lIeov
Ias
deveIoped
a
Iavge
sel oJ
genevaIizalions
on Iov
enolions ave eJJecled
I excIange pvocesses.
TIese can Ie sunnavized as JoIIovs
expevience pvoJilaIIe excIange paoJJs
veIalive
lo
|a)
assessnenls oJ lIeiv ovn cosls and inveslnenls as veII as lIe
cosls,
inveslnenls,
and
paoJJs
oJ
olIevs, |I) expeclalion
slales Jov
paoJJs,
and
|c)
slandavds oJ
juslice,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience posilive
enolions sucI as salisJaclion and
Iappiness:
and lIe nove lIal
paoJJs
exceed
expeclalions
and slandavds oJ
juslice,
lIe nove
IiIeI
individuaIs
ave
evenluaII
lo
expevience guiIl,
Iul
onI
undev condilions oJ
IigI
ovev
vevavd and
pevceplions
lIal ovev-vevavds cause
unjusl
undev-vevavds lo
olIevs.
in ne?
golialed
and
vecipvocaI excIanges,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal lIeiv allviIulions
Jov lIe causes IeIind lIis oulcone viII veveaI a
pvoxinaI Iias,
enaIIing
individuaIs lo
expevience
nove inlense
posilive
enolions sucI as
pvide:
lIe
nove
povev-advanlaged
lIal individuaIs ave in an
excIange
veIalion,
lIe
nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo naIe seIJ-allviIulions and lIe Iess
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience guiIl
Jov
IigI
IeveIs oJ ovev-vevavd.
3. TIe nove lIal individuaIs JaiI lo veceive
paoJJs pvopovlionale
lo
|a)
as?
sessnenls oJ lIeiv ovn cosls and inveslnenls
conpaved
lo lIe cosls and
inveslnenls oJ
olIevs, |I) expeclalion
slales Jov
paoJJs,
and
|c)
lIe veI?
evanl slandavds oJ
juslice,
lIe nove
IiIeI lIe
ave lo
expevience nega?
live enolions sucI as
angev,
vilI sucI
angev enevging
nove
vapidI
lIan
posilive
enolions Jov
pvoJilaIIe excIange paoJJs
and vilI allviIulions
Jov
unpvoJilaIIe paoJJs veveaIing
a dislaI Iias
and, lIus,
veveaIing angev
lovavd
olIevs,
unpIeasanlness
lovavd lIe
lasI,
and aIienalion Jvon lIe
gvoup.
4. TIe nove lIal an
excIange
occuvs vilIin
posiliveI
connecled and
IigI
densil
nelvovIs invoIved in
coopevalion |i.e., pvoduclive excIange),
lIe
46 TUBNEB
?
STETS
nove
IiIeI
lIal individuaIs viII
and
posilive
enolions,
Ieading
lIen lo naIe exlevnaI allviIulions and lo
expvess pIeasuve
and
gvalilude
lovavd olIevs and aJJeclive allacInenl lo
lIe sociaI unil.
5. TIe nove
JvequenlI
lIal
excIange
occuvs
anong individuaIs, especiaII
vIen
lIe
ave
nuluaII dependenl
on eacI olIev Jov
vesouvces,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal
posilive
enolions sucI as
IiIing, pIeasuve,
salisJaclion, inlevesl,
and excilenenl viII Ie
expevienced
and
expvessed
lo
excIange pavlnevs,
and lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal lIese
pavlnevs
viII
deveIop
connilnenls lo lIe
excIange veIalionsIip,
and,
as a
vesuIl,
lIe nove
IiIeI
lIal
negalive
eno?
lions sucI as
Jeav, anxiel,
and
uncevlainl
lIal avise in
excIanges
viII Ie
nuled,
lIeveI veducing
lIe cosls oJ
excIange
and
vaising
nel
pvoJils
Jov
eacI
pavlnev
lo lIe
excIange.
