which precedes which - theory or practice - clearly there is a relationship of logical discussion of ideas and opinions between both, and the neglect of either theory or practice leads to the death of science. Ancient India produced some of the most fascinating series of debates on what constitutes the "scientific method": How does one separate our sensory perceptions from dreams and hallucinations? When does an observation of reality become accepted as fact, and as scientific truth? How should the principles of inductive and deductive logic be developed and applied? How does one evaluate a hypothesis for it's scientific merit? What is a valid inference? What constitutes a scientific proof? In ancient India these and other questions were attacked with an unexpected intellectual vigour. Today most philosophers of science agree that: Science is a two-step process. The first step involves the discovery of new facts, irregularities, exceptions, or seeming contradictions in nature. This is followed by the difficult intellectual achievement of developing a concept - a concept that can integrate a mass of previously disparate facts, or one that is more successful as the basis of scientific theory. Hand in hand with the above are the need for data collection, the disappointment of invalid theories, the narcissism of colleagues and a multitude of other frustrations. John Moors (1993): eight criteria for determining whether a certain activity qualifies as a science. 1. A science must be based on data collected in the field or laboratory by observation or experiment without invoking supernatural factors. 2. Data must be collected to answer questions and observations must be made to strengthen or refute conjectures. 3. Objective methods must be employed in order to minimize any possible bias. 4. Hypothesis must be consistent with observations and compatible with the general conceptual framework. 5. All hypotheses must be tested and if possible competing hypothesis must be developed and their degree of validity and or (problem solving capacity) must be compared. 6 Generalisations must be universally valid within the domain of that particular science. Unique events must be explicable without invoking supernatural factors. 7. In order to eliminate the possibility of error, a fact or discovery must be fully accepted only if repeatedly conformed by other investigators. 8. Science is characterised by the steady improvement of scientific theories, by the replacement of faulty or incompetent theories, and by the solution of previously puzzling problems. (Moor J.A. (1993), Science as a Way of Knowing. Cambridge: Haward University Press.) Two aspects of Philosophy- The Root of All Civilizations Concern with the affairs of the spirit and "after-life. 1. Concern with developing philosophical paradigms grounded in reality. Aspects of Vedic and Upanishadic literature point to an intuitive understanding of nature and natural processes. Extensive commentaries illustrate the popular methods of debate, of developing a hypothesis, of extending and elaborating theory, of furnishing proofs and counter-proofs. Vedic and Upanishadic-I Aspects of literature point to an intuitive understanding of nature and natural processes. Many of the ideas are presented in a philosophical and exploratory manner - rather than as strict definitions of inviolable truth. Following an era when rituals and superstitions had begun to proliferate, in some ways the Upanishadic texts helped to clear the ground for greater rationalism in society. Orthodoxy and ideas of ritual purity were superseded by a spiritual perspective that avoided the rigidity & domination and could be practiced universally, unfettered by an individual's social standing. The Upanishadic period gave way to an era which was not inimical to the development of rational ideas, even encouraging scientific observation and advanced study in the fields of logic, mathematics and the physical sciences. Vedic and Upanishadic-II Within the broad stream of ancient thought - there were several different currents that asserted a predominantly atheistic view. The early Buddhist world view was an essentially atheistic world view. Hieun Tsang describes the merchants of Benaras as being mostly "unbelievers"! The ancient Jains were agnostics. Many scholars from each of these philosophical schools felt the imperative to prove their extra-worldly theories using rationalist tools of deductive and inductive logic. They go to great lengths in describing competing rationalist and worldly philosophies rooted in a more realistic and more scientific perception of the world. Their extensive commentaries illustrate the popular methods of debate, of developing a hypothesis, of extending and elaborating theory, of furnishing proofs and counter-proofs. Vedic and Upanishadic-III Upanishadic philosophers sometimes displaying remarkable worldly insight and analytical skill in attempting to win over their followers through analogies from nature. By employing the methods of abstract reasoning and debate, they created an environment where dialectical thinking and intellectual exchanges could later flourish. Many rationalist and/or naturalist philosophical