Digestive System

Digestive (GI) Tract

General arrangement of abdominal GI
organs

Peritoneum

Parietal peritoneum

Visceral peritoneum

Peritoneal cavity

Intraperitoneal organs

Retroperitoneal organs

Mesentaries

Double layered folds of peritoneum

Greater omentum

Lesser omentum

Mesentery proper

Suspends small intestine from posterior wall of abdomen

Mesocolon

Suspends large intestine

Peritoneal ligament

Peritoneum that attaches one organ to another

Actions of Digestive (GI) Tract

Ingestion

ccurs when material

enters via the mouth

Mechanical Processing

!rushing " Shearing #

ma$es material easier to
move through the tract

Digestion

!hemical brea$down of
food into small organic
compounds for absorption

Secretion

Release of water acids% buffers%

en&ymes ' salts by epithelium of
GI tract and glandular organs

(bsorption

Movement of organic substrates%

electrolytes% vitamins ' water
across digestive epithelium

)*cretion

Removal of waste products from

body fluids
General Histology of GI Organs

from the esophagus

through the large
intestine

a tube

composed of four
concentric layers called
tunics+

,rom deep to superficial%

these tunics are-

the mucosa

the submucosa

submucosal nerve ple*us

.Meissner ple*us/

the muscularis

myenteric ple*us .(uerbach

ple*us/

the adventitia or serosa

0otalitatea organelor 1n care are loc transformarea alimentelor n substan e
simple% asimilabile% formea&2 sistemul digestiv+
La om% ca 3i la mamiferele despre care a4i 1nv24at anul trecut% sistemul digestiv
este alc2tuit din tubul digestiv i glandele anexe +
Tubul digestiv este alc2tuit% la
r5ndul lui% din- cavitatea bucal ,
faringele, esofagul, stomacul,
intestinul sub ire, intestinul gros.
Comunicarea cu mediul extern
se reali&ea&2 prin dou2 orificii- gura
i anusul.
Cavitatea bucal are 1n partea anterioar2 buzele, posterior6 valul palatin i
omu orul, lateral- obrajii % 1n partea inferioara6 podeaua acoperit2 de limb% iar
plan eul bucal formea&2 cerul gurii+
Cavitatea
oral

Opens to outside to facilitate feeding

ids in preparation of food for digestion

!oods are bro"en do#n mec$anically by c$e#ing

Saliva is added as a lubricant from t$e auxiliary saliva glands

Saliva contains amylase% an en&yme t$at digests starc$

Serves as an organ for speec$ and pleasure

Includes c$ee"s% lips% tongue% palate% teet$ ' primary ( secondary

Cavitatea oral
OROPHARYNX
LARYNGOPHARYNX
Cavitatea oral
2
6
-
13

0wo regions of the oral cavity

Vestibule is the space between the chee$s or lips and the

gums+

ral cavity proper+

0he lateral walls are formed by the chee$s+

!ontain buccinator muscles

Lips .labia/+

rbicularis oris muscle

7eratini&ed stratified s8uamous )0

Gingivae% or gums+

Dense regular !0

9on$eratini&ed )0

Labial frenulum+
)alatul

:ard palate

(nterior two6thirds of the palate

hard and bony

Soft palate

Posterior one6third

soft and muscular

primarily composed of s$eletal muscle+

)*tending inferiorly from the posterior

part of the soft palate is the uvula+

;hen swallowing% the soft palate and the

uvula elevate to close off the opening of the
nasopharyn*+

,auces represent the opening between the

oral cavity and the oropharyn*+

,auces are bounded by paired muscular

folds-

glossopalatine arch .anterior fold/

pharyngopalatine arch .posterior fold/

Palatine tonsils are housed between the

arches+
*imba

(n accessory digestive organ

,ormed from-

s$eletal muscle

covered with lightly $eratini&ed

stratified s8uamous epithelium+

Manipulates and mi*es ingested materials

during chewing

,orms the bolus+

a globular mass of partially digested

material

Performs important functions in

swallowing

Inferior surface of the tongue

attaches to the floor of the oral cavity

<y the lingual frenulum+

9umerous small pro=ections .papillae/

cover the superior .dorsal/ surface+

Posterior surface contains lingual tonsils+

S$eletal muscles move the tongue+

)apilele linguale

Filiform papillae are the smallest

and most numerous. They are
aligned in parallel rows. These
papillae aid in licking and provide
friction for moving food by the
tongue.

Fungiform papillae are scattered

over the tongue surface. They have
a vascular core that gives them a
reddish hue. Also, they house taste
buds.