FBOBLEMS IN THEOBIES OF HUMAN EMOTIONS
TIe BeIalive
NegIecl
oJ EvoIulion and
BioIog
SocioIog
in
genevaI
Ias Ieen veIuclanl lo
slud
lIe
IioIogicaI
Iases oJ Iunan
IeIaviov, lIougIl,
and
aclion,
even in lIe
socioIog
oJ enolions vIeve lIeve can
Ie IillIe douIl lIal Iunan aJJecl Ias a
IioIogicaI
Iasis,
Ioned IiIe
an
olIev Ii?
oIogicaI
lvail
I
evoIulion.
OnI
a Jev
socioIogisls
Iave venluved inlo an anaI?
sis
oJ lIe
evoIulionav
Jovces lIal Iave
sIaped
Iunan enolions
|Jov exanpIe,
Hannond
1990, 2004:
Tuvnev
2000:
WenlvovlI &
YavdI 1994).
As a
vesuIl,
so?
cioIogisls
sliII IoId an
ovevI
conslvuclionisl viev oJ enolions as lIe
pvoducl
oJ
cuIluve.
Yel,
il is cIeav lIal lIeve ave
pvinav
ov Iavd-vived enolions?al a nin?
inun
salisJaclion-Iappiness,
avevsion-Jeav,
assevlion-angev,
and
disappoinlnenl
sadness
|and pevIaps
olIevs sucI as
disgusl, suvpvise, anlicipalion, excilenenl,
and
inlevesl). TIvougI pvocesses
lIal ave nol
JuII undevslood,
lIis Iase oJ
pvinav
enolions is eIaIovaled inlo
conpIex
vavianls and conIinalions oJ enolions
|see
Kenpev
1987,
FIulcIiI
1980,
Tuvnev
2000).
Il is aII loo
eas
lo assevl lIal nove
conpIex
Jovns oJ enolions ave lIe
pvoducl
oJ
cuIluve,
as
nan
Iave
done,
Iul lIis assevlion is
pvoIaII vvong.
TIeve is a
neuvoIogicaI
Iasis Jov
sIane,
guiIl, jeaIous, vengeance, pvide, snpalI,
and
olIev enolions lIal ave IuiIl Jvon a Jev
pvinav
enolions
|Tuvnev
& Slels
2005).
SocioIogicaI lIeovizing
on enolions cannol
ignove
lIis
IioIogicaI
Iasis and lIe
evoIulionav
Jovces lIal seIecled on Ioninid and Iunan
neuvo-analon.
TIeve can
Ie no
douIl,
oJ
couvse, lIal sociaI
slvucluve, cuIluve,
and sociaIizalion
expeviences
Iave enovnous eJJecls on Iov
pavlicuIav
enolions ave
expvessed, jusl
as Iunans'
innale
capacilies
Jov
Ianguage
ave condilioned
I
cuIluve,
Iul lIis does nol nean
lIal lIe
capacil
Jov lIe enolions is
puveI
lIe
pvoducl
oJ an enolion cuIluve and
sociaIizalion inlo lIis cuIluve. TIe Jacl lIal lIe sane enolions
appeav
acvoss aII
Iunan cuIluves
avgues
Jov a
IioIogicaI
Iasis lIal
socioIogisls
need lo undevsland.
TIeovizing
in
socioIog
sIouId, lIeveJove,
nol
onI lv
lo
expIain
lIe condilions
undev vIicI
pavlicuIav
Iinds oJ enolions ave
avoused,
il sIouId aIso seeI lo discovev
vI pavlicuIav
enolionaI
capacilies
exisl in lIe Jivsl
pIace.
Enolions and Consciousness
Mosl
socioIogicaI
lIeovies Jocus on
JeeIings,
ov conscious avaveness oJ
aJJecl,
Iul in
Jacl,
enolions ave nol
aIvas
conscious. TIeve is nov soIid evidence lIal
Iunans Iave a suIconscious enolionaI
nenov sslen
and lIal lIe enolions ex?
pvessed I
individuaIs ave nol
aIvas
lIe sane as lIose
lIe acluaII
JeeI. Add lo
lIis
neuvoIogicaI
Jacl lIe
dnanics
oJ
vepvession
and olIev deJense
necIanisns,
and il is cIeav lIal
socioIogisls
viII need lo
expand lIeovizing Ieond
conscious
slales oJ
JeeIing
lo a nove
genevaI
concevn vilI
enolions,
vIelIev conscious ov
unconscious. Al
pvesenl, onI
a Jev
evoIulionav appvoacIes |Jov exanpIe,
Tuvnev
2000),
a
coupIe
oJ
pscIoanaIlic pevspeclives
vilIin
snIoIic
inlevaclionisn
|Jov exanpIe,
ScIeJJ
1988),
and one nacvoslvucluvaI
lIeov |BavIaIel 1998) ap?
peav viIIing
lo lIeovize aIoul lIe condilions undev vIicI enolions ave
vepvessed
and aIoul lIe eJJecls oJ deJense necIanisns on
IeIaviov, inlevaclion,
and sociaI
ovganizalion.
