350 BC

CATEGORIES
by Aristotle
translated by E. M. Edghill
1
Things are said to be naed !e"#i$o%ally! &hen' tho#gh they ha$e a
%oon nae' the de(inition %orres)onding &ith the nae di((ers (or
ea%h. Th#s' a real an and a (ig#re in a )i%t#re %an both lay %lai to
the nae !anial!* yet these are e"#i$o%ally so naed' (or' tho#gh
they ha$e a %oon nae' the de(inition %orres)onding &ith the nae
di((ers (or ea%h. +or sho#ld any one de(ine in &hat sense ea%h is an
anial' his de(inition in the one %ase &ill be a))ro)riate to that
%ase only.
On the other hand' things are said to be naed !#ni$o%ally! &hi%h
ha$e both the nae and the de(inition ans&ering to the nae in %oon.
A an and an o, are both !anial!' and these are #ni$o%ally so
naed' inas#%h as not only the nae' b#t also the de(inition' is
the sae in both %ases- (or i( a an sho#ld state in &hat sense ea%h
is an anial' the stateent in the one %ase &o#ld be identi%al &ith
that in the other.
Things are said to be naed !deri$ati$ely!' &hi%h deri$e their
nae (ro soe other nae' b#t di((er (ro it in terination. Th#s the
graarian deri$es his nae (ro the &ord !graar!' and the
%o#rageo#s an (ro the &ord !%o#rage!.
.
+ors o( s)ee%h are either si)le or %o)osite. E,a)les o( the
latter are s#%h e,)ressions as !the an r#ns!' !the an &ins!* o( the
(orer !an!' !o,!' !r#ns!' !&ins!.
O( things thesel$es soe are )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t' and are ne$er
)resent in a s#b/e%t. Th#s !an! is )redi%able o( the indi$id#al
an' and is ne$er )resent in a s#b/e%t.
By being !)resent in a s#b/e%t! I do not ean )resent as )arts are
)resent in a &hole' b#t being in%a)able o( e,isten%e a)art (ro the
said s#b/e%t.
Soe things' again' are )resent in a s#b/e%t' b#t are ne$er
)redi%able o( a s#b/e%t. +or instan%e' a %ertain )oint o(
graati%al 0no&ledge is )resent in the ind' b#t is not )redi%able o(
any s#b/e%t* or again' a %ertain &hiteness ay be )resent in the
body 1(or %olo#r re"#ires a aterial basis2' yet it is ne$er
)redi%able o( anything.
Other things' again' are both )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t and )resent in
a s#b/e%t. Th#s &hile 0no&ledge is )resent in the h#an ind' it is
)redi%able o( graar.
There is' lastly' a %lass o( things &hi%h are neither )resent in a
s#b/e%t nor )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t' s#%h as the indi$id#al an or the
indi$id#al horse. B#t' to s)ea0 ore generally' that &hi%h is
indi$id#al and has the %hara%ter o( a #nit is ne$er )redi%able o( a
s#b/e%t. 3et in soe %ases there is nothing to )re$ent s#%h being
)resent in a s#b/e%t. Th#s a %ertain )oint o( graati%al 0no&ledge is
)resent in a s#b/e%t.
3
4hen one thing is )redi%ated o( another' all that &hi%h is
)redi%able o( the )redi%ate &ill be )redi%able also o( the s#b/e%t.
Th#s' !an! is )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an* b#t !anial! is
)redi%ated o( !an!* it &ill' there(ore' be )redi%able o( the
indi$id#al an also- (or the indi$id#al an is both !an! and
!anial!.
I( genera are di((erent and %o5ordinate' their di((erentiae are
thesel$es di((erent in 0ind. Ta0e as an instan%e the gen#s !anial!
and the gen#s !0no&ledge!. !4ith (eet!' !t&o5(ooted!' !&inged!'
!a"#ati%!' are di((erentiae o( !anial!* the s)e%ies o( 0no&ledge
are not disting#ished by the sae di((erentiae. One s)e%ies o(
0no&ledge does not di((er (ro another in being !t&o5(ooted!.
B#t &here one gen#s is s#bordinate to another' there is nothing to
)re$ent their ha$ing the sae di((erentiae- (or the greater %lass is
)redi%ated o( the lesser' so that all the di((erentiae o( the
)redi%ate &ill be di((erentiae also o( the s#b/e%t.
6
E,)ressions &hi%h are in no &ay %o)osite signi(y s#bstan%e'
"#antity' "#ality' relation' )la%e' tie' )osition' state' a%tion'
or a((e%tion. To s0et%h y eaning ro#ghly' e,a)les o( s#bstan%e
are !an! or !the horse!' o( "#antity' s#%h ters as !t&o %#bits long!
or !three %#bits long!' o( "#ality' s#%h attrib#tes as !&hite!'
!graati%al!. !7o#ble!' !hal(!' !greater!' (all #nder the %ategory o(
relation* !in a the ar0et )la%e!' !in the 8y%e#!' #nder that o(
)la%e* !yesterday!' !last year!' #nder that o( tie. !8ying!'
!sitting!' are ters indi%ating )osition' !shod!' !ared!' state*
!to lan%e!' !to %a#teri9e!' a%tion* !to be lan%ed!' !to be
%a#teri9ed!' a((e%tion.
:o one o( these ters' in and by itsel(' in$ol$es an a((iration* it
is by the %obination o( s#%h ters that )ositi$e or negati$e
stateents arise. +or e$ery assertion #st' as is aditted' be
either tr#e or (alse' &hereas e,)ressions &hi%h are not in any &ay
%o)osite s#%h as !an!' !&hite!' !r#ns!' !&ins!' %annot be either
tr#e or (alse.
5
S#bstan%e' in the tr#est and )riary and ost de(inite sense o(
the &ord' is that &hi%h is neither )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t nor )resent
in a s#b/e%t* (or instan%e' the indi$id#al an or horse. B#t in a
se%ondary sense those things are %alled s#bstan%es &ithin &hi%h' as
s)e%ies' the )riary s#bstan%es are in%l#ded* also those &hi%h' as
genera' in%l#de the s)e%ies. +or instan%e' the indi$id#al an is
in%l#ded in the s)e%ies !an!' and the gen#s to &hi%h the s)e%ies
belongs is !anial!* these' there(ore5that is to say' the s)e%ies
!an! and the gen#s !anial'5are tered se%ondary s#bstan%es.
It is )lain (ro &hat has been said that both the nae and the
de(inition o( the )redi%ate #st be )redi%able o( the s#b/e%t. +or
instan%e' !an! is )redi%ted o( the indi$id#al an. :o& in this %ase
the nae o( the s)e%ies an! is a))lied to the indi$id#al' (or &e
#se the ter !an! in des%ribing the indi$id#al* and the de(inition o(
!an! &ill also be )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' (or the
indi$id#al an is both an and anial. Th#s' both the nae and the
de(inition o( the s)e%ies are )redi%able o( the indi$id#al.
4ith regard' on the other hand' to those things &hi%h are )resent in
a s#b/e%t' it is generally the %ase that neither their nae nor
their de(inition is )redi%able o( that in &hi%h they are )resent.
Tho#gh' ho&e$er' the de(inition is ne$er )redi%able' there is
nothing in %ertain %ases to )re$ent the nae being #sed. +or instan%e'
!&hite! being )resent in a body is )redi%ated o( that in &hi%h it is
)resent' (or a body is %alled &hite- the de(inition' ho&e$er' o( the
%olo#r &hite! is ne$er )redi%able o( the body.
E$erything e,%e)t )riary s#bstan%es is either )redi%able o( a
)riary s#bstan%e or )resent in a )riary s#bstan%e. This be%oes
e$ident by re(eren%e to )arti%#lar instan%es &hi%h o%%#r. !Anial!
is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!' there(ore o( the indi$id#al an'
(or i( there &ere no indi$id#al an o( &ho it %o#ld be )redi%ated' it
%o#ld not be )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an! at all. Again' %olo#r
is )resent in body' there(ore in indi$id#al bodies' (or i( there
&ere no indi$id#al body in &hi%h it &as )resent' it %o#ld not be
)resent in body at all. Th#s e$erything e,%e)t )riary s#bstan%es is
either )redi%ated o( )riary s#bstan%es' or is )resent in the' and i(
these last did not e,ist' it &o#ld be i)ossible (or anything else
to e,ist.
O( se%ondary s#bstan%es' the s)e%ies is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than
the gen#s' being ore nearly related to )riary s#bstan%e. +or i(
any one sho#ld render an a%%o#nt o( &hat a )riary s#bstan%e is' he
&o#ld render a ore instr#%ti$e a%%o#nt' and one ore )ro)er to the
s#b/e%t' by stating the s)e%ies than by stating the gen#s. Th#s' he
&o#ld gi$e a ore instr#%ti$e a%%o#nt o( an indi$id#al an by
stating that he &as an than by stating that he &as anial' (or the
(orer des%ri)tion is )e%#liar to the indi$id#al in a greater
degree' &hile the latter is too general. Again' the an &ho gi$es an
a%%o#nt o( the nat#re o( an indi$id#al tree &ill gi$e a ore
instr#%ti$e a%%o#nt by entioning the s)e%ies !tree! than by
entioning the gen#s !)lant!.
Moreo$er' )riary s#bstan%es are ost )ro)erly %alled s#bstan%es
in $irt#e o( the (a%t that they are the entities &hi%h #nderlie e$ery.
else' and that e$erything else is either )redi%ated o( the or )resent
in the. :o& the sae relation &hi%h s#bsists bet&een )riary
s#bstan%e and e$erything else s#bsists also bet&een the s)e%ies and
the gen#s- (or the s)e%ies is to the gen#s as s#b/e%t is to )redi%ate'
sin%e the gen#s is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies' &hereas the s)e%ies
%annot be )redi%ated o( the gen#s. Th#s &e ha$e a se%ond gro#nd (or
asserting that the s)e%ies is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than the gen#s.
O( s)e%ies thesel$es' e,%e)t in the %ase o( s#%h as are genera'
no one is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than another. 4e sho#ld not gi$e a ore
a))ro)riate a%%o#nt o( the indi$id#al an by stating the s)e%ies to
&hi%h he belonged' than &e sho#ld o( an indi$id#al horse by ado)ting
the sae ethod o( de(inition. In the sae &ay' o( )riary s#bstan%es'
no one is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than another* an indi$id#al an is
not ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than an indi$id#al o,.
It is' then' &ith good reason that o( all that reains' &hen &e
e,%l#de )riary s#bstan%es' &e %on%ede to s)e%ies and genera alone the
nae !se%ondary s#bstan%e!' (or these alone o( all the )redi%ates
%on$ey a 0no&ledge o( )riary s#bstan%e. +or it is by stating the
s)e%ies or the gen#s that &e a))ro)riately de(ine any indi$id#al
an* and &e shall a0e o#r de(inition ore e,a%t by stating the (orer
than by stating the latter. All other things that &e state' s#%h as
that he is &hite' that he r#ns' and so on' are irrele$ant to the
de(inition. Th#s it is /#st that these alone' a)art (ro )riary
s#bstan%es' sho#ld be %alled s#bstan%es.
+#rther' )riary s#bstan%es are ost )ro)erly so %alled' be%a#se
they #nderlie and are the s#b/e%ts o( e$erything else. :o& the sae
relation that s#bsists bet&een )riary s#bstan%e and e$erything else
s#bsists also bet&een the s)e%ies and the gen#s to &hi%h the )riary
s#bstan%e belongs' on the one hand' and e$ery attrib#te &hi%h is not
in%l#ded &ithin these' on the other. +or these are the s#b/e%ts o( all
s#%h. I( &e %all an indi$id#al an !s0illed in graar!' the )redi%ate
is a))li%able also to the s)e%ies and to the gen#s to &hi%h he
belongs. This la& holds good in all %ases.