Vallate papillae are in V shaped

row at the back of the tongue. They
have bitter receptors.
Din ii afla4i 1napoia bu&elor% sunt nfip i n
oasele celor dou2 ma*ilare% 1n ni3te cavit24i
numite alveole+
>n om adult are 32 de din i % care nu au
aceea i form % datorit2 rolului diferit pe care
l ndeplinesc+
Denti ia

Incisors !" ' for biting food

Canines #" + for grasping

and tearing food

$icuspids !" ' for grinding

and crus$ing food

%olars &2" ' for grinding

food
(stfel% pe fiecare jum tate de
maxilar se g2sesc-

doi incisivi% cu rol de t2iere a

alimentelor .I/

un canin% cu rol de sf53iere a

hranei .!/

doi premolari% care au dou2

ridic2turi .PM/

trei molari% cu patru ridic2turi .M/

'remolarii 3i molarii .m selele / au
rol 1n m cinarea alimentelor+
,ormula dentar2 a unui om adult
este urm2toarea-
,n dinte se compune din trei
p2r4i- coroana% coletul .&ona de
trecere spre r2d2cin2/ 3i r d cin +
?n sec4iune longitudinal2 se
observ2 smaltul care acoper2
coroana% dentina se afl2 sub smalt 3i
cementul care acoper2 r2d2cin2+
'ulpa dentar este o cavitate
central2 aflat2 sub dentina+
(ceasta se continu2 1n r d cini,
prin canale str2b2tute de vase
sangvine i de nervi care trec prin
v5rful perforat al r2d2cinilor spre
alveola dentar+
?n cursul vie4ii sale% omul are
dou denti ii succesive - denti ia de
lapte 2( de din i /% numit2 a3a
deoarece se de&volt2 c5nd hrana
principal2 a copilului este laptele% 3i
denti ia definitiv % pe care omul o are
1ncep5nd de la v5rsta de @6A ani 3i
p5n2 la sf5r3itul vie4ii+
)*amin5nd radiografia reprodus2
1n figur2 pute4i constata cum se
produce sc)imbarea din ilor de lapte
cu cei definitivi+
22
Glandele salivare
Glandele salivare

!ollectively produce and

secrete saliva+

a fluid that assists in the

initial activities of
digestion

Volume of saliva secreted

daily ranges between B+C and
B+D L+

Most is produced during

mealtime

Smaller amounts are

produced continuously to
ensure that the oral cavity
remains moist+

,unctions

Moisten food

,ood molecules into

solution- taste

,orm bolus- for

swallowing

!leanse oral cavity+

Glandele salivare
Composition of saliva
1. 9799! water with a p" of #.77
$. %lectrolytes mainly &a
'
, (
'
, )l

, *+
,

, ")+
-

-. .alivary amylase
,. /ucin
0. 1gA antibodies, lyso2yme, defensins
Control of salivation

Parasympathetic division of A&. control the e3trinsic glands. 4ses both pressure
and chemoreceptors, to stimulate the salivatory nuclei in the medulla. Action
potentials return to the e3trinsic salivary glands via cranial nerves V11, and 15. The
salvia released is serous containing salivary amylase.

Sympathetic division of A&. causes the release of a thick mucin rich salvia, and
inhibits the release of serous salvia. This results in a dry mouth.
Glanda parotid

Largest salivary glands+

located anterior and inferior to the ear

partially overlying the masseter muscle+

Produce about ED#FCG of saliva

conducted through the parotid duct to the oral cavity+

Glandele submandibulare

Inferior to the body of the

mandible+

Produce most of the saliva

.about @C#ACG/+

ducts opens through a

papilla in the floor of the
mouth

lateral to the the lingual

frenulum+
Glandele sublinguale

Inferior to the tongue

internal to the oral cavity

mucosa+

)ach gland has multiple tiny

sublingual ducts

open onto the inferior surface of

the oral cavity

posterior to the submandibular

duct papilla+

!ontribute only about F#DG

of the total saliva+
!aringele
aflat 1n continuarea cavit24ii bucale6 are form2 de
p5lnieH
locul 1n care se nt*lnesc calea respiratorie cu calea
digestiva 3i 1n care se deschid trompele lui +ustac)io.
!aringele

The pharyn3 is divided into three

regions.

The nasopharyn3, oropharyn3, and

the laryngopharyn3.

The mucosa is composed of

stratified s6uamous epithelium which
is supplied with mucus producing
glands.
!aringele

The e3ternal muscle layer

consists of $ skeletal muscle
layers.

The internal layers run

longitudinally.

The outer layer encircles the

wall of the pharyn3.