streams emerged from this initial foundation. Some were nominally theistic others (early Jains), were agnostic while the early Buddhists and the Lokayatas were atheists. Thus Upanishadic philosophers had leveled the ground for the seeds of rationalism to flourish. Early Rationalist Schools 1.Lokayata They acknowledged nothing but the material human body and the material universe around it. they gave primacy to human sense-perception, and through the application of the inferential process - they developed their theories of how the world worked. In essence they had discovered the principle that: i. the whole was greater than the sum of it's parts; ii. physical and chemical processes could lead to dramatic changes in the properties of the substances combined; iii. special transformations could produce new qualities that were not evident in the constituent elements of the newly-created entity. Lokayatas believed that consciousness emerged from the living human body, and ended with it's death. Keen observers of nature, they were probably amongst the first to understand the nature of different plants and herbs and their utility to human well-being. Early Indian medicine gradually evolved from the early scientific knowledge and understanding. Lokayatas' understanding of the world was not as elaborate and precise as that provided by today's science. But what is more important is that their world view was driven by a rational and scientific approach. 2. Vaisheshika School Founded by Kanada, 6th century B.C author of the Vaisesika Sutra was an early realistic school whose main achievement lay in it's attempt at classifying nature into like and unlike groups. It also posited that all matter was made up of tiny and indestructible particles - i.e. atoms that aggregated in different ways to form new compounds that formed the variety of matter that existed on the earth. Important contribution : careful study of the time-relation in a chain of causes and effects. In a very rudimentary way, the school (along with other such schools) anticipated the theory of time calculus which could also be extended to space calculus. Served as an important step in the study of science by enumerating concepts that could further the study of physics and chemistry. In addition, the the study of medical science (including veterinary science) received considerable impetus from such attempts at methodical observation and classification. 3.Nyaya and related schools Elaborated on the process of accumulating valid scientific knowledge and gave a general methodology of ascertaining the truth and generating valid inferences by: i. accurate perception through one of the senses; ii. inference; iii. comparison with a well-known object; iv. verbal testimony identified various types of arguments that hindered or obstructed the path of genuine scientific pursuit. defined a very sophisticated school of rational philosophy where the process of scientific epistemology was analyzed threadbare and all the dangers of unscientific reasoning and propaganda ploys were skillfully exposed. Nyaya texts on causality indicate that there was an awareness that light travelled at a very high speed but the transmission of light was not instantaneous. 4.Jain School Jain Logic contributed the idea that the truth of a concept or observation could not only be true or false but indeterminate. Matrix of seven possible states of the truth (true, false, true or false, indeterminate, true or indeterminate, false or indeterminate, true or false or indeterminate). Proposed that every real is hedged round by a network of relations and attributes, which they propose to call its system or context or universe of discourse, which demarcates it from others. Proposed that the union of atoms required opposite qualities in the combining atoms - as is true in the case of electrovalent bonding. However, they erred in thinking that covalent bonding (which does not require opposite polarities in the combining atoms) could not occur. But their intuition that opposite polarities created mutual attraction and facilitated chemical reactions was correct. Successfully synthesized earlier debates on change and permanence. Proposed that all objects (or parts of objects) passed through phases of "existence, persistence, and cessation" and that reality was therefore a complex combination of things relatively permanent yet also relatively changing. 5. Buddhist School Viewed matter as an aggregate of rapidly recurring forces or energy waves. An atom was perceived as a momentary flash of light combining and separating from other atoms according to strict and definite laws of causality. Physical matter was thus seen as a denser and more concentrated form of light. Although at odds with other atomic theories of the time, their approach fit in with their general view that all things in nature were temporal, that there was constant change in nature - that degradation and renewal were continuous processes. As keen observers of nature and the human body, India's early scientist/philosophers studied human sensory organs, analyzed dreams, memory and consciousness. The best of them investigated & discussed the the truth of ideas