07w LandGear

POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2004

Chapter 7 Landing gear system

Chapter 7

Landing gear system

These lecture notes are available for the students of the Polytechnic of Milan for free download.
No commercialisation allowed.
Queste dispense possono essere gratuitamente scaricate da Internet dagli studenti del Politecnico di Milano.
E vietata la commercializzazione.
7.1

7.1 Introduction
The landing gear system includes:
strut;
shock absorber;
extraction/retraction mechanism;
brakes;
wheel;
tyre.

Shock absorber and extraction/retraction mechanism may not be present in small
airplanes.
The landing gear is the interface of airplane to ground, so that all the ground loads
are transmitted by it to the aircraft structure. There is then a high influence of the
landing gear on the local structure, which must be taken into account since the initial
design stage.
The landing loads can reach factors of 2.5 for transport aircraft, 4.5 for small general
aviation vehicles and higher for combat aircraft. The system must then have
considerable mechanical resistance, which means in general that its mass is
significant. Depending on aircraft category, this can range from 3 to 7% of the aircraft
total mass.

The main functions of the landing gear are as follows:
1. energy absorption at landing;
2. braking;
3. taxi control.

Landing is the main sizing conditions for the system and its surrounding structure;
braking also determines both vertical and horizontal loads that influence structural
sizing. Taxi control includes steering and taxi stability.
7.2 General layout and design
The layout of the landing gear system determines the load transfer to the structure,
ground stability and control.
With exception of gliders, which may have just a central fuselage wheel and tailskid,
the landing gear arrangement is tricycle, consisting of a main landing gear group
located near the aircraft centre of gravity
and a nose or tail landing gear (fig. 7.1). As
a matter of fact, the tail element is almost
obsolete, because the nose landing gear
has a series of unquestioned advantages:

Fig. 7.1 Nose and tail wheel configurations
lateral stability in taxiing;
stability in braking;
steady touch down with no risk of
aerodynamic bounce;
high pilot visibility during taxiing;
horizontal floor (occupants comfort and
easy freight loading);
low drag during take-off acceleration.
A second observation concerns the number of struts. The most common
configuration has double main landing gear and single nose gear. This can apply for
7.2

a wide range of aircraft weights, but normally for airliners beyond 300000 kg of
maximum take off mass an additional main landing gear strut is located under the
fuselage, or two additional struts are located under wing root area (fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2 Landing gear typical layouts

The longitudinal position of the main landing gear group depends on the centre of
gravity position and the tail cone shape. The struts must be aft enough with respect
to the most rear position of the
centre of gravity, in such a way
that during touch down a nose
down moment is generated by the
ground forces to the airplane (fig.
7.3), preventing aerodynamic
bounce. Moreover the tail cone
must not contact the ground, a
condition that may easily occur
during take-off (in fact a
reinforcement or skid is normally
integrated in that part of the
structure).
Fig. 7.3 Main landing gear with respect to
aircraft CG position and tail cone shape
TAIL CONE CLEARANCE
MAX REAR CG POSITION

The lateral track of the main landing
gear gives stability during taxing. The
resultant force vector, due to weight
and inertial forces, acting on the
centre of gravity must fall inside the
area delimited by the landing gear
ground contact points, to prevent
rollover. On the other hand the main wheels should not be too far from the aircraft
centre line, to minimise roll and yaw instabilities during non levelled touch down and
reduce wing root moment (if the landing gear is wing mounted).

Fig 7.4 Taxing stability
WHEEL BASE
WHEEL
TRACK
AIRCRAFT CG
CG RESULTANT

Fig. 7.5 Telescopic
and articulated leg
As far as the strut design is concerned, two solutions are
mainly adopted: the telescopic and articulated leg, shown in
fig. 7.5. The telescopic version is always lighter but requires
higher ground clearance; then for small aircraft and
helicopters the articulated version is more frequently adopted
(from the figure it is clear that the piston stroke in the cylinder
is lower than the wheel stroke).
7.3