)ontractions of these
muscles propel food into the
esophagus.
-sofagul

tub lung de EC6ED cm% aflat 1n continuarea faringelui+

se desc)ide n stomac prin orificiul cardia+

'eretele sau este format 1n cea mai mare parte din

mu c)i netezi +
-sofagul

The esophagus is a muscular

tube about $0 cm long which
connects the pharyn3 with the
stomach.

The esophagus takes a

straight course through the
mediastinum of the thora3 and
pierces the diaphragm at the
esophageal hiatus to enter the
abdomen and the stomach.
-sofagul
-sofagul
Stomacul
o parte dilatat a tubului digestiv% cu
o capacitate de circa &,(( cm3% situat
sub diafragm , n partea st*ng +
-tomacul are forma literei . . trecerea
spre intestinul sub4ire se face prin
orificiul pilor% care este prev2&ut cu un
sfincterH acesta se deschide 1n momentul
1n care lasa alimentele s2 1nainte&e spre
intestin+
'eretele stomacului este alc2tuit din
trei straturi de mu3chi% iar interiorul s2u
este c2ptu3it de mucoasa gastric% 1n
grosimea c2reia se g sesc glande care
secret sucul gastric +
Stomacul

Ma=or ,unctions of the Stomach

Storage of ingested food

Mechanical brea$down of
ingested food

Disruption of chemical bonds

in food material by acid and
en&ymes

Production of intrinsic
factor% a glycoprotein
re8uired for absorption of
vitamin <
BE
in small intestine
Stomacul
Stomac$

Gross anatomy

!ardia

!ardiac orifice

,undus

<ody

Pylorus

Pyloric sphincter

Pyloric orifice

Greater curvature

Greater omentum

Lesser curvature

Lesser omemtum

Gastric folds .rugae/

44
45
46
Stomacul
Stomacul

1. MUCOUS NECK CELLS--mucin

2. PARIETAL CELL--HCl, and intrinic !act"r

#. CHIE$ CELLS--%&%in"'&n

(. ENTEROEN)OCRINE CELLS*'atrin, +itamin&, &r"t"nin, c+"l&c,t"-inin, and

"mat"tatin.
Digestia gastric

Stomach performs preliminary digestion of proteins by

pepsin

Some digestion of carbohydrates .by salivary amylase/

Lipids .by lingual lipase/

Stomach contents

<ecome more fluid

p: approaches E+C

Pepsin activity increases

Protein disassembly begins

(lthough digestion occurs in the stomach% nutrients are

not absorbed there
Intestinul sub ire
de circa ! m lungime, se ndoaie,
form*nd cute+
?n peretele s2u se g2sesc dou2
straturi de mu3chi% iar 1n interior este
c2ptu3it cu mucoasa intestinal2 1n care
se afl2 glande care secret2 sucul
intestinal.
%ucoasa intestinal pre&int2
numeroase cute pe care sunt situate
mici proeminen4e% numite vilozit i
intestinale% cu o 1n2l4ime de C%D mm
Intestinul sub ire

!inis$es c$emical digestion

.esponsible for absorbing most of t$e nutrients/

Ingested nutrients spend at least 01 $ours in t$e small intestine/

t$in+#alled tube

about 2 meters (13 feet) in lengt$/

coiled

-xtends from t$e pylorus of t$e stomac$ to t$e cecum of t$e large intestine

occupies a significant portion of t$e abdominal cavity/

T$e duodenum

first segment of t$e small intestine/

approximately 14 centimeters (03 inc$es) long

originates at t$e pyloric sp$incter

ma5or duodenal papilla

T$e 5e5unum

middle region of t$e small intestine/

approximately 1/4 meters (6/4 feet)

ma"es up approximately t#o+fift$s of t$e small intestine7s total lengt$/

primary region for c$emical digestion and nutrient absorption

T$e ileum

is t$e last region of t$e small intestine/

about 8/2 meters (03/9 feet) in lengt$

forms approximately t$ree+fift$s of t$e small intestine/

terminates at t$e ileocecal valve

sp$incter t$at controls t$e entry of materials into t$e large intestine/
Cutele i vilozit ile m2resc considerabil suprafa a de contact cu alimentele.
?n vilo&it24i se afla capilare sangvine 3i un vas limfatic+
Partea intestinului% lung2 de circa 2, cm% aflat2 1n prelungirea stomacului se
nume3te duoden.
?n curbura 3ase ad2poste3te capul pancreasului+
Intestinul
subire
Intestinul sub ire