It is a %oon %hara%teristi% o( all s#b. stan%e that it is ne$er
)resent in a s#b/e%t. +or )riary s#bstan%e is neither )resent in a
s#b/e%t nor )redi%ated o( a s#b/e%t* &hile' &ith regard to se%ondary
s#bstan%es' it is %lear (ro the (ollo&ing arg#ents 1a)art (ro
others2 that they are not )resent in a s#b/e%t. +or !an! is
)redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' b#t is not )resent in any s#b/e%t-
(or anhood is not )resent in the indi$id#al an. In the sae &ay'
!anial! is also )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' b#t is not
)resent in hi. Again' &hen a thing is )resent in a s#b/e%t' tho#gh
the nae ay "#ite &ell be a))lied to that in &hi%h it is )resent' the
de(inition %annot be a))lied. 3et o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' not only
the nae' b#t also the de(inition' a))lies to the s#b/e%t- &e sho#ld
#se both the de(inition o( the s)e%ies and that o( the gen#s &ith
re(eren%e to the indi$id#al an. Th#s s#bstan%e %annot be )resent in a
s#b/e%t.
3et this is not )e%#liar to s#bstan%e' (or it is also the %ase
that di((erentiae %annot be )resent in s#b/e%ts. The %hara%teristi%s
!terrestrial! and !t&o5(ooted! are )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!'
b#t not )resent in it. +or they are not in an. Moreo$er' the
de(inition o( the di((erentia ay be )redi%ated o( that o( &hi%h the
di((erentia itsel( is )redi%ated. +or instan%e' i( the
%hara%teristi% !terrestrial! is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!' the
de(inition also o( that %hara%teristi% ay be #sed to (or the
)redi%ate o( the s)e%ies !an!- (or !an! is terrestrial.
The (a%t that the )arts o( s#bstan%es a))ear to be )resent in the
&hole' as in a s#b/e%t' sho#ld not a0e #s a))rehensi$e lest &e sho#ld
ha$e to adit that s#%h )arts are not s#bstan%es- (or in e,)laining
the )hrase !being )resent in a s#b/e%t!' &e stated! that &e eant
!other&ise than as )arts in a &hole!.
It is the ar0 o( s#bstan%es and o( di((erentiae that' in all
)ro)ositions o( &hi%h they (or the )redi%ate' they are )redi%ated
#ni$o%ally. +or all s#%h )ro)ositions ha$e (or their s#b/e%t either
the indi$id#al or the s)e%ies. It is tr#e that' inas#%h as )riary
s#bstan%e is not )redi%able o( anything' it %an ne$er (or the
)redi%ate o( any )ro)osition. B#t o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' the s)e%ies
is )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al' the gen#s both o( the s)e%ies and
o( the indi$id#al. Siilarly the di((erentiae are )redi%ated o( the
s)e%ies and o( the indi$id#als. Moreo$er' the de(inition o( the
s)e%ies and that o( the gen#s are a))li%able to the )riary s#bstan%e'
and that o( the gen#s to the s)e%ies. +or all that is )redi%ated o(
the )redi%ate &ill be )redi%ated also o( the s#b/e%t. Siilarly' the
de(inition o( the di((erentiae &ill be a))li%able to the s)e%ies and
to the indi$id#als. B#t it &as stated abo$e that the &ord !#ni$o%al!
&as a))lied to those things &hi%h had both nae and de(inition in
%oon. It is' there(ore' established that in e$ery )ro)osition' o(
&hi%h either s#bstan%e or a di((erentia (ors the )redi%ate' these are
)redi%ated #ni$o%ally.
All s#bstan%e a))ears to signi(y that &hi%h is indi$id#al. In the
%ase o( )riary s#bstan%e this is indis)#tably tr#e' (or the thing
is a #nit. In the %ase o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' &hen &e s)ea0' (or
instan%e' o( !an! or !anial!' o#r (or o( s)ee%h gi$es the
i)ression that &e are here also indi%ating that &hi%h is
indi$id#al' b#t the i)ression is not stri%tly tr#e* (or a se%ondary
s#bstan%e is not an indi$id#al' b#t a %lass &ith a %ertain
"#ali(i%ation* (or it is not one and single as a )riary s#bstan%e is*
the &ords !an!' !anial!' are )redi%able o( ore than one s#b/e%t.
3et s)e%ies and gen#s do not erely indi%ate "#ality' li0e the
ter !&hite!* !&hite! indi%ates "#ality and nothing (#rther' b#t
s)e%ies and gen#s deterine the "#ality &ith re(eren%e to a s#bstan%e-
they signi(y s#bstan%e "#alitati$ely di((erentiated. The deterinate
"#ali(i%ation %o$ers a larger (ield in the %ase o( the gen#s that in
that o( the s)e%ies- he &ho #ses the &ord !anial! is herein #sing a
&ord o( &ider e,tension than he &ho #ses the &ord !an!.
Another ar0 o( s#bstan%e is that it has no %ontrary. 4hat %o#ld
be the %ontrary o( any )riary s#bstan%e' s#%h as the indi$id#al an
or anial; It has none. :or %an the s)e%ies or the gen#s ha$e a
%ontrary. 3et this %hara%teristi% is not )e%#liar to s#bstan%e' b#t is
tr#e o( any other things' s#%h as "#antity. There is nothing that
(ors the %ontrary o( !t&o %#bits long! or o( !three %#bits long!'
or o( !ten!' or o( any s#%h ter. A an ay %ontend that !#%h! is the
%ontrary o( !little!' or !great! o( !sall!' b#t o( de(inite
"#antitati$e ters no %ontrary e,ists.
S#bstan%e' again' does not a))ear to adit o( $ariation o( degree. I
do not ean by this that one s#bstan%e %annot be ore or less tr#ly
s#bstan%e than another' (or it has already been stated! that this is
the %ase* b#t that no single s#bstan%e adits o( $arying degrees
&ithin itsel(. +or instan%e' one )arti%#lar s#bstan%e' !an!' %annot
be ore or less an either than hisel( at soe other tie or than
soe other an. One an %annot be ore an than another' as that &hi%h
is &hite ay be ore or less &hite than soe other &hite ob/e%t' or as
that &hi%h is bea#ti(#l ay be ore or less bea#ti(#l than soe
other bea#ti(#l ob/e%t. The sae "#ality' oreo$er' is said to s#bsist
in a thing in $arying degrees at di((erent ties. A body' being &hite'
is said to be &hiter at one tie than it &as be(ore' or' being &ar'
is said to be &arer or less &ar than at soe other tie. B#t
s#bstan%e is not said to be ore or less that &hi%h it is- a an is
not ore tr#ly a an at one tie than he &as be(ore' nor is
anything' i( it is s#bstan%e' ore or less &hat it is. S#bstan%e'
then' does not adit o( $ariation o( degree.
The ost distin%ti$e ar0 o( s#bstan%e a))ears to be that' &hile
reaining n#eri%ally one and the sae' it is %a)able o( aditting
%ontrary "#alities. +ro aong things other than s#bstan%e' &e
sho#ld (ind o#rsel$es #nable to bring (or&ard any &hi%h )ossessed this
ar0. Th#s' one and the sae %olo#r %annot be &hite and bla%0. :or %an
the sae one a%tion be good and bad- this la& holds good &ith
e$erything that is not s#bstan%e. B#t one and the sel(sae
s#bstan%e' &hile retaining its identity' is yet %a)able o( aditting
%ontrary "#alities. The sae indi$id#al )erson is at one tie &hite'
at another bla%0' at one tie &ar' at another %old' at one tie good'
at another bad. This %a)a%ity is (o#nd no&here else' tho#gh it ight
be aintained that a stateent or o)inion &as an e,%e)tion to the
r#le. The sae stateent' it is agreed' %an be both tr#e and (alse.
+or i( the stateent !he is sitting! is tr#e' yet' &hen the )erson
in "#estion has risen' the sae stateent &ill be (alse. The sae
a))lies to o)inions. +or i( any one thin0s tr#ly that a )erson is
sitting' yet' &hen that )erson has risen' this sae o)inion' i(
still held' &ill be (alse. 3et altho#gh this e,%e)tion ay be allo&ed'
there is' ne$ertheless' a di((eren%e in the anner in &hi%h the
thing ta0es )la%e. It is by thesel$es %hanging that s#bstan%es
adit %ontrary "#alities. It is th#s that that &hi%h &as hot be%oes
%old' (or it has entered into a di((erent state. Siilarly that
&hi%h &as &hite be%oes bla%0' and that &hi%h &as bad good' by a
)ro%ess o( %hange* and in the sae &ay in all other %ases it is by
%hanging that s#bstan%es are %a)able o( aditting %ontrary
"#alities. B#t stateents and o)inions thesel$es reain #naltered
in all res)e%ts- it is by the alteration in the (a%ts o( the %ase that
the %ontrary "#ality %oes to be theirs. The stateent !he is sitting!
reains #naltered' b#t it is at one tie tr#e' at another (alse'
a%%ording to %ir%#stan%es. 4hat has been said o( stateents a))lies
also to o)inions. Th#s' in res)e%t o( the anner in &hi%h the thing
ta0es )la%e' it is the )e%#liar ar0 o( s#bstan%e that it sho#ld be
%a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities* (or it is by itsel(
%hanging that it does so.
I(' then' a an sho#ld a0e this e,%e)tion and %ontend that
stateents and o)inions are %a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities'
his %ontention is #nso#nd. +or stateents and o)inions are said to
ha$e this %a)a%ity' not be%a#se they thesel$es #ndergo
odi(i%ation' b#t be%a#se this odi(i%ation o%%#rs in the %ase o(
soething else. The tr#th or (alsity o( a stateent de)ends on
(a%ts' and not on any )o&er on the )art o( the stateent itsel( o(
aditting %ontrary "#alities. In short' there is nothing &hi%h %an
alter the nat#re o( stateents and o)inions. As' then' no %hange ta0es
)la%e in thesel$es' these %annot be said to be %a)able o( aditting
%ontrary "#alities.
B#t it is by reason o( the odi(i%ation &hi%h ta0es )la%e &ithin the
s#bstan%e itsel( that a s#bstan%e is said to be %a)able o( aditting
%ontrary "#alities* (or a s#bstan%e adits &ithin itsel( either
disease or health' &hiteness or bla%0ness. It is in this sense that it
is said to be %a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities.
To s# #)' it is a distin%ti$e ar0 o( s#bstan%e' that' &hile
reaining n#eri%ally one and the sae' it is %a)able o( aditting
%ontrary "#alities' the odi(i%ation ta0ing )la%e thro#gh a %hange
in the s#bstan%e itsel(.
8et these rear0s s#((i%e on the s#b/e%t o( s#bstan%e.
<
=#antity is either dis%rete or %ontin#o#s. Moreo$er' soe "#antities
are s#%h that ea%h )art o( the &hole has a relati$e )osition to the
other )arts- others ha$e &ithin the no s#%h relation o( )art to )art.
Instan%es o( dis%rete "#antities are n#ber and s)ee%h* o(
%ontin#o#s' lines' s#r(a%es' solids' and' besides these' tie and
)la%e.
In the %ase o( the )arts o( a n#ber' there is no %oon bo#ndary at
&hi%h they /oin. +or e,a)le- t&o (i$es a0e ten' b#t the t&o (i$es
ha$e no %oon bo#ndary' b#t are se)arate* the )arts three and se$en
also do not /oin at any bo#ndary. :or' to generali9e' &o#ld it e$er be
)ossible in the %ase o( n#ber that there sho#ld be a %oon
bo#ndary aong the )arts* they are al&ays se)arate. :#ber' there(ore'
is a dis%rete "#antity.
The sae is tr#e o( s)ee%h. That s)ee%h is a "#antity is e$ident-
(or it is eas#red in long and short syllables. I ean here that
s)ee%h &hi%h is $o%al. Moreo$er' it is a dis%rete "#antity (or its
)arts ha$e no %oon bo#ndary. There is no %oon bo#ndary at &hi%h
the syllables /oin' b#t ea%h is se)arate and distin%t (ro the rest.