and opinions in nature - they understood change, both in quantitative and qualitative terms - they even posited a proto-type of the modern atomic theory. It was this rational foundation that led to the flowering of Indian civilization. While ancient India did not generally suffer of religious opposition to science, it did suffer from a proliferation of rituals and superstitions. The Age of Science and Reason - 1000 B.C to the 400 A.D Much of the evidence for how India's ancient logicians and scientists developed their theories lies buried in controversial texts that are not normally thought of as scientific texts but are extended references found in philosophical texts and commentaries by Buddhist and Jain monks or Hindu scholars of the spiritual variety. These ideas thus formed the foundations of Indian science and contributed to the gradual elaboration of mathematics and astronomy, as well as agricultural and meteorological sciences. The basis of Infinity in Mathematics- Purnamadah purnamidam Purnet purnamudacyate; Purnasya purnamadaya, Purnamevavasisyate The Invisible is Full , the Visible is Full. From the Full (Invisible) , the Full (Visible) has come. The Full (invisible) remains the same, even after the Full (visible) has come out of the Full. Infinity minus Infinity also is Infinity. In India, almost everything was in place to favour such a development. There was already a long and established history in the use of decimal numbers that goes back to the Harappa period; philosophical and cosmological constructs encouraged a creative and expansive approach to number theory; Panini's studies in linguistic theory and formal language; The powerful role of symbolism and representational abstraction in art and architecture; The rationalist doctrines and the exacting epistemology of the Nyaya Sutras; Innovative abstractions of the Syadavada and Buddhist schools of learning. Developments in metallurgy and civil engineering followed. Medicine and surgery perhaps received the greatest and the earliest impetus from these developments, as also art and culture. Developments in philosophy led to concomitant developments in the realm of science, culture art & technology. . Particle Physics:Although particle physics is one of the most advanced and most complicated branches of modern physics, the earliest atomic theories are at least 2500 years old. In India, virtually every rational school of philosophy (whether Hindu, Buddhist or Jain had something to say on the nature of elementary particles, and various schools of thought promoted the idea that matter was composed of atoms that were indivisible and indestructible. These early atomic theories became converted into a molecular theory of matter. While many details of these theories no longer stand the test of scientific validity, there was much in these formulations that was conceptually quite advanced and sophisticated for it's time. The requirement of catalytic substances relating to the manufacture of acids and alkalis (relevant to medicinal and surgical applications) had also been documented, as had the role of suitable catalysts in metallurgical processes, and in the manufacture of color-fast dyes. Today, much more is known about catalytic processes, as a variety of minerals, vitamins and enzymes have been identified as playing a key role (as catalysts) in a range of essential chemical processes that take place in our bodies, as do catalytic compounds in other physical processes). Particle Physics - II Prasastapada proposed that the heat (taijasa) factor affected molecular groupings (vyuhas), thus causing chemical changes. Pilupakavada theory, as proposed by the Vaisesikas held that the application of heat (through fire, for instance) reduced the molecules of the earthen pot into atoms; and the continued application of heat caused the atoms to regroup creating new molecules and a different color. Pitharapakavada theory offered by the Nyayikas (of the Nyaya school) disagreed, suggesting that the molecular changes/transformations took place without a breakdown of the original molecules into basic atoms, arguing that if that happened, there would also have to be a disintegration of the pot itself, which remained intact, but only changed color. Texts of Prasastapada and the Nyaya-Vaisesikas indicate that all atoms to be in a state of constant activity. The concept of parispanda was propounded to describe such molecular/atomic motion, whether it be whirling, circling, or harmonic. Optics Susruta 1st C AD posited that it was light arriving from an external source at the retina that illuminated the world around us. (This was reiterated by Aryabhatta in the 5th C). Cakrapani suggesting that both sound and light traveled in waves, but that light traveled at a much higher speed. Mimamsakas & others imagined light to comprise of minute particles (now understood to be photons) in constant motion and spreading through radiation and diffusion from the original source. Varahamihira discussed reflection as being caused by light particles arriving on a object and then back-scattering (kiranavighattana, murcchana). Vatsyayana referred to this phenomenon as rasmiparavartana, and the concept was adapted