7.3 Extraction and retraction
A retractable landing gear is installed whenever a drag improvement is worthy. This
means in all aircraft with exception of agricultural and small general aviation
airplanes, where the installation of a movable landing gear would increase the costs
beyond the requirements of the aircraft category.
Landing gear extraction is a primary operation and always its actuation has high
redundancy. There are different
solutions for the mechanism to obtain
suitable landing gear movement. Some
are schematically shown in fig. 7.6.
Many solutions are based on the four
bar linkage (cases A to C), where one
bar is represented by the aircraft frame.
In other solutions (case D) one bar end
can slide along a slot. More complex
kinematics include three-dimensional
motion and the deflection of the bogie,
that for the main landing gear of large
airplanes is made of double tandem
wheels.
Actuators, normally of the hydraulic type,
control the extraction/retraction
operation. In general the mechanism
should be designed in such a way that
gravity and aerodynamic drag favour
extraction; if the conditions on gravity
and drag are satisfied, the extraction is
possible with no power from the
hydraulic system; a diagram reporting
piston load vs. stroke will be of the type
shown in fig. 7.7, with a constant sign:
this means that retraction is obtained by
applying a force to contrast drag and
movable equipment weight, while
extraction can initiate by gravity and be
completed by drag. The area under the
load line represents the necessary work.
If this is divided by the area of the rectangle defined by the max load and stroke, one
obtains the efficiency of the kinematic mechanism, which commonly is in the range
70 80 %.
E
D
C
B
A
Fig. 7.6 Some kinematic patterns
In both extracted and retracted
configurations, the mechanism must be
blocked (downlock and uplock
respectively). A kinematic lock at
extraction can be obtained by making
the four bar linkage to reach its dead
centre at full extraction. In any case a
downlock based on a hydraulic or
electric device is activated to prevent
any movement of the strut when the
aircraft is taxiing. An uplock is also
activated when the landing gear is fully retracted, to prevent non-intentional
Fig. 7.7 Piston load-stroke diagram
7.4

extraction during flight, which also could be a dangerous operation at high velocity.
Uplocks and downlocks are normally provided for the landing gear doors too.
7.4 Shock absorber layouts
The main role of the shock absorber is to zero the vertical component of the airplane
velocity during landing, with no rebound and limited load transfer to the vehicle
structure (and occupants). Its secondary requirement is to allow a comfortable
taxiing.
Different types of shock absorbers are available, but when costs and dimensions
allow, a hydraulic system is commonly used.
Very small aircraft with fixed
landing gear may rely on the
elastic properties of the landing
gear legs and the damping
effect of tyre sideslip on the
ground, as schematically shown
in fig. 7.8A.
A low cost alternative to this
method is to use an absorber
made of a package of rubber
blocks, which are compressed
by the landing gear, so that the
elastic effects is due to the
rubber compression and damping to hysteresis and local friction.

A) DEFORMABLE LEG B) HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Fig. 7.8 Some shock absorber solutions
The hydraulic solution is anyway the mostly adopted one, and fig. 7.8B shows some
of the many possible versions. Substantially the system structure is made of a
movable piston that, when loaded, compresses a gas (nitrogen) in a cylinder and
causes an oil flow through orifices. The system elasticity is due to the gas
transformation and the damping effect to the liquid pressure losses. The complexity
of the system increases with the requirements.
A list of main requirements for an efficient and functional shock absorber follows:
damping characteristics should be different in compression and extension; the
total orifice area can be changed by inserting check valves in some orifices or
valves that throttle the orifices in one flow direction;
during taxiing the absorber should be softer; in this case also controllable orifices
can be used; for instance the internal structure of the absorber can be shaped in
such a way that, when the leg extension is that of the aircraft is in normal ground
operation, the orifices have maximum area;
for high landing vertical velocities, the shock absorber responds with high
reaction forces due to oil viscosity; to attenuate the load transfer to the airplane
structure, relief valves may be installed on the absorber, then flattening the
reaction curve;
to increase the energy absorption in crash conditions, multi-stage shock
absorbers can be used; the first stage works in normal operation, the second and
further stages start compression when a high load is developed; in some
application (small aircraft and helicopters), the second stage is a composite
cylinder in series with the main stage (crash cartridge).
The systems till now described are passive devices, with some hydraulic and
mechanical solutions to obtain efficient energy absorption and comfortable taxiing.
More advanced solutions, still under development, are based on active control of
damping. Since the damping force is function of the orifice geometry and oil
7.5

properties, a control of the damping characteristics of the shock absorber can be
obtained in two ways:
1. control of orifices area;
2. control of fluid viscosity.
The first solution is possible with the use of micro actuators that throttle the orifices.
The second solution is possible with the use of electrorheological or
magnetorheological fluids; these oils have properties sensitive to electric or magnetic
fields respectively, and their peculiarity is to achieve quasi-plastic behaviour when
the field intensity is increased. Generating the field in the orifices sections allows
changing significantly the damping behaviour of the shock absorber by controlling the
characteristics of a small volume of fluid.
Both the systems are controlled on the basis of inputs from sensors of vehicle
acceleration and velocity, and shock absorber conditions.
7.5 Shock absorber functioning principles
In its most basic configuration, the shock absorber can be depicted as a hydraulic
cylinder linked to an accumulator. When the piston moves, the oil from the cylinder
passes through an orifice and compresses the gas in the accumulator, as shown
schematically in fig. 7.9. According to this approach the reaction R of the shock
absorber is function of the piston position and its time derivative, as follows:

Fig. 7.9 Shock
absorber schematic
representation
R
x
( )
2 3
0
0
0
2
x kA A
x A V
V
p A kQ p
A
& +

= +
A p R = =
where:
p = pressure on piston;
A = piston area;
p
A
= accumulator pressure;
k = orifice pressure loss coefficient;
Q = oil flow rate;
p
0
= initial accumulator pressure;
V
0
= initial accumulator gas volume;
= polytropic exponent;
x = piston stroke (x=0 for all extended shock absorber).

The resulting reaction is then the sum of
a polytropic transformation, elastic and
proportional to the stroke x, and a
viscous term, proportional to the stroke
derivative . As polytropic index , a
value of 1.3 1.4 can be used, because
the process is fast enough to be
considered quasi-adiabatic.
x&
Fig. 7.10 shows an indicative plot of the
reaction. The final part is related to the
piston return to static equilibrium under
the aircraft weight, which normally is in
the range 60 70 % of the maximum stroke .
x

Fig. 7.10 Shock absorber reaction
R
MAX

R
The area under the reaction curve represents the work absorbed by the system. An
interesting indication is given by the ratio between this work and the work that could
be ideally absorbed with a constant maximum force R
MAX
and the maximum stroke ,
called efficiency:
7.6


MAX
R
x d R
0
(eq. 7.1)

The ideal absorber ( = 1) is a perfectly stiff-plastic system. A modern hydraulic
shock absorber has and efficiency around 0.8 0.9.
7.6 Preliminary stroke estimation
The max stroke of a landing gear shock absorber can be preliminarily estimated,
even if many aircraft and landing gear characteristics are unknown.
A simple energy balance, related to the vertical forces during shock absorber
compression, can be applied to the landing aircraft considering kinetic and potential
energy and the works developed by the shock absorber and lift force, as follows:

+ = +
0 0
2
2
1
dx L dx R Mg Mv
Z
, (eq. 7.2)
where:
M = aircraft mass;
v
Z
= aircraft vertical velocity;
g = gravity;
= max shock absorber stroke;
x = shock absorber stroke;
R=R(x) = function of shock absorber reaction vs. stroke;
L=L(x) = function of lift vs. stroke.

The contribution of the tyre is not included in this discussion.
The equation, as it is written, is not of immediate use, but a number of simplifying
considerations can be done. First of all the work absorbed by the landing gear can be
written remembering eq. 7.1 and considering the definition of the landing load factor
n:

[ ]
Mg
Mg R
Mg
L R
n
MAX MAX
+
+
=
then obtaining:

( ) =
1
0
n Mg dx R .

Lift function L(x) can be approximately considered to decrease linearly from its max
value Mg to (1/3)Mg, due to the change of trajectory of the airplane during shock
absorber compression and consequent decrease of the angle of attack. This allows
approximating the integral as follows:

=
Mg dx L
3
2
0
.

Substituting into eq. 7.2 and solving with respect to brings to:

7.7

( ) [ ] g n
v
Z
2
3
1
1
2

=
.

The procedure above explained is still used at preliminary stage for the evaluation of
the max shock absorber stroke, but contains a series of approximations that cannot
be accepted in further development stages of the aircraft design.
A more detailed evaluation can be performed by a rough two rigid body model, where
one rigid body is the aircraft and the other is the landing gear (legs, pistons, wheels,
brakes and all parts connected to the moving equipment). Then, following the
indications in fig. 7.11, a system of two differential equations can be written, as
follows:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) (y F y F y x F y x F mg y m
x L y x F y x F Mg x M
T T
& & & & &
& & & & &
2 1 2 1
2 1
+ + = )
+ =
,

where:
M = aircraft mass less landing gear mass;
m = landing gear mass;
g = gravity;
( ) y x F
1
= shock absorber polytropic function;
( ) y x F & &
2
= shock absorber viscous function;
( ) y F
T1
= tyre elastic reaction function;
( ) y F
T
&
2
= tyre viscous reaction function;
( ) x L & = lift function.

It is easy to find out that lift can be expressed as a
function of the time derivative of x; in fact lift, in its
classic formula, is given by:

Fig. 7.11 Multi-body representation
of aircraft and landing gear
x
y
F
T2
F
T1

F
2
F
1

m
M

=
L
C
S v L
2
2
1
,
where:
= air density;
v = aircraft velocity;
S = aircraft reference surface;
C
L
= aircraft lift coefficient;
= aircraft angle of attack.