ICG of absorption occurs in the small intestine

Intestinul sub ire

T$e Duodenum

0he segment of small intestine

closest to stomach

ED cm .BC in+/ long

JMi*ing bowlK that receives c$yme

from stomach and digestive
secretions from pancreas and liver

,unctions of the duodenum

0o receive chyme from stomach

0o neutrali&e acids before they

can damage the absorptive
surfaces of the small intestine
Intestinul sub ire

The bile duct and the pancreatic

duct 7oin to form the
hepatopancreatic ampulla which
opens into the duodenum.
DUODENUM
HEPAOPAN!REAI!
AMPULLA
MA"OR DUODENAL
PAPILLA
Intestinul sub ire

T$e : e5unum

Is the middle segment of small intestine

E+D meters .L+E ft/ long

Is the location of most

!hemical digestion

9utrient absorption

:as few plicae circulares

Small villi

T$e Ileum

0he final segment of small intestine

F+D meters .BB+ML ft/ long

)nds at the ileocecal valve% a sphincter that controls flow of

material from the ileum into the large intestine
Intestinul sub ire

Intestinal Secretions

;atery intestinal =uice

B+L liters per day enter intestinal

lumen

Moisten chyme

(ssist in buffering acids

7eep digestive en&ymes and

products of digestion in solution

Intestinal Movements

!hyme arrives in duodenum

;ea$ peristaltic contractions

move it slowly toward =e=unum

Myenteric refle*es

9ot under !9S control

Parasympathetic stimulation
accelerates local peristalsis and
segmentation
Intestinul sub ire

The small intestine is highly adapted

for absorption. 1ts length, together with
its plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli
amplify its surface area enormously.

The plicae circularies are deep

permanent folds of the mucosa and
submucosa.

Villi are fingerlike pro7ections of the

mucosa. The epithelial cells of the villi
are absorptive columnar cells. 1n the
core of each villus is dense capillary bed
and a lymph capillary the lacteal.
Intestinul sub ire

/icrovilli, tiny pro7ections of the plasma

membrane of the absorptive cells of the
mucosa, give the mucosal surface a fu22y
appearance called the brush border.

The cells of the microvilli include simple

columnar epithelial cells, goblet cells,
scattered enteroendocrine cells, and T cells.

The plasma membrane of the epithelial

cells have en2ymes called brush border
en2ymes which complete the digestion of
carbohydrates and proteins.

8etween the villi, the mucosa is studded

with pits that lead into tubular intestinal
glands called intestinal crypts.

The epithelial cells that line these crypts

secrete intestinal 7uice. The intestinal 7uice is
a waterly mi3ture containing mucus that
serves as a carrier fluid for absorbing
nutrients from chyme.
59
Coordination of Secretion
& Absorption

Intestinal (bsorption

It ta$es about D hours for

materials
to pass from duodenum to
end of ileum

Movements of the mucosa

increases absorptive
effectiveness

Stir and mi* intestinal contents

!onstantly change environment

around epithelial cells
Intestinul gros

horseshoe shaped

)*tends from end of ileum to anus

Lies inferior to stomach and liver

,rames the small intestine

(lso called large bowel

Is about B+D meters .M+I ft/ long and A+D

cm .F in+/ wide

pre&int2 1n partea dreapt2 a

abdomenului o por4iune numit2 cecum%
la cap2tul c2reia se afla o mic2
prelungire% apendicele+

Restul intestinului% numit colon% are

forma literei /, cu deschiderea 1n =os+

Partea sa terminal2% numit2 rect, se

deschide prin anus% 1nchis cu un
sfincter.
Intestinul gros

Reabsorption of water

!ompaction of intestinal
contents into feces

(bsorption of important
vitamins produced by
bacteria

Storage of fecal material

prior to defecation
Intestinul gros

0he !ecum

Is an e*panded pouch

Receives material arriving from

the ileum

Stores materials and begins

compaction

ppendix

(lso called vermiform appendi*

Is a slender% hollow appendage

about I cm .F+@ in+/ long

Is dominated by lymphoid nodules

.a lymphoid organ/
Intestinul gros
Colon0

li;uid residue ' mainly #ater #it$

undigested materal

#ater is absorbed%

bacterial fermentation ta"es place

feces are formed/

:as a larger diameter and thinner wall

than small intestine

0he wall of the colon

,orms a series of pouches .$austra/

:austra permit e*pansion and elongation

of colon
Intestinul gros

scending Colon

<egins at superior border of cecum

(scends along right lateral and posterior wall of peritoneal cavity to inferior surface
of the liver and bends at rig$t colic flexure .hepatic fle*ure/

Transverse Colon

!rosses abdomen from right to leftH turns at left colic flexure .splenic fle*ure/

Is supported by transverse mesocolon

Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by greater omentum

T$e Descending Colon

Proceeds inferiorly along left side to the iliac fossa .inner surface of left ilium/