to explain the occurrence of shadows and the opacity of materials. Refraction was understood to be caused by the ability of light to penetrate inner spaces of translucent or transparent materials and Uddyotakara drew a comparison with fluids moving through porous objects. Al Haytham (b, Basra, worked in Cairo, 10th C) who may have been familiar with the writings of Aryabhatta, expounded a more advanced theory of optics using ligh rays, diagrammatically explaining the concepts of reflection and refraction. He is particularly known for elucidating the laws of refraction and articulating that refraction was caused by light rays traveling at different speeds in different materials.) SOUND Prastapada hypothesized that sound was borne by air in increasing circles, similar to the movement of ripples in water. Sound was understood to have its own reflection - pratidhvani (echo). Musical pitches (sruti) were seen as caused by the magnitude and frequency of vibrations. A svara (tone) was believed to consist of a sruti (fundamental tone) and some anuranana (partial tones or harmonics). Musical theory was elaborated on the basis of concepts such as jativyaktyoriva tadatamyam (genus and species of svara), parinama (change of fundamental frequency), vyanjana (manifestation of overtones), vivartana (reflection of sound), and karyakaranabhava (cause and effect of the sound). Astronomy and Physics Aryabhatta (5th-6th C) made pioneering discoveries in the realm of planetary motion. Yativrasabha's work Tiloyapannatti (6th C) gives various units for measuring distances and time and also describes a system of infinite time measures. Vacaspati Misra (circa AD 840) anticipated solid (co-ordinate) geometry eight centuries before Descartes (AD 1644). In his Nyayasuchi-nibandha, he states that the position of a particle in space could be calculated by assuming it relative to another and measuring along three (imaginary) axes. The study of astronomy also led to a great interest in quantifying very large and very small units of time and space. Nyaya-Vaisesikas considered the solar day to be made up of 1,944,000 ksana (units of time), according to them each ksana thus correspnded to .044 seconds. The truti was defined as the smallest unit of time i.e. 2.9623*10 -4 . Silpasastra records the smallest measure of length as the paramanu i.e. 1/349525 of an inch. This measurement corresponds to the smallest thickness of the Nyaya-Vaisesika school - the trasarenu, which was the size of the smallest mote visible on a sunbeam as it shone into a dark room. Varahamihira (circa AD sixth century) posited that 86 trasarenu were equal to one anguli i.e. three-fourths of an inch. He also suggested that 64 trasarenu were equal to the thickness of a hair.} The Laws of Motion Vaisesikas made the earliest attempts at classifying different types of motion. Prasastapada 7th C AD Described linear motion, curvilinear motion (gamana), rotary motion (bhramana) and vibratory motion. Differentiated between: motion due to external action and motion due to gravity or fluidity. motion due to elasticity or momentum, motion due to opposite reaction to an external force. Noted that: some types of actions result in like motion, and others in opposite motion, or no motion at all. the variations arising from the internal and inherent properties of the interacting objects. at any given instance, a particle was capable of only a single motion (although a body such as a blowing leaf composed of multiple particles may experience a more complex pattern of motion due to different particles moving in different ways) - an important concept that was to facilitate in later quantifications of the laws of motion. Sridhara 10th C. reiterated Sridhara reiterated what had been observed by Prasastapada, and expanded on it. Bhaskaracharya (12th C), in his Siddhanta Siromani and Ganitadhyaya, took a crucial first step in quantification, and measured average velocity as v=s/t (where v is the average velocity, s is distance covered, and t is time). A mathematical formula by Newton a few centuries later conceptually generalized and formally characterized the Law's of motion in an abstract way. Bhaskaracharya Varahamira 6th C Aryabhatta (5th- 6th C) The Downfall Several factors posed as hindrances to the development of modern science. In comparison to Europe, India enjoyed a relatively milder climate, and the production of necessities was deemed sufficient to satisfy the population of the time. This was a setback to industrialization. The courts spent a good part of their rich treasuries on cultivating the fine arts and promoting the manufacture of luxury goods and decorative objects of exquisite beauty. Science and technology simply attracted little attention (except when it came to improving the tools of war). Religious orthodoxy that claimed that all the world's knowledge was already described in it, had it's negative effect. A a sharp divide between the mental and the physical and thus prevented scientists from going beyond passive observation and intuition to practical experimentation, active theorizing and quantification. Alchemy, astrology, study of omens, numerology and other semi-rational and irrational