A line' on the other hand' is a %ontin#o#s "#antity' (or it is
)ossible to (ind a %oon bo#ndary at &hi%h its )arts /oin. In the
%ase o( the line' this %oon bo#ndary is the )oint* in the %ase o(
the )lane' it is the line- (or the )arts o( the )lane ha$e also a
%oon bo#ndary. Siilarly yo# %an (ind a %oon bo#ndary in the
%ase o( the )arts o( a solid' naely either a line or a )lane.
S)a%e and tie also belong to this %lass o( "#antities. Tie'
)ast' )resent' and (#t#re' (ors a %ontin#o#s &hole. S)a%e'
li0e&ise' is a %ontin#o#s "#antity* (or the )arts o( a solid o%%#)y
a %ertain s)a%e' and these ha$e a %oon bo#ndary* it (ollo&s that the
)arts o( s)a%e also' &hi%h are o%%#)ied by the )arts o( the solid'
ha$e the sae %oon bo#ndary as the )arts o( the solid. Th#s' not
only tie' b#t s)a%e also' is a %ontin#o#s "#antity' (or its )arts
ha$e a %oon bo#ndary.
=#antities %onsist either o( )arts &hi%h bear a relati$e )osition
ea%h to ea%h' or o( )arts &hi%h do not. The )arts o( a line bear a
relati$e )osition to ea%h other' (or ea%h lies soe&here' and it &o#ld
be )ossible to disting#ish ea%h' and to state the )osition o( ea%h
on the )lane and to e,)lain to &hat sort o( )art aong the rest ea%h
&as %ontig#o#s. Siilarly the )arts o( a )lane ha$e )osition' (or it
%o#ld siilarly be stated &hat &as the )osition o( ea%h and &hat
sort o( )arts &ere %ontig#o#s. The sae is tr#e &ith regard to the
solid and to s)a%e. B#t it &o#ld be i)ossible to sho& that the arts
o( a n#ber had a relati$e )osition ea%h to ea%h' or a )arti%#lar
)osition' or to state &hat )arts &ere %ontig#o#s. :or %o#ld this be
done in the %ase o( tie' (or none o( the )arts o( tie has an abiding
e,isten%e' and that &hi%h does not abide %an hardly ha$e )osition.
It &o#ld be better to say that s#%h )arts had a relati$e order' in
$irt#e o( one being )rior to another. Siilarly &ith n#ber- in
%o#nting' !one! is )rior to !t&o!' and !t&o! to !three!' and th#s
the )arts o( n#ber ay be said to )ossess a relati$e order' tho#gh it
&o#ld be i)ossible to dis%o$er any distin%t )osition (or ea%h. This
holds good also in the %ase o( s)ee%h. :one o( its )arts has an
abiding e,isten%e- &hen on%e a syllable is )rono#n%ed' it is not
)ossible to retain it' so that' nat#rally' as the )arts do not
abide' they %annot ha$e )osition. Th#s' soe "#antities %onsist o(
)arts &hi%h ha$e )osition' and soe o( those &hi%h ha$e not.
Stri%tly s)ea0ing' only the things &hi%h I ha$e entioned belong
to the %ategory o( "#antity- e$erything else that is %alled
"#antitati$e is a "#antity in a se%ondary sense. It is be%a#se &e ha$e
in ind soe one o( these "#antities' )ro)erly so %alled' that &e
a))ly "#antitati$e ters to other things. 4e s)ea0 o( &hat is &hite as
large' be%a#se the s#r(a%e o$er &hi%h the &hite e,tends is large* &e
s)ea0 o( an a%tion or a )ro%ess as lengthy' be%a#se the tie %o$ered
is long* these things %annot in their o&n right %lai the "#antitati$e
e)ithet. +or instan%e' sho#ld any one e,)lain ho& long an a%tion
&as' his stateent &o#ld be ade in ters o( the tie ta0en' to the
e((e%t that it lasted a year' or soething o( that sort. In the sae
&ay' he &o#ld e,)lain the si9e o( a &hite ob/e%t in ters o(
s#r(a%e' (or he &o#ld state the area &hi%h it %o$ered. Th#s the things
already entioned' and these alone' are in their intrinsi% nat#re
"#antities* nothing else %an %lai the nae in its o&n right' b#t'
i( at all' only in a se%ondary sense.
=#antities ha$e no %ontraries. In the %ase o( de(inite "#antities
this is ob$io#s* th#s' there is nothing that is the %ontrary o( !t&o
%#bits long! or o( !three %#bits long!' or o( a s#r(a%e' or o( any
s#%h "#antities. A an ight' indeed' arg#e that !#%h! &as the
%ontrary o( !little!' and !great! o( !sall!. B#t these are not
"#antitati$e' b#t relati$e* things are not great or sall
absol#tely' they are so %alled rather as the res#lt o( an a%t o(
%o)arison. +or instan%e' a o#ntain is %alled sall' a grain large'
in $irt#e o( the (a%t that the latter is greater than others o( its
0ind' the (orer less. Th#s there is a re(eren%e here to an e,ternal
standard' (or i( the ters !great! and !sall! &ere #sed absol#tely' a
o#ntain &o#ld ne$er be %alled sall or a grain large. Again' &e say
that there are any )eo)le in a $illage' and (e& in Athens' altho#gh
those in the %ity are any ties as n#ero#s as those in the
$illage- or &e say that a ho#se has any in it' and a theatre (e&'
tho#gh those in the theatre (ar o#tn#ber those in the ho#se. The
ters !t&o %#bits long' >three %#bits long'! and so on indi%ate
"#antity' the ters !great! and !sall! indi%ate relation' (or they
ha$e re(eren%e to an e,ternal standard. It is' there(ore' )lain that
these are to be %lassed as relati$e.
Again' &hether &e de(ine the as "#antitati$e or not' they ha$e no
%ontraries- (or ho& %an there be a %ontrary o( an attrib#te &hi%h is
not to be a))rehended in or by itsel(' b#t only by re(eren%e to
soething e,ternal; Again' i( !great! and !sall! are %ontraries' it
&ill %oe abo#t that the sae s#b/e%t %an adit %ontrary "#alities
at one and the sae tie' and that things &ill thesel$es be
%ontrary to thesel$es. +or it ha))ens at ties that the sae thing is
both sall and great. +or the sae thing ay be sall in %o)arison
&ith one thing' and great in %o)arison &ith another' so that the sae
thing %oes to be both sall and great at one and the sae tie' and
is o( s#%h a nat#re as to adit %ontrary "#alities at one and the sae
oent. 3et it &as agreed' &hen s#bstan%e &as being dis%#ssed' that
nothing adits %ontrary "#alities at one and the sae oent. +or
tho#gh s#bstan%e is %a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities' yet no
one is at the sae tie both si%0 and healthy' nothing is at the
sae tie both &hite and bla%0. :or is there anything &hi%h is
"#ali(ied in %ontrary &ays at one and the sae tie.
Moreo$er' i( these &ere %ontraries' they &o#ld thesel$es be
%ontrary to thesel$es. +or i( !great! is the %ontrary o( !sall!' and
the sae thing is both great and sall at the sae tie' then
!sall! or !great! is the %ontrary o( itsel(. B#t this is
i)ossible. The ter !great!' there(ore' is not the %ontrary o( the
ter !sall!' nor !#%h! o( !little!. And e$en tho#gh a an sho#ld
%all these ters not relati$e b#t "#antitati$e' they &o#ld not ha$e
%ontraries.
It is in the %ase o( s)a%e that "#antity ost )la#sibly a))ears to
adit o( a %ontrary. +or en de(ine the ter !abo$e! as the %ontrary
o( !belo&!' &hen it is the region at the %entre they ean by
!belo&!* and this is so' be%a#se nothing is (arther (ro the
e,treities o( the #ni$erse than the region at the %entre. Indeed'
it sees that in de(ining %ontraries o( e$ery 0ind en ha$e re%o#rse
to a s)atial eta)hor' (or they say that those things are %ontraries
&hi%h' &ithin the sae %lass' are se)arated by the greatest )ossible
distan%e.
=#antity does not' it a))ears' adit o( $ariation o( degree. One
thing %annot be t&o %#bits long in a greater degree than another.
Siilarly &ith regard to n#ber- &hat is !three! is not ore tr#ly
three than &hat is !(i$e! is (i$e* nor is one set o( three ore
tr#ly three than another set. Again' one )eriod o( tie is not said to
be ore tr#ly tie than another. :or is there any other 0ind o(
"#antity' o( all that ha$e been entioned' &ith regard to &hi%h
$ariation o( degree %an be )redi%ated. The %ategory o( "#antity'
there(ore' does not adit o( $ariation o( degree.
The ost distin%ti$e ar0 o( "#antity is that e"#ality and
ine"#ality are )redi%ated o( it. Ea%h o( the a(oresaid "#antities is
said to be e"#al or #ne"#al. +or instan%e' one solid is said to be
e"#al or #ne"#al to another* n#ber' too' and tie %an ha$e these
ters a))lied to the' indeed %an all those 0inds o( "#antity that
ha$e been entioned.
That &hi%h is not a "#antity %an by no eans' it &o#ld see' be
tered e"#al or #ne"#al to anything else. One )arti%#lar dis)osition
or one )arti%#lar "#ality' s#%h as &hiteness' is by no eans
%o)ared &ith another in ters o( e"#ality and ine"#ality b#t rather
in ters o( siilarity. Th#s it is the distin%ti$e ar0 o( "#antity
that it %an be %alled e"#al and #ne"#al.
?
Those things are %alled relati$e' &hi%h' being either said to be
o( soething else or related to soething else' are e,)lained by
re(eren%e to that other thing. +or instan%e' the &ord !s#)erior! is
e,)lained by re(eren%e to soething else' (or it is s#)eriority o$er
soething else that is eant. Siilarly' the e,)ression !do#ble! has
this e,ternal re(eren%e' (or it is the do#ble o( soething else that
is eant. So it is &ith e$erything else o( this 0ind. There are'
oreo$er' other relati$es' e.g. habit' dis)osition' )er%e)tion'
0no&ledge' and attit#de. The signi(i%an%e o( all these is e,)lained by
a re(eren%e to soething else and in no other &ay. Th#s' a habit is
a habit o( soething' 0no&ledge is 0no&ledge o( soething' attit#de is
the attit#de o( soething. So it is &ith all other relati$es that ha$e
been entioned. Those ters' then' are %alled relati$e' the nat#re
o( &hi%h is e,)lained by re(eren%e to soething else' the
)re)osition !o(! or soe other )re)osition being #sed to indi%ate
the relation. Th#s' one o#ntain is %alled great in %o)arison &ith
son &ith another* (or the o#ntain %lais this attrib#te by %o)arison
&ith soething. Again' that &hi%h is %alled siilar #st be siilar to
soething else' and all other s#%h attrib#tes ha$e this e,ternal
re(eren%e. It is to be noted that lying and standing and sitting are
)arti%#lar attit#des' b#t attit#de is itsel( a relati$e ter. To
lie' to stand' to be seated' are not thesel$es attit#des' b#t ta0e
their nae (ro the a(oresaid attit#des.
It is )ossible (or relati$es to ha$e %ontraries. Th#s $irt#e has a
%ontrary' $i%e' these both being relati$es* 0no&ledge' too' has a
%ontrary' ignoran%e. B#t this is not the ar0 o( all relati$es*
!do#ble! and !tri)le! ha$e no %ontrary' nor indeed has any s#%h ter.
It also a))ears that relati$es %an adit o( $ariation o( degree. +or
!li0e! and !#nli0e!' !e"#al! and !#ne"#al!' ha$e the odi(i%ations
!ore! and !less! a))lied to the' and ea%h o( these is relati$e in
%hara%ter- (or the ters !li0e! and !#ne"#al! bear !#ne"#al! bear a
re(eren%e to soething e,ternal. 3et' again' it is not e$ery
relati$e ter that adits o( $ariation o( degree. :o ter s#%h as
!do#ble! adits o( this odi(i%ation. All relati$es ha$e %orrelati$es-
by the ter !sla$e! &e ean the sla$e o( a aster' by the ter
!aster!' the aster o( a sla$e* by !do#ble!' the do#ble o( its
hall* by !hal(!' the hal( o( its do#ble* by !greater!' greater than
that &hi%h is less* by !less'! less than that &hi%h is greater.