Enolions and Molivalion
SocioIogisls
Iave Ieen veIuclanl lo
concepluaIize
Iunan nolivalion
Ieond
sone
valIev
sinpIe
ideas,
sucI as lIal Iunans ave nolivaled lo conJivn
idenlilies:
Iu?
nans ave nolivaled lo nainlain
cognilive consislenc:
Iunans ave nolivaled lo
veceive
pscIic pvoJils
in
excIanges:
Iunans ave nolivaled lo incvease IeveIs oJ
enolionaI
enevg:
and Iunans ave nolivaled lo
gain povev
and
pveslige.
TIe
slud
oJ enolions
innedialeI expands
lIis navvov viev oJ Iunan nolivalion Iecause
vivluaII an
enolionaI slale
pusIes
Iunans lo IeIave in a
pavlicuIav va.
TIe
pvoIIen
vilI nucI lIeovelicaI vovI in
socioIog
is lIal eacI
lIeov
lends lo Jocus
on a
vev
navvov
vange
oJ Iunan
enolionaIil,
oJlen
posiling
lIal cevlain enolions
ave nove
inpovlanl
lIan olIevs Jov
undevslanding
Iunan nolivalion and IeIaviov.
Il
na
veII Ie lIal sone enolions ave
especiaII inpovlanl
Jov lIe
pvocesses
oJ
inlevesl lo
socioIogisls,
Iul
socioIogicaI
lIeovies
appeav
lo Iave Iecone Jocused
pvenaluveI.
Sone lIeovies addvess
onI negalive
and
posilive
vaIences
lIal,
as a
slavling
poinl,
ave a veasonaIIe
pIace
lo
Iegin,
Iul lIeve ave so
nan
vavielies oJ
posilive
and
negalive enolions,
and
speciJic
enolions do naIe a diJJevence in Iov
peopIe
IeIave. Sone lIeovies
enpIasize jusl
a
coupIe enolions?sa, pvide
and sIane?
as naslev enolions
Iul,
suveI,
lIeve ave nove lIan
jusl
lIese lvo. OlIev lIeovies
enpIasize
niId enolions ov
senlinenls,
sucI as
IiIing
and
disIiIing
ov
pIeasanlness
and
unpIeasanlness,
Iul lIese do nol
capluve
lIe JuII
vange
oJ enolions. Favl
oJ lIe
pvoIIen
in
lIeovizing
is lIal nucI veseavcI is done on conlvived
gvoups
anong
vIicI nove inlense enolions ave diJJicuIl lo avouse
|and
iJ
avoused,
vun inlo
Iunan
suIjecl veslviclions).
As is
oIvious, slvong
enolionaI slales sucI as
Ialved,
vengeance, angsl, depvession, jeaIous,
Iove,
and
jo
dvive Iunan
IeIaviov,
and
48 TUBNEB
?
STETS
lIese and olIev
slvong
enolions need lo Ie
pavl
oJ lIeovies lIal seeI lo
expIain
Iunan
nolivalion, IeIaviov,
and
ovganizalion.
Enolions and SociaI Slvucluve
TIe cuvvenl lIeovies oJ enolions Jocus on a valIev Iiniled sel oJ slvucluvaI
pvop?
evlies as
inJIuencing
enolionaI avousaI
povev, slalus,
and
pevIaps densil
oJ nel?
vovIs. TIese
na
indeed Ie
Ie pvopevlies desevving
oJ allenlion
I socioIogisls,
Iul
lIe
cannol
possiII
Ie lIe
onI pvopevlies.