traditions drew much more attention and patronage. This distracted intellect from genuine scientific pursuits. Renaissance - Europe European scientists drew on the best works produced in the East - studying foreign documents with due diligence, often accepting little at face value - but instead verifying the results with apparatus and scientific measuring tools of their own creation. There was a time when such had also been the case in ancient India - but over time (due to both internal and external factors) - India's scientific spirit got eroded. Europe not only caught up with the knowledge of India and the East, it also rapidly surpassed it. Traditional science was transformed by the new heliocentric, mechanistic, and mathematical conceptions of Copernicus, Harvey, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. Humanist scholarship provided both originals and translations of scientific works which enormously increased the fund of knowledge in physics, astronomy, medicine, botany, and other disciplines--and presented as well alternative theories to those of Ptolemy and Aristotle. The deductive and inductive methods by which scientists worked analyzed and formulated the rules was studied and the conception of phenomena studied. Renaissance - Europe - II The proper image is the Renaissance science played the role of a midwife than of parent, in the realm of technology. Engineers and technicians of the 15th and 16th centuries achieved remarkable results. This may have had more to do with changing social needs than with changes in scientific theory. The most important technological advance of all, because it underlay progress in so many other fields, was the development of printing, The invention casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in the 1470s, and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of Europe had produced some six million books. Thus the intellectual Renaissance of the 16th and 17th centuries was accompanied by a secularization of learning, which shifted the centre of philosophical and scientific debate from monasteries to universities. Da Vinci "For nature, as it would seem, takes vengeance on such as would work miracles and they come to have less than other men who are more quiet. And those who wish to grow rich in a day shall live a long time in great poverty, as happens and will to all eternity happen to the alchemists, the would-be creators of gold and silver, and to the engineers who think to make dead water stir itself into life with perpetual motion, and to those supreme fools, the necromancer and the enchanter." References: B. Seal The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus. Bose, Sen, Subarayappa Concise History of Science in India (, Indian National Science Academy) D. Chattopadhyaya (Anthology edited by)Studies in the History of Science in India Causation in Indian Philosophy (Mahesh Chandra Bhartiya, Vimal Prakashan, Ghaziabad) D. Chattopadhyaya: In Defence of Materialism in Ancient India R. C. Dutt: A History of Civilization in Ancient India Examples of Vedic/Upanishadic Texts: Atharva Veda, Book 19, Hymn 59; Rig Veda, Book 9, Hymn 112, Book 10, Hymn 127; Kena Upanishad, supplement to the Sama Veda; Chandogya Upanishad; Verses from the Bhagavata Purana etc. K. Damodaran: Indian Thought, A Critical Survey D Chattopadhyaya: Lokayata: A study in Ancient Indian Materialism D. Chattopadhyaya: In Defence of Materialism in Ancient India D.Chattopadhyaya: What is Living and What is Dead in Indian Philosophy Science and Technology in India (National Geographic insert): Dept. of Science and Technology, GOI; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; A Cultural History of India (Edited: A.L. Basham) History of Science and technology in India: Ed. G. Kuppuram and K. Kumudamani Relevant Ancient and Medieval Texts: Atharva Veda, Arthashastra, Silpashastra, Silparatna, Manasollasa, Kasyapasilpa,Visnudharmottara, Citrakalpadruma, Ansumadbhedagama, Svarna-Rupya- Siddhi-Sastra (Jinadatta Suri), Caraka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Hastyayurveda (Veterinary Medicinal Text), Brihatsamhita (Varahamira), Khargalakshanam (Varahamira), Rasaratnasamuchaya (Vagbhata), Ashtanga Sangraha (Vagbhat), Rasaratnakara (Nagarjuna), Upaskara (Sankara Misra), Rasarnava, Rasa-raja-mrganka (Bhoja), Yuktikalpataru (Bhoja), Samarangana-sutradhara (Bhoja), Dhatu-ratna-mala (Devadatta) - all in Sanskrit. There are also texts in regional langauges such as the Siddha Vaidya in Tamil, as well as texts with diagrams of manufacturing processes in Persian and Urdu Here is what Said Al-Andalusi, an 11th C Spanish scholar, court historian and chronicler wrote then: "Among the nations, during the course of centuries and throughout the passage of time, India was known as the mine of wisdom and the fountainhead of justice and good government and the Indians were credited with excellent intellects, exalted ideas, universal maxims, rare inventions and wonderful talents ... They have studied arithmetic and geometry. They have also acquired copious and abundant knowledge of the movements of the stars, the secrets of the celestial sphere and all other kinds of mathematical