So it is &ith e$ery other relati$e ter* b#t the %ase &e #se to
e,)ress the %orrelation di((ers in soe instan%es. Th#s' by
0no&ledge &e ean 0no&ledge the 0no&able* by the 0no&able' that
&hi%h is to be a))rehended by 0no&ledge* by )er%e)tion' )er%e)tion
o( the )er%e)tible* by the )er%e)tible' that &hi%h is a))rehended by
)er%e)tion.
Soeties' ho&e$er' re%i)ro%ity o( %orrelation does not a))ear to
e,ist. This %oes abo#t &hen a bl#nder is ade' and that to &hi%h
the relati$e is related is not a%%#rately stated. I( a an states that
a &ing is ne%essarily relati$e to a bird' the %onne,ion bet&een
these t&o &ill not be re%i)ro%al' (or it &ill not be )ossible to say
that a bird is a bird by reason o( its &ings. The reason is that the
original stateent &as ina%%#rate' (or the &ing is not said to be
relati$e to the bird "#a bird' sin%e any %reat#res besides birds ha$e
&ings' b#t "#a &inged %reat#re. I(' then' the stateent is ade
a%%#rate' the %onne,ion &ill be re%i)ro%al' (or &e %an s)ea0 o( a
&ing' ha$ing re(eren%e ne%essarily to a &inged %reat#re' and o( a
&inged %reat#re as being s#%h be%a#se o( its &ings.
O%%asionally' )erha)s' it is ne%essary to %oin &ords' i( no &ord
e,ists by &hi%h a %orrelation %an ade"#ately be e,)lained. I( &e
de(ine a r#dder as ne%essarily ha$ing re(eren%e to a boat' o#r
de(inition &ill not be a))ro)riate' (or the r#dder does not ha$e
this re(eren%e to a boat "#a boat' as there are boats &hi%h ha$e no
r#dders. Th#s &e %annot #se the ters re%i)ro%ally' (or the &ord
!boat! %annot be said to (ind its e,)lanation in the &ord !r#dder!. As
there is no e,isting &ord' o#r de(inition &o#ld )erha)s be ore
a%%#rate i( &e %oined soe &ord li0e !r#ddered! as the %orrelati$e
o( !r#dder!. I( &e e,)ress o#rsel$es th#s a%%#rately' at any rate
the ters are re%i)ro%ally %onne%ted' (or the !r#ddered! thing is
!r#ddered! in $irt#e o( its r#dder. So it is in all other %ases. A
head &ill be ore a%%#rately de(ined as the %orrelati$e o( that
&hi%h is !headed!' than as that o( an anial' (or the anial does
not ha$e a head "#a anial' sin%e any anials ha$e no head.
Th#s &e ay )erha)s ost easily %o)rehend that to &hi%h a thing
is related' &hen a nae does not e,ist' i(' (ro that &hi%h has a
nae' &e deri$e a ne& nae' and a))ly it to that &ith &hi%h the
(irst is re%i)ro%ally %onne%ted' as in the a(oresaid instan%es' &hen
&e deri$ed the &ord !&inged! (ro !&ing! and (ro !r#dder!.
All relati$es' then' i( )ro)erly de(ined' ha$e a %orrelati$e. I
add this %ondition be%a#se' i( that to &hi%h they are related is
stated as ha)ha9ard and not a%%#rately' the t&o are not (o#nd to be
interde)endent. 8et e state &hat I ean ore %learly. E$en in the
%ase o( a%0no&ledged %orrelati$es' and &here naes e,ist (or ea%h'
there &ill be no interde)enden%e i( one o( the t&o is denoted' not
by that nae &hi%h e,)resses the %orrelati$e notion' b#t by one o(
irrele$ant signi(i%an%e. The ter !sla$e'! i( de(ined as related'
not to a aster' b#t to a an' or a bi)ed' or anything o( that sort'
is not re%i)ro%ally %onne%ted &ith that in relation to &hi%h it is
de(ined' (or the stateent is not e,a%t. +#rther' i( one thing is said
to be %orrelati$e &ith another' and the terinology #sed is %orre%t'
then' tho#gh all irrele$ant attrib#tes sho#ld be reo$ed' and only
that one attrib#te le(t in $irt#e o( &hi%h it &as %orre%tly stated
to be %orrelati$e &ith that other' the stated %orrelation &ill still
e,ist. I( the %orrelati$e o( !the sla$e! is said to be !the aster!'
then' tho#gh all irrele$ant attrib#tes o( the said !aster!' s#%h as
!bi)ed!' !re%e)ti$e o( 0no&ledge!' !h#an!' sho#ld be reo$ed' and the
attrib#te !aster! alone le(t' the stated %orrelation e,isting bet&een
hi and the sla$e &ill reain the sae' (or it is o( a aster that a
sla$e is said to be the sla$e. On the other hand' i(' o( t&o
%orrelati$es' one is not %orre%tly tered' then' &hen all other
attrib#tes are reo$ed and that alone is le(t in $irt#e o( &hi%h it
&as stated to be %orrelati$e' the stated %orrelation &ill be (o#nd
to ha$e disa))eared.
+or s#))ose the %orrelati$e o( !the sla$e! sho#ld be said to be !the
an!' or the %orrelati$e o( !the &ing>the bird!* i( the attrib#te
!aster! be &ithdra&n (ro! the an!' the %orrelation bet&een !the
an! and !the sla$e! &ill %ease to e,ist' (or i( the an is not a
aster' the sla$e is not a sla$e. Siilarly' i( the attrib#te !&inged!
be &ithdra&n (ro !the bird!' !the &ing! &ill no longer be relati$e*
(or i( the so5%alled %orrelati$e is not &inged' it (ollo&s that !the
&ing! has no %orrelati$e.
Th#s it is essential that the %orrelated ters sho#ld be e,a%tly
designated* i( there is a nae e,isting' the stateent &ill be easy*
i( not' it is do#btless o#r d#ty to %onstr#%t naes. 4hen the
terinology is th#s %orre%t' it is e$ident that all %orrelati$es are
interde)endent.
Correlati$es are tho#ght to %oe into e,isten%e si#ltaneo#sly. This
is (or the ost )art tr#e' as in the %ase o( the do#ble and the
hal(. The e,isten%e o( the hal( ne%essitates the e,isten%e o( that
o( &hi%h it is a hal(. Siilarly the e,isten%e o( a aster
ne%essitates the e,isten%e o( a sla$e' and that o( a sla$e i)lies
that o( a aster* these are erely instan%es o( a general r#le.
Moreo$er' they %an%el one another* (or i( there is no do#ble it
(ollo&s that there is no hal(' and $i%e $ersa* this r#le also
a))lies to all s#%h %orrelati$es. 3et it does not a))ear to be tr#e in
all %ases that %orrelati$es %oe into e,isten%e si#ltaneo#sly. The
ob/e%t o( 0no&ledge &o#ld a))ear to e,ist be(ore 0no&ledge itsel(' (or
it is #s#ally the %ase that &e a%"#ire 0no&ledge o( ob/e%ts already
e,isting* it &o#ld be di((i%#lt' i( not i)ossible' to (ind a bran%h
o( 0no&ledge the beginning o( the e,isten%e o( &hi%h &as
%onte)oraneo#s &ith that o( its ob/e%t.
Again' &hile the ob/e%t o( 0no&ledge' i( it %eases to e,ist' %an%els
at the sae tie the 0no&ledge &hi%h &as its %orrelati$e' the %on$erse
o( this is not tr#e. It is tr#e that i( the ob/e%t o( 0no&ledge does
not e,ist there %an be no 0no&ledge- (or there &ill no longer be
anything to 0no&. 3et it is e"#ally tr#e that' i( 0no&ledge o( a
%ertain ob/e%t does not e,ist' the ob/e%t ay ne$ertheless "#ite
&ell e,ist. Th#s' in the %ase o( the s"#aring o( the %ir%le' i( indeed
that )ro%ess is an ob/e%t o( 0no&ledge' tho#gh it itsel( e,ists as
an ob/e%t o( 0no&ledge' yet the 0no&ledge o( it has not yet %oe
into e,isten%e. Again' i( all anials %eased to e,ist' there &o#ld
be no 0no&ledge' b#t there ight yet be any ob/e%ts o( 0no&ledge.
This is li0e&ise the %ase &ith regard to )er%e)tion- (or the
ob/e%t o( )er%e)tion is' it a))ears' )rior to the a%t o( )er%e)tion.
I( the )er%e)tible is annihilated' )er%e)tion also &ill %ease to
e,ist* b#t the annihilation o( )er%e)tion does not %an%el the
e,isten%e o( the )er%e)tible. +or )er%e)tion i)lies a body
)er%ei$ed and a body in &hi%h )er%e)tion ta0es )la%e. :o& i( that
&hi%h is )er%e)tible is annihilated' it (ollo&s that the body is
annihilated' (or the body is a )er%e)tible thing* and i( the body does
not e,ist' it (ollo&s that )er%e)tion also %eases to e,ist. Th#s the
annihilation o( the )er%e)tible in$ol$es that o( )er%e)tion.
B#t the annihilation o( )er%e)tion does not in$ol$e that o( the
)er%e)tible. +or i( the anial is annihilated' it (ollo&s that
)er%e)tion also is annihilated' b#t )er%e)tibles s#%h as body' heat'
s&eetness' bitterness' and so on' &ill reain.
Again' )er%e)tion is generated at the sae tie as the )er%ei$ing
s#b/e%t' (or it %oes into e,isten%e at the sae tie as the anial.
B#t the )er%e)tible s#rely e,ists be(ore )er%e)tion* (or (ire and
&ater and s#%h eleents' o#t o( &hi%h the anial is itsel( %o)osed'
e,ist be(ore the anial is an anial at all' and be(ore )er%e)tion.
Th#s it &o#ld see that the )er%e)tible e,ists be(ore )er%e)tion.
It ay be "#estioned &hether it is tr#e that no s#bstan%e is
relati$e' as sees to be the %ase' or &hether e,%e)tion is to be
ade in the %ase o( %ertain se%ondary s#bstan%es. 4ith regard to
)riary s#bstan%es' it is "#ite tr#e that there is no s#%h
)ossibility' (or neither &holes nor )arts o( )riary s#bstan%es are
relati$e. The indi$id#al an or o, is not de(ined &ith re(eren%e to
soething e,ternal. Siilarly &ith the )arts- a )arti%#lar hand or
head is not de(ined as a )arti%#lar hand or head o( a )arti%#lar
)erson' b#t as the hand or head o( a )arti%#lar )erson. It is tr#e
also' (or the ost )art at least' in the %ase o( se%ondary s#bstan%es*
the s)e%ies !an! and the s)e%ies !o,! are not de(ined &ith
re(eren%e to anything o#tside thesel$es. 4ood' again' is only
relati$e in so (ar as it is soe one!s )ro)erty' not in so (ar as it
is &ood. It is )lain' then' that in the %ases entioned s#bstan%e is
not relati$e. B#t &ith regard to soe se%ondary s#bstan%es there is
a di((eren%e o( o)inion* th#s' s#%h ters as !head! and !hand! are
de(ined &ith re(eren%e to that o( &hi%h the things indi%ated are a
)art' and so it %oes abo#t that these a))ear to ha$e a relati$e
%hara%ter. Indeed' i( o#r de(inition o( that &hi%h is relati$e &as
%o)lete' it is $ery di((i%#lt' i( not i)ossible' to )ro$e that no
s#bstan%e is relati$e. I(' ho&e$er' o#r de(inition &as not %o)lete'
i( those things only are )ro)erly %alled relati$e in the %ase o( &hi%h
relation to an e,ternal ob/e%t is a ne%essary %ondition o(
e,isten%e' )erha)s soe e,)lanation o( the dilea ay be (o#nd.