Is retroperitoneal% firmly attached to abdominal wall

T$e Sigmoid Colon

Is an S6shaped segment% about BD cm .@ in+/ long

Starts at sigmoid flexure

Lies posterior to urinary bladder

Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon

)mpties into rectum

Intestinul gros

0he Rectum

,orms last BD cm .@ in+/ of

digestive tract

Is an e*pandable organ for

temporary storage of feces

Movement of fecal material

into rectum triggers urge to
defecate

0he anal canal is the last portion

of the rectum

!ontains small longitudinal

folds called anal columns

nus

(lso called anal orifice

Is e*it of the anal canal

:as $eratini&ed epidermis li$e

s$in
ovements of t!e "arge Intestine

Gastroileal ( gastroenteric reflexes

Move materials into cecum while you

eat

Movement from cecum to transverse

colon is very slow% allowing hours for
water absorption

Peristaltic waves move material along

length of colon

Segmentation movements .$austral

c$urning/ mi* contents of ad=acent
haustra

<ovements from transverse colon

through rest of large intestine results
from powerful peristaltic contractions
.mass movements/

Stimulus is distension of stomach and

duodenumH relayed over intestinal
nerve ple*uses

Distension of the rectal wall triggers

defecation refle*

0wo positive feedbac$ loops

<oth loops triggered by stretch

receptors in rectum
The colon mucosa is simple
columnar epithelium e3cept in
the anal canal where it is
stratified s6uamous
epithelium.
There are no circular folds and
a reduced number of villi.
The mucosa is thicker, with a
larger number of globet cells.
Intestinul #ros
Intestinul gros
Intestinul gros

The last segment of the large intestine

is the anal canal.

The anal canal is about - cm long. 1t

begins where the anus penetrates the
pelvic floor and it opens to the body
e3terior at the anus.

The anal canal has $ sphincters, an

internal and e3ternal.

1t is lined with stratified s6uamous

epithelial tissue.
Digestion

Digestive system handles each nutrient differently

Large organic molecules

Must be digested before absorption can occur

;ater% electrolytes% and vitamins

!an be absorbed without processing

May re8uire special transport

Digestive )n&ymes

<rea$ molecular bonds in large organic molecules

!arbohydrates% proteins% lipids% and nucleic acids

In a process called $ydrolysis

(re divided into classes by targets

!arbohydrases brea$ bonds between simple sugars

Proteases brea$ bonds between amino acids

Lipases separate fatty acids from glycerides

;ater (bsorption

!ells cannot actively absorb or secrete water

(ll movement of water across lining of digestive tract

Involves passive water flow down osmotic gradients

.ole of !iber in Digestion

,iber is found mostly in plant

0here are two types # insoluble fiber and soluble fiber

Insoluble fiber is a type of fiber which cannot be dissolved in water

Insoluble fiber draws water to the intestine% increasing the bul$ and softness of
waste products

Soluble fiber which can be dissolved in water

Soluble fiber can be digested slowly and it slows the digestive process and $eeps the
stomach fuller longer leaving the body feeling full for a longer period of time

Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates are slower so that glucose .sugar/ in

food enters the bloodstream more slowly% which $eeps blood sugar on a more
even level

T$e slo# absorption of sugar gives t$e body an opportunity to regulate

blood sugar levels
#istological Str$ct$re of t!e
Digestive (GI) Tract
ovement of Digestive aterials

<y muscular layers of digestive tract

!onsist of visceral smooth muscle

(long digestive tract-

:as rhythmic cycles of activities .)-.IST*SIS/

!onsists of waves of muscular contractions

Move a bolus along the length of the tract

!ontrolled by pacesetter cells

Surrounding the lumen of the tract

!ells undergo spontaneous depolari&ation

0riggering wave of contraction through entire muscular sheet

)eristaltism
DIG-STI=-
).OC-SS

Ingestion ' inta"e of food

Digestion ' brea"do#n of food bit by bit

into molecules small enoug$ to be
absorbed
<ec$anical Digestion ' p$ysical
brea"do#n of food
C$emical Digestion ' c$emical
brea"do#n of macromolecules to
monomers

bsorption ' transport of productions

into t$e blood

-limination (Defecation) + elimination of

undigested #aste
CH-<IC*
DIG-STIO>

C.?OH@D.T-S

).OT-I>

!TS

>,C*-IC CIDS
Common Disorders of
Digestive System

Stomac$ and duodenal ulcers

Cancers of t$e digestive system

Diarr$ea

*actose Intolerance

Hepatitis

Cro$n7s Disease% G-.D% Diverticular Disease% Celiac Disease

(>ational)
-f*r it