sciences. Moreover, of all the peoples they are the most learned in the science of medicine and thoroughly informed about the properties of drugs, the nature of composite elements and peculiarities of the existing things." (Abu'l-Qasim's comments on India in Tabaqat al-Umam (Categories of Nations)) "In the great teaching of the Vedas, there is no touch of sectarianism. It is of all ages, climes and nationalities and is the royal road for the attainment of the Great Knowledge. " -Henry David Thoreau, American Thinker & Author "In India I found a race of mortals living upon the Earth. but not adhering to it. Inhabiting cities, but not being fixed to them, possessing everything but possessed by nothing". -Apollonius Tyanaeus (Greek Thinker and Traveler 1st Century AD) India is the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europe's languages. India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in Christianity... of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all." -Will Durant (American Historian 1885-1981) Ancient Indian theories were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics. - A.L. Basham, Australian Indologist Megasthenes - who travelled extensively through India in the 4th C. B.C also left extensive accounts that paint India in highly favorable light (for that period). Pythagoras - the Greek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the 6th C B.C was familiar with the Upanishads and learnt his basic geometry from the Sulva Sutras. (The famous Pythagoras theorem is actually a restatement of a result already known and recorded by earlier Indian mathematicians). Herodotus (father of Greek history) was to write that the Indians were the greatest nation of the age. By the 6th C. A.D, with the help of ancient Greek and Indian texts, and through their own ingenuity. Alberuni on Indian Science: In his memoirs, Al-beruni of Khiva (10-11th C) cites Brahmagupta and Varahamira and their arguments concerning the earth being spherical and the attraction of objects on the earth towards it's centre. He also cites how the daily phases of the tides were calculated relative to the rising and the setting of the moon. He also left commentaries on Indian mathematics, philosophy and other aspects of Indian life. Gloria Emeagwali brings up how discoveries made outside the Western world have rarely been properly credited in the West. She points to how the national origin of ancient scholars of North African and Middle Eastern descent is not correctly acknowledged, adding that Africans and Middle Easterners made important contributions to developments in science and philosophy in the ancient 'Greek' world. Gloria Emeagwali's Eurocentricism and the History of Science and Technology Indian astronomers made significant discoveries about planetary motion. An Indian astronomer - Aryabhata, was to become the first to describe the earth as a sphere that rotated on it's own axis. He further postulated that it was the earth that rotated around the sun and correctly described how solar and lunar eclipses occurred. Because astronomy required extremely complicated mathematical equations, ancient Indians also made significant advances in mathematics. Differential equations - the basis of modern calculus were in all likelihood an Indian invention (something essential in modeling planetary motions). Indian mathematicians were also the first to invent the concept of abstract infinite numbers - numbers that can only be represented through abstract mathematical formulations such as infinite series - geometric or arithmetic. They also seemed to be familiar with polynomial equations (again essential in advanced astronomy) and were the inventors of the modern numeral system (referred to as the Arabic numeral system in Europe). The use of the decimal system and the concept of zero was essential in facilitating large astronomical calculation and allowed such 7th C mathematicians as Brahmagupta to estimate the earth's circumferance at about 23,000 miles - (not too far off from the current calculation). It also enabled Indian astronomers to provide fairly accurate longitudes of important places in India. India's rational age was thus a period of tremendous intellectual ferment and vitality. It was a period of scientific discovery and technological innovation. The rational period thus saw progress on several fronts. Not only did it create an enduring foundation for India's civilization to develop and mature - it has also had it's impact on the growth of other civilizations. In fact, India's rational period served as a vital link in the long and varied chain of human progress. It is important to note that fundamental and important discoveries in science and innovations in technology have come from many different parts of the globe, albeit at different times and stages of world civilization. India made significant contributions in this regard. If India is to fully recover from the depredations that followed, it is imperative that we honour the achievements of this inspiring epoch.
Woodrow Wilson Was Referring To The Liberal Idea of The Economic Market When He Said That The Free Enterprise System Is The Most Efficient Economic System