The (orer de(inition does indeed a))ly to all relati$es' b#t the
(a%t that a thing is e,)lained &ith re(eren%e to soething else does
not a0e it essentially relati$e.
+ro this it is )lain that' i( a an de(initely a))rehends a
relati$e thing' he &ill also de(initely a))rehend that to &hi%h it
is relati$e. Indeed this is sel(5e$ident- (or i( a an 0no&s that soe
)arti%#lar thing is relati$e' ass#ing that &e %all that a relati$e in
the %ase o( &hi%h relation to soething is a ne%essary %ondition o(
e,isten%e' he 0no&s that also to &hi%h it is related. +or i( he does
not 0no& at all that to &hi%h it is related' he &ill not 0no&
&hether or not it is relati$e. This is %lear' oreo$er' in
)arti%#lar instan%es. I( a an 0no&s de(initely that s#%h and s#%h a
thing is !do#ble!' he &ill also (orth&ith 0no& de(initely that o(
&hi%h it is the do#ble. +or i( there is nothing de(inite o( &hi%h he
0no&s it to be the do#ble' he does not 0no& at all that it is
do#ble. Again' i( he 0no&s that a thing is ore bea#ti(#l' it
(ollo&s ne%essarily that he &ill (orth&ith de(initely 0no& that also
than &hi%h it is ore bea#ti(#l. @e &ill not erely 0no&
inde(initely that it is ore bea#ti(#l than soething &hi%h is less
bea#ti(#l' (or this &o#ld be s#))osition' not 0no&ledge. +or i( he
does not 0no& de(initely that than &hi%h it is ore bea#ti(#l' he
%an no longer %lai to 0no& de(initely that it is ore bea#ti(#l
than soething else &hi%h is less bea#ti(#l- (or it ight be that
nothing &as less bea#ti(#l. It is' there(ore' e$ident that i( a an
a))rehends soe relati$e thing de(initely' he ne%essarily 0no&s that
also de(initely to &hi%h it is related.
:o& the head' the hand' and s#%h things are s#bstan%es' and it is
)ossible to 0no& their essential %hara%ter de(initely' b#t it does not
ne%essarily (ollo& that &e sho#ld 0no& that to &hi%h they are related.
It is not )ossible to 0no& (orth&ith &hose head or hand is eant. Th#s
these are not relati$es' and' this being the %ase' it &o#ld be tr#e to
say that no s#bstan%e is relati$e in %hara%ter. It is )erha)s a
di((i%#lt atter' in s#%h %ases' to a0e a )ositi$e stateent
&itho#t ore e,ha#sti$e e,aination' b#t to ha$e raised "#estions &ith
regard to details is not &itho#t ad$antage.
A
By !"#ality! I ean that in $irt#e o( &hi%h )eo)le are said to be
s#%h and s#%h.
=#ality is a ter that is #sed in any senses. One sort o( "#ality
let #s %all !habit! or !dis)osition!. @abit di((ers (ro dis)osition
in being ore lasting and ore (irly established. The $ario#s 0inds
o( 0no&ledge and o( $irt#e are habits' (or 0no&ledge' e$en &hen
a%"#ired only in a oderate degree' is' it is agreed' abiding in its
%hara%ter and di((i%#lt to dis)la%e' #nless soe great ental #)hea$al
ta0es )la%e' thro#gh disease or any s#%h %a#se. The $irt#es' also'
s#%h as /#sti%e' sel(5restraint' and so on' are not easily dislodged
or disissed' so as to gi$e )la%e to $i%e.
By a dis)osition' on the other hand' &e ean a %ondition that is
easily %hanged and "#i%0ly gi$es )la%e to its o))osite. Th#s' heat'
%old' disease' health' and so on are dis)ositions. +or a an is
dis)osed in one &ay or another &ith re(eren%e to these' b#t "#i%0ly
%hanges' be%oing %old instead o( &ar' ill instead o( &ell. So it
is &ith all other dis)ositions also' #nless thro#gh la)se o( tie a
dis)osition has itsel( be%oe in$eterate and alost i)ossible to
dislodge- in &hi%h %ase &e sho#ld )erha)s go so (ar as to %all it a
habit.
It is e$ident that en in%line to %all those %onditions habits &hi%h
are o( a ore or less )eranent ty)e and di((i%#lt to dis)la%e* (or
those &ho are not retenti$e o( 0no&ledge' b#t $olatile' are not said
to ha$e s#%h and s#%h a !habit! as regards 0no&ledge' yet they are
dis)osed' &e ay say' either better or &orse' to&ards 0no&ledge.
Th#s habit di((ers (ro dis)osition in this' that &hile the latter
in e)heeral' the (orer is )eranent and di((i%#lt to alter.
@abits are at the sae tie dis)ositions' b#t dis)ositions are not
ne%essarily habits. +or those &ho ha$e soe s)e%i(i% habit ay be said
also' in $irt#e o( that habit' to be th#s or th#s dis)osed* b#t
those &ho are dis)osed in soe s)e%i(i% &ay ha$e not in all %ases
the %orres)onding habit.
Another sort o( "#ality is that in $irt#e o( &hi%h' (or e,a)le'
&e %all en good bo,ers or r#nners' or healthy or si%0ly- in (a%t it
in%l#des all those ters &hi%h re(er to inborn %a)a%ity or in%a)a%ity.
S#%h things are not )redi%ated o( a )erson in $irt#e o( his
dis)osition' b#t in $irt#e o( his inborn %a)a%ity or in%a)a%ity to
do soething &ith ease or to a$oid de(eat o( any 0ind. Bersons are
%alled good bo,ers or good r#nners' not in $irt#e o( s#%h and s#%h a
dis)osition' b#t in $irt#e o( an inborn %a)a%ity to a%%o)lish
soething &ith ease. Men are %alled healthy in $irt#e o( the inborn
%a)a%ity o( easy resistan%e to those #nhealthy in(l#en%es that ay
ordinarily arise* #nhealthy' in $irt#e o( the la%0 o( this %a)a%ity.
Siilarly &ith regard to so(tness and hardness. @ardness is )redi%ated
o( a thing be%a#se it has that %a)a%ity o( resistan%e &hi%h enables it
to &ithstand disintegration* so(tness' again' is )redi%ated o( a thing
by reason o( the la%0 o( that %a)a%ity.
A third %lass &ithin this %ategory is that o( a((e%ti$e "#alities
and a((e%tions. S&eetness' bitterness' so#rness' are e,a)les o(
this sort o( "#ality' together &ith all that is a0in to these* heat'
oreo$er' and %old' &hiteness' and bla%0ness are a((e%ti$e
"#alities. It is e$ident that these are "#alities' (or those things
that )ossess the are thesel$es said to be s#%h and s#%h by reason o(
their )resen%e. @oney is %alled s&eet be%a#se it %ontains s&eetness*
the body is %alled &hite be%a#se it %ontains &hiteness* and so in
all other %ases.
The ter !a((e%ti$e "#ality! is not #sed as indi%ating that those
things &hi%h adit these "#alities are a((e%ted in any &ay. @oney is
not %alled s&eet be%a#se it is a((e%ted in a s)e%i(i% &ay' nor is this
&hat is eant in any other instan%e. Siilarly heat and %old are
%alled a((e%ti$e "#alities' not be%a#se those things &hi%h adit
the are a((e%ted. 4hat is eant is that these said "#alities are
%a)able o( )rod#%ing an !a((e%tion! in the &ay o( )er%e)tion. +or
s&eetness has the )o&er o( a((e%ting the sense o( taste* heat' that o(
to#%h* and so it is &ith the rest o( these "#alities.
4hiteness and bla%0ness' ho&e$er' and the other %olo#rs' are not
said to be a((e%ti$e "#alities in this sense' b#t 5be%a#se they
thesel$es are the res#lts o( an a((e%tion. It is )lain that any
%hanges o( %olo#r ta0e )la%e be%a#se o( a((e%tions. 4hen a an is
ashaed' he bl#shes* &hen he is a(raid' he be%oes )ale' and so on. So
tr#e is this' that &hen a an is by nat#re liable to s#%h
a((e%tions' arising (ro soe %on%oitan%e o( eleents in his
%onstit#tion' it is a )robable in(eren%e that he has the %orres)onding
%o)le,ion o( s0in. +or the sae dis)osition o( bodily eleents' &hi%h
in the (orer instan%e &as oentarily )resent in the %ase o( an
a%%ess o( shae' ight be a res#lt o( a an!s nat#ral te)eraent'
so as to )rod#%e the %orres)onding %olo#ring also as a nat#ral
%hara%teristi%. All %onditions' there(ore' o( this 0ind' i( %a#sed
by %ertain )eranent and lasting a((e%tions' are %alled a((e%ti$e
"#alities. +or )allor and d#s0iness o( %o)le,ion are %alled
"#alities' inas#%h as &e are said to be s#%h and s#%h in $irt#e o(
the' not only i( they originate in nat#ral %onstit#tion' b#t also
i( they %oe abo#t thro#gh long disease or s#nb#rn' and are
di((i%#lt to reo$e' or indeed reain thro#gho#t li(e. +or in the sae
&ay &e are said to be s#%h and s#%h be%a#se o( these.
Those %onditions' ho&e$er' &hi%h arise (ro %a#ses &hi%h ay
easily be rendered ine((e%ti$e or s)eedily reo$ed' are %alled' not
"#alities' b#t a((e%tions- (or &e are not said to be s#%h $irt#e o(
the. The an &ho bl#shes thro#gh shae is not said to be a
%onstit#tional bl#sher' nor is the an &ho be%oes )ale thro#gh (ear
said to be %onstit#tionally )ale. @e is said rather to ha$e been
a((e%ted.
Th#s s#%h %onditions are %alled a((e%tions' not "#alities.
In li0e anner there are a((e%ti$e "#alities and a((e%tions o( the
so#l. That te)er &ith &hi%h a an is born and &hi%h has its origin in
%ertain dee)5seated a((e%tions is %alled a "#ality. I ean s#%h
%onditions as insanity' iras%ibility' and so on- (or )eo)le are said
to be ad or iras%ible in $irt#e o( these. Siilarly those abnoral
)sy%hi% states &hi%h are not inborn' b#t arise (ro the %on%oitan%e
o( %ertain other eleents' and are di((i%#lt to reo$e' or
altogether )eranent' are %alled "#alities' (or in $irt#e o( the
en are said to be s#%h and s#%h.
Those' ho&e$er' &hi%h arise (ro %a#ses easily rendered
ine((e%ti$e are %alled a((e%tions' not "#alities. S#))ose that a an
is irritable &hen $e,ed- he is not e$en s)o0en o( as a bad5te)ered
an' &hen in s#%h %ir%#stan%es he loses his te)er soe&hat' b#t
rather is said to be a((e%ted. S#%h %onditions are there(ore tered'
not "#alities' b#t a((e%tions.
The (o#rth sort o( "#ality is (ig#re and the sha)e that belongs to a
thing* and besides this' straightness and %#r$edness and any other
"#alities o( this ty)e* ea%h o( these de(ines a thing as being s#%h
and s#%h. Be%a#se it is triang#lar or "#adrang#lar a thing is said
to ha$e a s)e%i(i% %hara%ter' or again be%a#se it is straight or
%#r$ed* in (a%t a thing!s sha)e in e$ery %ase gi$es rise to a
"#ali(i%ation o( it.
Rarity and density' ro#ghness and soothness' see to be ters
indi%ating "#ality- yet these' it &o#ld a))ear' really belong to a
%lass di((erent (ro that o( "#ality. +or it is rather a %ertain
relati$e )osition o( the )arts %o)osing the thing th#s "#ali(ied
&hi%h' it a))ears' is indi%ated by ea%h o( these ters. A thing is
dense' o&ing to the (a%t that its )arts are %losely %obined &ith
one another* rare' be%a#se there are intersti%es bet&een the )arts*
sooth' be%a#se its )arts lie' so to s)ea0' e$enly* ro#gh' be%a#se
soe )arts )ro/e%t beyond others.
There ay be other sorts o( "#ality' b#t those that are ost
)ro)erly so %alled ha$e' &e ay sa(ely say' been en#erated.