Moveovev,
nosl lIeovies oJ eno?
lions ave nicvoslvucluvaI in
Jocus,
Iul
suveI
lIeve ave
nacvodnanic
enolionaI
Jovces. Enolions ave dislviIuled acvoss nacvoslvucluves.
TIe
ave lIe Jovce IeIind
connilnenls lo ov disaJJeclion Jvon nacvoslvucluves. Enolions ave vIal dvive
peopIe
lo leav dovn nacvoslvucluves.
TIe
ave
inpIicaled
in aII Jovns oJ coIIeclive
IeIaviov. In
genevaI,
lIeve needs lo Ie nucI nove
inlegvalion
oJ sociaI
pscIoIog?
icaI lIeovies vilI lIose
deaIing
vilI neso- and nacvoIeveI
pIenonena. Indeed,
lIeovizing
aIoul enolions can
pvovide
one
va
lo addvess lIe
pvoIIen
oJ
IinIing
nicvo, neso,
and nacvo IeveIs oJ
anaIsis.
WilI Jev
exceplions |e.g.,
CoIIins
2004,
ScIeJJ
1994), socioIog
oJ enolion veseavcIevs Iave nol done lIis.
Enolions and CuIluve
SocioIogicaI
lIeovies
cIeavI
Iave a cuIluvaI Iias as evidenced
I
lIe
Ieav
en?
pIasis given
lo enolion
ideoIogies
and vuIes. TIis Iias lends lo
suppovl
a sociaI
conslvuclionisl viev oJ
enolions,
vilI lIe vesuIl lIal
IioIogicaI
Jovces ave undev
enpIasized. SuvpvisingI,
even vilIin lIe JvanevovI oJ a cuIluvaI
appvoacI,
lIeve
Ias Ieen
veIaliveI
IillIe
anaIsis
oJ
speciJic
enolions and Iov
lIe
ave
pavl
oJ
lIe enolion cuIluve. CIavI's
|1997) anaIsis
oJ
snpalI,
Jov
exanpIe,
is nolaIIe
Jov ils eJJovl lo
speciJ
lIe Iinds oJ cuIluvaI vuIes
govevning
Iov
snpalI
is
used
I
individuaIs. TIeve is a
gveal
deaI oJ
nelapIovicaI Ianguage
aIoul enolion
ideoIogies,
vuIes,
Iogics, vocaIuIavies,
and lIe
IiIe,
Iul lIeve is
suvpvisingI
IillIe
lIeovizing
aIoul lIe conneclions
anong
lIese
pvopevlies
oJ cuIluve and
speciJic
enolions,
lo
sa nolIing
oJ lIe JuII
avva
oJ enolions lIal Iunans can
expevience.
TIus,
vIal is lvue oJ lIeovies
enpIasizing
lIe eJJecls oJ sociaI slvucluve on eno?
lions,
and vice
vevsa,
is aIso lvue oJ lIe cuIluvaI
enpIasis. OnI
a Iiniled
vange
oJ
enolions and cuIluvaI Jovces is sludied. SucI navvovness is aII lIe nove
suvpvising
given
lIe sociaI conslvuclionisls' IeIieJ lIal lIe JuII
avva
oJ enolionaI
expvession
is
cuIluvaII
delevnined.
CONCLUSION
Bespile
lIe aIove
poinls
oJ
cvilicisn,
lIe
socioIog
oJ enolions Ias nade venavI?
aIIe
pvogvess
ovev lIe
pasl
lIvee decades. TIe
vovIing genevaIizalions
lIal ve
Iave
pvesenled,
and lIe
nan speciJic IpolIeses
lIal can Ie
genevaled
Jvon lIese
Ivoad
genevaIizalions, avgue
Jov a
considevaIIe
polenliaI
Jov cunuIalive
lIeovizing
in lIe neav Juluve. One
possiIIe palI
in cunuIalive
lIeov
is lo
deveIop
a nove
gen?
evaI
lIeov
oJ lIe Jovces lIal incvease
speciJic posilive
enolions?Jovces sucI as
conJivnalion oJ
seIJ:
pvoJilaIIe excIange paoJJs: consislenc anong cognilions:
seIJ-allviIulions Jov conJivnalion oJ seIJ and
pvoJilaIIe excIange paoJJs:
covve?
spondence
Ielveen
JeeIing
vuIes and acluaI
JeeIings: congvuence anong cognilions
aIoul
seIJ, olIev, voIes,
and
silualion: vIlInic sncIvonizalion
oJ laII and
Iod
Ianguage: gains
in
povev
and
pveslige:
and so on.