These' then' are "#alities' and the things that ta0e their nae (ro
the as deri$ati$es' or are in soe other &ay de)endent on the' are
said to be "#ali(ied in soe s)e%i(i% &ay. In ost' indeed in alost
all %ases' the nae o( that &hi%h is "#ali(ied is deri$ed (ro that o(
the "#ality. Th#s the ters !&hiteness!' !graar!' !/#sti%e!' gi$e #s
the ad/e%ti$es !&hite!' !graati%al!' !/#st!' and so on.
There are soe %ases' ho&e$er' in &hi%h' as the "#ality #nder
%onsideration has no nae' it is i)ossible that those )ossessed o( it
sho#ld ha$e a nae that is deri$ati$e. +or instan%e' the nae gi$en to
the r#nner or bo,er' &ho is so %alled in $irt#e o( an inborn %a)a%ity'
is not deri$ed (ro that o( any "#ality* (or lob those %a)a%ities ha$e
no nae assigned to the. In this' the inborn %a)a%ity is distin%t
(ro the s%ien%e' &ith re(eren%e to &hi%h en are %alled' e.g.
bo,ers or &restlers. S#%h a s%ien%e is %lassed as a dis)osition* it
has a nae' and is %alled !bo,ing! or !&restling! as the %ase ay
be' and the nae gi$en to those dis)osed in this &ay is deri$ed (ro
that o( the s%ien%e. Soeties' e$en tho#gh a nae e,ists (or the
"#ality' that &hi%h ta0es its %hara%ter (ro the "#ality has a nae
that is not a deri$ati$e. +or instan%e' the #)right an ta0es his
%hara%ter (ro the )ossession o( the "#ality o( integrity' b#t the
nae gi$en hi is not deri$ed (ro the &ord !integrity!. 3et this does
not o%%#r o(ten.
4e ay there(ore state that those things are said to be )ossessed o(
soe s)e%i(i% "#ality &hi%h ha$e a nae deri$ed (ro that o( the
a(oresaid "#ality' or &hi%h are in soe other &ay de)endent on it.
One "#ality ay be the %ontrary o( another* th#s /#sti%e is the
%ontrary o( in/#sti%e' &hiteness o( bla%0ness' and so on. The
things' also' &hi%h are said to be s#%h and s#%h in $irt#e o( these
"#alities' ay be %ontrary the one to the other* (or that &hi%h is
#n/#st is %ontrary to that &hi%h is /#st' that &hi%h is &hite to
that &hi%h is bla%0. This' ho&e$er' is not al&ays the %ase. Red'
yello&' and s#%h %olo#rs' tho#gh "#alities' ha$e no %ontraries.
I( one o( t&o %ontraries is a "#ality' the other &ill also be a
"#ality. This &ill be e$ident (ro )arti%#lar instan%es' i( &e a))ly
the naes
#sed to denote the other %ategories* (or instan%e' granted that
/#sti%e is the %ontrary o( in/#sti%e and /#sti%e is a "#ality'
in/#sti%e &ill also be a "#ality- neither "#antity' nor relation'
nor )la%e' nor indeed any other %ategory b#t that o( "#ality' &ill
be a))li%able )ro)erly to in/#sti%e. So it is &ith all other
%ontraries (alling #nder the %ategory o( "#ality.
=#alities adit o( $ariation o( degree. 4hiteness is )redi%ated o(
one thing in a greater or less degree than o( another. This is also
the %ase &ith re(eren%e to /#sti%e. Moreo$er' one and the sae thing
ay e,hibit a "#ality in a greater degree than it did be(ore- i( a
thing is &hite' it ay be%oe &hiter.
Tho#gh this is generally the %ase' there are e,%e)tions. +or i( &e
sho#ld say that /#sti%e aditted o( $ariation o( degree'
di((i%#lties ight ens#e' and this is tr#e &ith regard to all those
"#alities &hi%h are dis)ositions. There are soe' indeed' &ho
dis)#te the )ossibility o( $ariation here. They aintain that
/#sti%e and health %annot $ery &ell adit o( $ariation o( degree
thesel$es' b#t that )eo)le $ary in the degree in &hi%h they )ossess
these "#alities' and that this is the %ase &ith graati%al learning
and all those "#alities &hi%h are %lassed as dis)ositions. @o&e$er
that ay be' it is an in%ontro$ertible (a%t that the things &hi%h in
$irt#e o( these "#alities are said to be &hat they are $ary in the
degree in &hi%h they )ossess the* (or one an is said to be better
$ersed in graar' or ore healthy or /#st' than another' and so on.
The "#alities e,)ressed by the ters !triang#lar! and !"#adrang#lar!
do not a))ear to adit o( $ariation o( degree' nor indeed do any
that ha$e to do &ith (ig#re. +or those things to &hi%h the
de(inition o( the triangle or %ir%le is a))li%able are all e"#ally
triang#lar or %ir%#lar. Those' on the other hand' to &hi%h the sae
de(inition is not a))li%able' %annot be said to di((er (ro one
another in degree* the s"#are is no ore a %ir%le than the
re%tangle' (or to neither is the de(inition o( the %ir%le a))ro)riate.
In short' i( the de(inition o( the ter )ro)osed is not a))li%able
to both ob/e%ts' they %annot be %o)ared. Th#s it is not all "#alities
&hi%h adit o( $ariation o( degree.
4hereas none o( the %hara%teristi%s I ha$e entioned are )e%#liar to
"#ality' the (a%t that li0eness and #nli0eness %an be )redi%ated
&ith re(eren%e to "#ality only' gi$es to that %ategory its distin%ti$e
(eat#re. One thing is li0e another only &ith re(eren%e to that in
$irt#e o( &hi%h it is s#%h and s#%h* th#s this (ors the )e%#liar ar0
o( "#ality.
4e #st not be dist#rbed be%a#se it ay be arg#ed that' tho#gh
)ro)osing to dis%#ss the %ategory o( "#ality' &e ha$e in%l#ded in it
any relati$e ters. 4e did say that habits and dis)ositions &ere
relati$e. In )ra%ti%ally all s#%h %ases the gen#s is relati$e' the
indi$id#al not. Th#s 0no&ledge' as a gen#s' is e,)lained by
re(eren%e to soething else' (or &e ean a 0no&ledge o( soething. B#t
)arti%#lar bran%hes o( 0no&ledge are not th#s e,)lained. The 0no&ledge
o( graar is not relati$e to anything e,ternal' nor is the
0no&ledge o( #si%' b#t these' i( relati$e at all' are relati$e only
in $irt#e o( their genera* th#s graar is said be the 0no&ledge o(
soething' not the graar o( soething* siilarly #si% is the
0no&ledge o( soething' not the #si% o( soething.
Th#s indi$id#al bran%hes o( 0no&ledge are not relati$e. And it is
be%a#se &e )ossess these indi$id#al bran%hes o( 0no&ledge that &e
are said to be s#%h and s#%h. It is these that &e a%t#ally )ossess- &e
are %alled e,)erts be%a#se &e )ossess 0no&ledge in soe )arti%#lar
bran%h. Those )arti%#lar bran%hes' there(ore' o( 0no&ledge' in
$irt#e o( &hi%h &e are soeties said to be s#%h and s#%h' are
thesel$es "#alities' and are not relati$e. +#rther' i( anything
sho#ld ha))en to (all &ithin both the %ategory o( "#ality and that
o( relation' there &o#ld be nothing e,traordinary in %lassing it #nder
both these heads.
C
A%tion and a((e%tion both adit o( %ontraries and also o(
$ariation o( degree. @eating is the %ontrary o( %ooling' being
heated o( being %ooled' being glad o( being $e,ed. Th#s they adit
o( %ontraries. They also adit o( $ariation o( degree- (or it is
)ossible to heat in a greater or less degree* also to be heated in a
greater or less degree. Th#s a%tion and a((e%tion also adit o(
$ariation o( degree. So #%h' then' is stated &ith regard to these
%ategories.
4e s)o0e' oreo$er' o( the %ategory o( )osition &hen &e &ere dealing
&ith that o( relation' and stated that s#%h ters deri$ed their
naes (ro those o( the %orres)onding attit#des.
As (or the rest' tie' )la%e' state' sin%e they are easily
intelligible' I say no ore abo#t the than &as said at the beginning'
that in the %ategory o( state are in%l#ded s#%h states as !shod!'
!ared!' in that o( )la%e !in the 8y%e#! and so on' as &as
e,)lained be(ore.
10
The )ro)osed %ategories ha$e' then' been ade"#ately dealt &ith.
4e #st ne,t e,)lain the $ario#s senses in &hi%h the ter !o))osite!
is #sed. Things are said to be o))osed in (o#r senses- 1i2 as
%orrelati$es to one another' 1ii2 as %ontraries to one another'
1iii2 as )ri$ati$es to )ositi$es' 1i$2 as a((irati$es to negati$es.
8et e s0et%h y eaning in o#tline. An instan%e o( the #se o( the
&ord !o))osite! &ith re(eren%e to %orrelati$es is a((orded by the
e,)ressions !do#ble! and !hal(!* &ith re(eren%e to %ontraries by !bad!
and !good!. O))osites in the sense o( !)ri$ati$es! and !)ositi$es!
are! blindness! and !sight!* in the sense o( a((irati$es and
negati$es' the )ro)ositions !he sits!' !he does not sit!.
1i2 Bairs o( o))osites &hi%h (all #nder the %ategory o( relation are
e,)lained by a re(eren%e o( the one to the other' the re(eren%e
being indi%ated by the )re)osition !o(! or by soe other
)re)osition. Th#s' do#ble is a relati$e ter' (or that &hi%h is do#ble
is e,)lained as the do#ble o( soething. Dno&ledge' again' is the
o))osite o( the thing 0no&n' in the sae sense* and the thing 0no&n
also is e,)lained by its relation to its o))osite' 0no&ledge. +or
the thing 0no&n is e,)lained as that &hi%h is 0no&n by soething' that
is' by 0no&ledge. S#%h things' then' as are o))osite the one to the
other in the sense o( being %orrelati$es are e,)lained by a
re(eren%e o( the one to the other.
1ii2 Bairs o( o))osites &hi%h are %ontraries are not in any &ay
interde)endent' b#t are %ontrary the one to the other. The good is not
s)o0en o( as the good o( the had' b#t as the %ontrary o( the bad'
nor is &hite s)o0en o( as the &hite o( the bla%0' b#t as the
%ontrary o( the bla%0. These t&o ty)es o( o))osition are there(ore
distin%t. Those %ontraries &hi%h are s#%h that the s#b/e%ts in &hi%h
they are nat#rally )resent' or o( &hi%h they are )redi%ated' #st
ne%essarily %ontain either the one or the other o( the' ha$e no
interediate' b#t those in the %ase o( &hi%h no s#%h ne%essity
obtains' al&ays ha$e an interediate. Th#s disease and health are
nat#rally )resent in the body o( an anial' and it is ne%essary that
either the one or the other sho#ld be )resent in the body o( an
anial. Odd and e$en' again' are )redi%ated o( n#ber' and it is
ne%essary that the one or the other sho#ld be )resent in n#bers.
:o& there is no interediate bet&een the ters o( either o( these
t&o )airs. On the other hand' in those %ontraries &ith regard to &hi%h
no s#%h ne%essity obtains' &e (ind an interediate. Bla%0ness and
&hiteness are nat#rally )resent in the body' b#t it is not ne%essary
that either the one or the other sho#ld be )resent in the body'
inas#%h as it is not tr#e to say that e$erybody #st be &hite or
bla%0. Badness and goodness' again' are )redi%ated o( an' and o( any
other things' b#t it is not ne%essary that either the one "#ality or
the other sho#ld be )resent in that o( &hi%h they are )redi%ated- it
is not tr#e to say that e$erything that ay be good or bad #st be
either good or bad. These )airs o( %ontraries ha$e interediates-
the interediates bet&een &hite and bla%0 are grey' sallo&' and all
the other %olo#rs that %oe bet&een* the interediate bet&een good and
bad is that &hi%h is neither the one nor the other.
Soe interediate "#alities ha$e naes' s#%h as grey and sallo&
and all the other %olo#rs that %oe bet&een &hite and bla%0* in
other %ases' ho&e$er' it is not easy to nae the interediate' b#t
&e #st de(ine it as that &hi%h is not either e,tree' as in the
%ase o( that &hi%h is neither good nor bad' neither /#st nor #n/#st.
1iii2 !)ri$ati$es! and !Bositi$es! ha$e re(eren%e to the sae
s#b/e%t. Th#s' sight and blindness ha$e re(eren%e to the eye. It is
a #ni$ersal r#le that ea%h o( a )air o( o))osites o( this ty)e has
re(eren%e to that to &hi%h the )arti%#lar !)ositi$e! is nat#ral. 4e
say that that is %a)able o( soe )arti%#lar (a%#lty or )ossession
has s#((ered )ri$ation &hen the (a%#lty or )ossession in "#estion is
in no &ay )resent in that in &hi%h' and at the tie at &hi%h' it
sho#ld nat#rally be )resent. 4e do not %all that toothless &hi%h has
not teeth' or that blind &hi%h has not sight' b#t rather that &hi%h
has not teeth or sight at the tie &hen by nat#re it sho#ld. +or there
are soe %reat#res &hi%h (ro birth are &itho#t sight' or &itho#t
teeth' b#t these are not %alled toothless or blind.
To be &itho#t soe (a%#lty or to )ossess it is not the sae as the
%orres)onding !)ri$ati$e! or !)ositi$e!. !Sight! is a !)ositi$e!'
!blindness! a !)ri$ati$e!' b#t !to )ossess sight! is not e"#i$alent to
!sight!' !to be blind! is not e"#i$alent to !blindness!. Blindness
is a !)ri$ati$e!' to be blind is to be in a state o( )ri$ation' b#t is
not a !)ri$ati$e!. Moreo$er' i( !blindness! &ere e"#i$alent to
!being blind!' both &o#ld be )redi%ated o( the sae s#b/e%t* b#t
tho#gh a an is said to be blind' he is by no eans said to be
blindness.
To be in a state o( !)ossession! is' it a))ears' the o))osite o(
being in a state o( !)ri$ation!' /#st as !)ositi$es! and
!)ri$ati$es! thesel$es are o))osite. There is the sae ty)e o(
antithesis in both %ases* (or /#st as blindness is o))osed to sight'
so is being blind o))osed to ha$ing sight.
That &hi%h is a((ired or denied is not itsel( a((iration or
denial. By !a((iration! &e ean an a((irati$e )ro)osition' by
!denial! a negati$e. :o&' those (a%ts &hi%h (or the atter o( the
a((iration or denial are not )ro)ositions* yet these t&o are said
to be o))osed in the sae sense as the a((iration and denial' (or
in this %ase also the ty)e o( antithesis is the sae. +or as the
a((iration is o))osed to the denial' as in the t&o )ro)ositions !he
sits!' !he does not sit!' so also the (a%t &hi%h %onstit#tes the
atter o( the )ro)osition in one %ase is o))osed to that in the other'
his sitting' that is to say' to his not sitting.
It is e$ident that !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es! are not o))osed ea%h
to ea%h in the sae sense as relati$es. The one is not e,)lained by
re(eren%e to the other* sight is not sight o( blindness' nor is any
other )re)osition #sed to indi%ate the relation. Siilarly blindness
is not said to be blindness o( sight' b#t rather' )ri$ation o(
sight. Relati$es' oreo$er' re%i)ro%ate* i( blindness' there(ore' &ere
a relati$e' there &o#ld be a re%i)ro%ity o( relation bet&een it and
that &ith &hi%h it &as %orrelati$e. B#t this is not the %ase. Sight is
not %alled the sight o( blindness.
That those ters &hi%h (all #nder the heads o( !)ositi$es! and
!)ri$ati$es! are not o))osed ea%h to ea%h as %ontraries' either' is
)lain (ro the (ollo&ing (a%ts- O( a )air o( %ontraries s#%h that they
ha$e no interediate' one or the other #st needs be )resent in the
s#b/e%t in &hi%h they nat#rally s#bsist' or o( &hi%h they are
)redi%ated* (or it is those' as &e )ro$ed'! in the %ase o( &hi%h
this ne%essity obtains' that ha$e no interediate. Moreo$er' &e
%ited health and disease' odd and e$en' as instan%es. B#t those
%ontraries &hi%h ha$e an interediate are not s#b/e%t to any s#%h
ne%essity. It is not ne%essary that e$ery s#bstan%e' re%e)ti$e o( s#%h
"#alities' sho#ld be either bla%0 or &hite' %old or hot' (or soething
interediate bet&een these %ontraries ay $ery &ell be )resent in
the s#b/e%t. 4e )ro$ed' oreo$er' that those %ontraries ha$e an
interediate in the %ase o( &hi%h the said ne%essity does not
obtain. 3et &hen one o( the t&o %ontraries is a %onstit#ti$e
)ro)erty o( the s#b/e%t' as it is a %onstit#ti$e )ro)erty o( (ire to
be hot' o( sno& to be &hite' it is ne%essary deterinately that one o(
the t&o %ontraries' not one or the other' sho#ld be )resent in the
s#b/e%t* (or (ire %annot be %old' or sno& bla%0. Th#s' it is not the
%ase here that one o( the t&o #st needs be )resent in e$ery s#b/e%t
re%e)ti$e o( these "#alities' b#t only in that s#b/e%t o( &hi%h the
one (ors a %onstit#ti$e )ro)erty. Moreo$er' in s#%h %ases it is one
eber o( the )air deterinately' and not either the one or the other'
&hi%h #st be )resent.
In the %ase o( !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es!' on the other hand'
neither o( the a(oresaid stateents holds good. +or it is not
ne%essary that a s#b/e%t re%e)ti$e o( the "#alities sho#ld al&ays ha$e
either the one or the other* that &hi%h has not yet ad$an%ed to the
state &hen sight is nat#ral is not said either to be blind or to
see. Th#s !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es! do not belong to that %lass
o( %ontraries &hi%h %onsists o( those &hi%h ha$e no interediate. On
the other hand' they do not belong either to that %lass &hi%h %onsists
o( %ontraries &hi%h ha$e an interediate. +or #nder %ertain %onditions
it is ne%essary that either the one or the other sho#ld (or )art o(
the %onstit#tion o( e$ery a))ro)riate s#b/e%t. +or &hen a thing has
rea%hed the stage &hen it is by nat#re %a)able o( sight' it &ill be
said either to see or to be blind' and that in an indeterinate sense'
signi(ying that the %a)a%ity ay be either )resent or absent* (or it
is not ne%essary either that it sho#ld see or that it sho#ld be blind'
b#t that it sho#ld be either in the one state or in the other. 3et
in the %ase o( those %ontraries &hi%h ha$e an interediate &e (o#nd
that it &as ne$er ne%essary that either the one or the other sho#ld be
)resent in e$ery a))ro)riate s#b/e%t' b#t only that in %ertain
s#b/e%ts one o( the )air sho#ld be )resent' and that in a
deterinate sense. It is' there(ore' )lain that !)ositi$es! and
!)ri$ati$es! are not o))osed ea%h to ea%h in either o( the senses in
&hi%h %ontraries are o))osed.
Again' in the %ase o( %ontraries' it is )ossible that there sho#ld
be %hanges (ro either into the other' &hile the s#b/e%t retains its
identity' #nless indeed one o( the %ontraries is a %onstit#ti$e
)ro)erty o( that s#b/e%t' as heat is o( (ire. +or it is )ossible
that that that &hi%h is healthy sho#ld be%oe diseased' that &hi%h
is &hite' bla%0' that &hi%h is %old' hot' that &hi%h is good' bad'
that &hi%h is bad' good. The bad an' i( he is being bro#ght into a
better &ay o( li(e and tho#ght' ay a0e soe ad$an%e' ho&e$er slight'
and i( he sho#ld on%e i)ro$e' e$en e$er so little' it is )lain that
he ight %hange %o)letely' or at any rate a0e $ery great )rogress*
(or a an be%oes ore and ore easily o$ed to $irt#e' ho&e$er
sall the i)ro$eent &as at (irst. It is' there(ore' nat#ral to
s#))ose that he &ill a0e yet greater )rogress than he has ade in the
)ast* and as this )ro%ess goes on' it &ill %hange hi %o)letely and
establish hi in the %ontrary state' )ro$ided he is not hindered by
la%0 o( tie. In the %ase o( !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es!' ho&e$er'
%hange in both dire%tions is i)ossible. There ay be a %hange (ro
)ossession to )ri$ation' b#t not (ro )ri$ation to )ossession. The an
&ho has be%oe blind does not regain his sight* the an &ho has be%oe
bald does not regain his hair* the an &ho has lost his teeth does not
gro& his gro& a ne& set. 1i$2 Stateents o))osed as a((iration and
negation belong ani(estly to a %lass &hi%h is distin%t' (or in this
%ase' and in this %ase only' it is ne%essary (or the one o))osite to
be tr#e and the other (alse.
:either in the %ase o( %ontraries' nor in the %ase o(
%orrelati$es' nor in the %ase o( !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es!' is it
ne%essary (or one to be tr#e and the other (alse. @ealth and disease
are %ontraries- neither o( the is tr#e or (alse. !7o#ble! and
!hal(! are o))osed to ea%h other as %orrelati$es- neither o( the is
tr#e or (alse. The %ase is the sae' o( %o#rse' &ith regard to
!)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es! s#%h as !sight! and !blindness!. In
short' &here there is no sort o( %obination o( &ords' tr#th and
(alsity ha$e no )la%e' and all the o))osites &e ha$e entioned so
(ar %onsist o( si)le &ords.
At the sae tie' &hen the &ords &hi%h enter into o))osed stateents
are %ontraries' these' ore than any other set o( o))osites' &o#ld
see to %lai this %hara%teristi%. !So%rates is ill! is the %ontrary
o( !So%rates is &ell!' b#t not e$en o( s#%h %o)osite e,)ressions is
it tr#e to say that one o( the )air #st al&ays be tr#e and the
other (alse. +or i( So%rates e,ists' one &ill be tr#e and the other
(alse' b#t i( he does not e,ist' both &ill be (alse* (or neither
!So%rates is ill! nor !So%rates is &ell! is tr#e' i( So%rates does not
e,ist at all.
In the %ase o( !)ositi$es! and !)ri$ati$es!' i( the s#b/e%t does not
e,ist at all' neither )ro)osition is tr#e' b#t e$en i( the s#b/e%t
e,ists' it is not al&ays the (a%t that one is tr#e and the other
(alse. +or !So%rates has sight! is the o))osite o( !So%rates is blind!
in the sense o( the &ord !o))osite! &hi%h a))lies to )ossession and
)ri$ation. :o& i( So%rates e,ists' it is not ne%essary that one sho#ld
be tr#e and the other (alse' (or &hen he is not yet able to a%"#ire
the )o&er o( $ision' both are (alse' as also i( So%rates is altogether
non5e,istent.
B#t in the %ase o( a((iration and negation' &hether the s#b/e%t
e,ists or not' one is al&ays (alse and the other tr#e. +or ani(estly'
i( So%rates e,ists' one o( the t&o )ro)ositions !So%rates is ill!'
!So%rates is not ill!' is tr#e' and the other (alse. This is
li0e&ise the %ase i( he does not e,ist* (or i( he does not e,ist' to
say that he is ill is (alse' to say that he is not ill is tr#e. Th#s
it is in the %ase o( those o))osites only' &hi%h are o))osite in the
sense in &hi%h the ter is #sed &ith re(eren%e to a((iration and
negation' that the r#le holds good' that one o( the )air #st be
tr#e and the other (alse.