ConvevseI,
cunuIalive
lIeov
couId Jocus on lIose Jovces lIal incvease
negalive
enolionaI avousaI lIe convevse
oJ aII lIose lIal ave Iisled
aIove,
Iul
pevIaps
olIev Jovces sucI as lIe naluve oJ
lIe
oIjecls
Jov allviIulions
|seIJ, olIev, silualion,
ov nicvo lo nacvo sociaI
unils)
ov lIe eJJecls oJ
vepvession
in
inlensiJing
and
lvansnuling
enolionaI
vesponses.
AnolIev Iine oJ
IuiIding
cunuIalive
lIeov
couId cone vilI eJJovls lo
speciJ
lIe
cuIluvaI and slvucluvaI condilions undev vIicI
an
ov aII lIe
pvocesses genevaling
eilIev
posilive
ov
negalive
enolions ave nosl
IiIeI
lo Ie aclivaled. TIese Iines oJ
lIeovelicaI
snlIesis
ave
onI
a
slavling poinl
Iecause
socioIogicaI lIeovizing
viII
need lo
expIain
Iov
speciJic
cIasses oJ enolions
|Ieond posilive
and
negalive)
ave avoused undev
speciJic
slvucluvaI and cuIluvaI condilions and
lIvougI speciJic
IioIogicaI
and
pscIoIogicaI pvocesses. TIus,
Jov aII lIe
pvogvess
in
undevslanding
enolionaI
dnanics, socioIogicaI lIeovizing
on enolions sliII Ias a
Iong va
lo
go.
TIe AnnuaI Beviev
oJ SocioIog
is onIine al
Illp//soc.annuaIvevievs.ovg
LITEBATUBE CITEB
BavIaIel JM. 1998.
Enolion,
SociaI
TIeov,
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MacvosocioIogi
caI
AppvoacI. CanIvidge,
UK
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Univ. Fvess
Bevgev
J. 1988. Biveclions in
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BiancIi A. 2004.
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STETS
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Heglvedl KA,
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FscIoI. Q.
5210
21
HocIscIiId AB. 1979. Enolion
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JeeIing
vuIes,
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85551-75
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Heavl
ConnevciaIizalion
oJ
Hunan
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HocIscIiId AB. 1990.
IdeoIog
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a
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palI
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Kenpev
1990, pp.
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Honans OC. 1961. SociaI BeIaviov Ils EIe?
nenlav
Fovns. Nev YovI
Havcouvl,
Bvace
& WovId
Honans OC. 1974. SociaI BeIaviov Ils EIe?
nenlav
Fovns. Nev YovI
Havcouvl,
Bvace
& WovId. 2nd ed.
Housev
JA, LovagIiaMJ.
2002.
Slalus, enolion,
and lIe
deveIopnenl
oJ
soIidavil
in slvaliJied
lasI
gvoups.
Adv.
Ovoup
Fvocess. 19109-37
Jasso O. 1980. A nev
lIeov
oJ dislviIulive
jus?
lice. An. SocioI. Bev. 453-32
Jasso O. 1990. MelIods Jov lIe lIeovelicaI and
enpivicaI anaIsis
oJ
conpavison pvocesses.
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MelIodoIog,
ed. CC
CIogg, pp.
369-419.
WasIinglon,
BC An. SocioI. As
soc.
Jasso O. 1993. CIoice and enolion in
conpav?
ison
lIeov.
Balion. Soc. 5231-74
Kenpev
TB. 1978. A SociaI InlevaclionaI TIe?
ov oJ
Enolions. Nev YovI
WiIe
Kenpev
TB. 1984.
Fovev, slalus,
and enolions
a
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Sociological Theories of Human Emotions

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SocioIogicaI TIeovies oJ Hunan Enolions

AulIov|s) JonalIan H. Tuvnev and Jan E. Slels

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