11
That the %ontrary o( a good is an e$il is sho&n by ind#%tion- the
%ontrary o( health is disease' o( %o#rage' %o&ardi%e' and so on. B#t
the %ontrary o( an e$il is soeties a good' soeties an e$il. +or
de(e%t' &hi%h is an e$il' has e,%ess (or its %ontrary' this also being
an e$il' and the ean. &hi%h is a good' is e"#ally the %ontrary o( the
one and o( the other. It is only in a (e& %ases' ho&e$er' that &e
see instan%es o( this- in ost' the %ontrary o( an e$il is a good.
In the %ase o( %ontraries' it is not al&ays ne%essary that i( one
e,ists the other sho#ld also e,ist- (or i( all be%oe healthy there
&ill be health and no disease' and again' i( e$erything t#rns &hite'
there &ill be &hite' b#t no bla%0. Again' sin%e the (a%t that So%rates
is ill is the %ontrary o( the (a%t that So%rates is &ell' and t&o
%ontrary %onditions %annot both obtain in one and the sae
indi$id#al at the sae tie' both these %ontraries %o#ld not e,ist
at on%e- (or i( that So%rates &as &ell &as a (a%t' then that
So%rates &as ill %o#ld not )ossibly be one.
It is )lain that %ontrary attrib#tes #st needs be )resent in
s#b/e%ts &hi%h belong to the sae s)e%ies or gen#s. 7isease and health
re"#ire as their s#b/e%t the body o( an anial* &hite and bla%0
re"#ire a body' &itho#t (#rther "#ali(i%ation* /#sti%e and in/#sti%e
re"#ire as their s#b/e%t the h#an so#l.
Moreo$er' it is ne%essary that )airs o( %ontraries sho#ld in all
%ases either belong to the sae gen#s or belong to %ontrary genera
or be thesel$es genera. 4hite and bla%0 belong to the sae gen#s'
%olo#r* /#sti%e and in/#sti%e' to %ontrary genera' $irt#e and $i%e*
&hile good and e$il do not belong to genera' b#t are thesel$es a%t#al
genera' &ith ters #nder the.
1.
There are (o#r senses in &hi%h one thing %an be said to be !)rior!
to another. Briarily and ost )ro)erly the ter has re(eren%e to
tie- in this sense the &ord is #sed to indi%ate that one thing is
older or ore an%ient than another' (or the e,)ressions !older! and
!ore an%ient! i)ly greater length o( tie.
Se%ondly' one thing is said to be !)rior! to another &hen the
se"#en%e o( their being %annot be re$ersed. In this sense !one! is
!)rior! to !t&o!. +or i( !t&o! e,ists' it (ollo&s dire%tly that
!one! #st e,ist' b#t i( !one! e,ists' it does not (ollo&
ne%essarily that !t&o! e,ists- th#s the se"#en%e s#bsisting %annot
be re$ersed. It is agreed' then' that &hen the se"#en%e o( t&o
things %annot be re$ersed' then that one on &hi%h the other de)ends is
%alled !)rior! to that other.
In the third )la%e' the ter !)rior! is #sed &ith re(eren%e to any
order' as in the %ase o( s%ien%e and o( oratory. +or in s%ien%es &hi%h
#se deonstration there is that &hi%h is )rior and that &hi%h is
)osterior in order* in geoetry' the eleents are )rior to the
)ro)ositions* in reading and &riting' the letters o( the al)habet
are )rior to the syllables. Siilarly' in the %ase o( s)ee%hes' the
e,ordi# is )rior in order to the narrati$e.
Besides these senses o( the &ord' there is a (o#rth. That &hi%h is
better and ore hono#rable is said to ha$e a nat#ral )riority. In
%oon )arlan%e en s)ea0 o( those &ho they hono#r and lo$e as
!%oing (irst! &ith the. This sense o( the &ord is )erha)s the ost
(ar5(et%hed.
S#%h' then' are the di((erent senses in &hi%h the ter !)rior! is
#sed.
3et it &o#ld see that besides those entioned there is yet another.
+or in those things' the being o( ea%h o( &hi%h i)lies that o( the
other' that &hi%h is in any &ay the %a#se ay reasonably be said to be
by nat#re !)rior! to the e((e%t. It is )lain that there are
instan%es o( this. The (a%t o( the being o( a an %arries &ith it
the tr#th o( the )ro)osition that he is' and the i)li%ation is
re%i)ro%al- (or i( a an is' the )ro)osition &herein &e allege that he
is tr#e' and %on$ersely' i( the )ro)osition &herein &e allege that
he is tr#e' then he is. The tr#e )ro)osition' ho&e$er' is in no &ay
the %a#se o( the being o( the an' b#t the (a%t o( the an!s being
does see soeho& to be the %a#se o( the tr#th o( the )ro)osition' (or
the tr#th or (alsity o( the )ro)osition de)ends on the (a%t o( the
an!s being or not being.
Th#s the &ord !)rior! ay be #sed in (i$e senses.
13
The ter !si#ltaneo#s! is )riarily and ost a))ro)riately
a))lied to those things the genesis o( the one o( &hi%h is
si#ltaneo#s &ith that o( the other* (or in s#%h %ases neither is
)rior or )osterior to the other. S#%h things are said to be
si#ltaneo#s in )oint o( tie. Those things' again' are !si#ltaneo#s!
in )oint o( nat#re' the being o( ea%h o( &hi%h in$ol$es that o( the
other' &hile at the sae tie neither is the %a#se o( the other!s
being. This is the %ase &ith regard to the do#ble and the hal(' (or
these are re%i)ro%ally de)endent' sin%e' i( there is a do#ble' there
is also a hal(' and i( there is a hal(' there is also a do#ble'
&hile at the sae tie neither is the %a#se o( the being o( the other.
Again' those s)e%ies &hi%h are disting#ished one (ro another and
o))osed one to another &ithin the sae gen#s are said to be
!si#ltaneo#s! in nat#re. I ean those s)e%ies &hi%h are
disting#ished ea%h (ro ea%h by one and the sae ethod o( di$ision.
Th#s the !&inged! s)e%ies is si#ltaneo#s &ith the !terrestrial! and
the !&ater! s)e%ies. These are disting#ished &ithin the sae gen#s'
and are o))osed ea%h to ea%h' (or the gen#s !anial! has the !&inged!'
the !terrestrial!' and the !&ater! s)e%ies' and no one o( these is
)rior or )osterior to another* on the %ontrary' all s#%h things a))ear
to be !si#ltaneo#s! in nat#re. Ea%h o( these also' the terrestrial'
the &inged' and the &ater s)e%ies' %an be di$ided again into
s#bs)e%ies. Those s)e%ies' then' also &ill be !si#ltaneo#s! )oint
o( nat#re' &hi%h' belonging to the sae gen#s' are disting#ished
ea%h (ro ea%h by one and the sae ethod o( di((erentiation.
B#t genera are )rior to s)e%ies' (or the se"#en%e o( their being
%annot be re$ersed. I( there is the s)e%ies !&ater5anial!' there &ill
be the gen#s !anial!' b#t granted the being o( the gen#s !anial!' it
does not (ollo& ne%essarily that there &ill be the s)e%ies
!&ater5anial!.
Those things' there(ore' are said to be !si#ltaneo#s! in nat#re'
the being o( ea%h o( &hi%h in$ol$es that o( the other' &hile at the
sae tie neither is in any &ay the %a#se o( the other!s being*
those s)e%ies' also' &hi%h are disting#ished ea%h (ro ea%h and
o))osed &ithin the sae gen#s. Those things' oreo$er' are
!si#ltaneo#s! in the #n"#ali(ied sense o( the &ord &hi%h %oe into
being at the sae tie.
16
There are si, sorts o( o$eent- generation' destr#%tion'
in%rease' diin#tion' alteration' and %hange o( )la%e.
It is e$ident in all b#t one %ase that all these sorts o( o$eent
are distin%t ea%h (ro ea%h. Generation is distin%t (ro
destr#%tion' in%rease and %hange o( )la%e (ro diin#tion' and so
on. B#t in the %ase o( alteration it ay be arg#ed that the )ro%ess
ne%essarily i)lies one or other o( the other (i$e sorts o( otion.
This is not tr#e' (or &e ay say that all a((e%tions' or nearly all'
)rod#%e in #s an alteration &hi%h is distin%t (ro all other sorts
o( otion' (or that &hi%h is a((e%ted need not s#((er either
in%rease or diin#tion or any o( the other sorts o( otion. Th#s
alteration is a distin%t sort o( otion* (or' i( it &ere not' the
thing altered &o#ld not only be altered' b#t &o#ld (orth&ith
ne%essarily s#((er in%rease or diin#tion or soe one o( the other
sorts o( otion in addition* &hi%h as a atter o( (a%t is not the
%ase. Siilarly that &hi%h &as #ndergoing the )ro%ess o( in%rease or
&as s#b/e%t to soe other sort o( otion &o#ld' i( alteration &ere not
a distin%t (or o( otion' ne%essarily be s#b/e%t to alteration
also. B#t there are soe things &hi%h #ndergo in%rease b#t yet not
alteration. The s"#are' (or instan%e' i( a gnoon is a))lied to it'
#ndergoes in%rease b#t not alteration' and so it is &ith all other
(ig#res o( this sort. Alteration and in%rease' there(ore' are
distin%t.
S)ea0ing generally' rest is the %ontrary o( otion. B#t the
di((erent (ors o( otion ha$e their o&n %ontraries in other (ors*
th#s destr#%tion is the %ontrary o( generation' diin#tion o(
in%rease' rest in a )la%e' o( %hange o( )la%e. As (or this last'
%hange in the re$erse dire%tion &o#ld see to be ost tr#ly its
%ontrary* th#s otion #)&ards is the %ontrary o( otion do&n&ards
and $i%e $ersa.
In the %ase o( that sort o( otion &hi%h yet reains' o( those
that ha$e been en#erated' it is not easy to state &hat is its
%ontrary. It a))ears to ha$e no %ontrary' #nless one sho#ld de(ine the
%ontrary here also either as !rest in its "#ality! or as !%hange in
the dire%tion o( the %ontrary "#ality!' /#st as &e de(ined the
%ontrary o( %hange o( )la%e either as rest in a )la%e or as %hange
in the re$erse dire%tion. +or a thing is altered &hen %hange o(
"#ality ta0es )la%e* there(ore either rest in its "#ality or %hange in
the dire%tion o( the %ontrary ay be %alled the %ontrary o( this
"#alitati$e (or o( otion. In this &ay be%oing &hite is the %ontrary
o( be%oing bla%0* there is alteration in the %ontrary dire%tion'
sin%e a %hange o( a "#alitati$e nat#re ta0es )la%e.
15
The ter !to ha$e! is #sed in $ario#s senses. In the (irst )la%e
it is #sed &ith re(eren%e to habit or dis)osition or any other
"#ality' (or &e are said to !ha$e! a )ie%e o( 0no&ledge or a $irt#e.
Then' again' it has re(eren%e to "#antity' as' (or instan%e' in the
%ase o( a an!s height* (or he is said to !ha$e! a height o( three
or (o#r %#bits. It is #sed' oreo$er' &ith regard to a))arel' a an
being said to !ha$e! a %oat or t#ni%* or in res)e%t o( soething &hi%h
&e ha$e on a )art o( o#rsel$es' as a ring on the hand- or in res)e%t
o( soething &hi%h is a )art o( #s' as hand or (oot. The ter re(ers
also to %ontent' as in the %ase o( a $essel and &heat' or o( a /ar and
&ine* a /ar is said to !ha$e! &ine' and a %orn5eas#re &heat. The
e,)ression in s#%h %ases has re(eren%e to %ontent. Or it re(ers to
that &hi%h has been a%"#ired* &e are said to !ha$e! a ho#se or a
(ield. A an is also said to !ha$e! a &i(e' and a &i(e a h#sband'
and this a))ears to be the ost reote eaning o( the ter' (or by the
#se o( it &e ean si)ly that the h#sband li$es &ith the &i(e.
Other senses o( the &ord ight )erha)s be (o#nd' b#t the ost
ordinary ones ha$e all been en#erated.
5T@E E:75
.