All the components of lift are constant
during landing gear compression, with
exception of (and, in a very minor
extent, of v); the angle of attack , as shown in fig. 7.12, is clearly given by the sum
of the aircraft pitch orientation
A
with respect to the horizon and the angle of its
trajectory
T
with respect to the horizon, and this last one is easily related to the
vertical velocity:
Fig. 7.12 Aircraft trajectory during landing

7.8

v
x
A T A
&
+ = + = .
The above written system of differential equations must be numerically solved; a
parametric analysis can be done by changing the shock absorber geometrical and
mechanical characteristics and evaluating their influence on the load factor, stroke,
etc.
7.7 Brakes
Most airplanes are equipped with disc brakes, with a functioning principle similar to
that of the automotive systems, but based on different sizing principles. Drum brakes
are almost obsolete.
The main components of a disc brake, which is usually powered by the hydraulic
system, are as follows (fig. 7.13):
pressure plate;
stator discs;
rotor discs;
back plate.

The complete equipment is housed inside the wheel, then occupying a large part of
the room between the axle and the wheel.
The stator discs are keyed to the axle, or anyway constrained in such a way to be
only free to move along its axis. They bring, on the two flat surfaces, lining blocks, or
pads, made of a mixture of metallic and ceramic materials.
The rotor discs are keyed to the wheel, rotating then with it and being free to move
along its axis. They are alternated to the stator discs, so that the assembly results a
sandwich of rotor discs and stator discs packed together.
The stator disc at one extremity, or back plate, is fully constrained to the axle and
brings lining blocks on one side only.
ROTOR
STATOR
CYLINDERS
PRESSURE PLATE
BACK PLATE
AXLE
WHEEL KEY
WHEEL
BRAKE ASSEMBLY

Fig 7.13 Disc brake
KEY SLOTS TO AXLE
KEY SLOTS TO WHEEL
STATOR DISC
ROTOR DISC

LINING BLOCKS
The stator disc at the opposite extremity, or pressure plate, brings lining blocks on
one side only and, during braking, is pushed against the first rotor disc of the
assembly by a series of hydraulic pistons. This action compresses the entire disc
package, because rotor and stator parts are all free to move along the wheel axis,
with exception of the back plate at one extremity, which contrasts the pressure.
7.9
Since the rotor and stator discs are in relative rotation, the contact between the lining
blocks and the rotor discs will generate a tangential friction, responsible for braking.
The higher the hydraulic pressure, the higher the normal contact force and then the
friction force. When pressure is reduced, the discs are released by a series of
springs.

The rotor discs usually have radial slots, to minimise disc deformation during heat up.
The discs can be made of steel but, when affordable, carbon discs allow lower
weight. For a short period in the 60s they were made of beryllium, but its
manufacturing costs and difficulties excluded it from standard use.
The stator disc is usually made of steel. The lining is fragmented into sector blocks
because it is made of a brittle compressed mixture of metals and ceramics, that may
be broken if the pressure is not distributed uniformly on the entire surface.

Brake sizing is based on heating during a single landing, considering that ventilation
has a limited effect and neglecting the contribution of possible thrust reverse, flaps
and spoilers. This means that a high part of the kinetic energy at landing will be
converted into brakes heating; the part of brakes that is involved is often referred to
as heat sink. This event can be expressed by a simple formula of energy balance:

T c m Mv k
v
=
2
2
1
,
where:
k = fraction of energy converted to brake heat;
M = aircraft mass;
v = landing velocity;
m = total heat sink mass;
c
v
= heat sink specific heat;
T = temperature increment during braking.

Considering that anyway there is a drag contribution to braking, k may often be
approximated to 0.8. For sizing, M should be the max landing mass, v the max
landing velocity and T the difference between the allowable disc material
temperature and the highest possible initial temperature.
Materials with high specific heat and high operating temperature are of course
preferred, because they allow a reduced total disc mass.

Usually brakes are located in all the main landing gear wheels: the above-mentioned
mass m is then related to all the brakes located in the wheels. Large aircraft may
have braking nose wheels.
A multiple disc brake is used whenever a high braking power is necessary, because
the lining friction surface increases with the number of discs. Moreover a thick disc
would not allow a suitable temperature distribution, but would be rather cold at the
core and overheat in periphery. On the other hand, discs must be sized in such a
way to withstand the high tangential stress that is generated by friction.

R
R

R
B

N
M

T
M

Fig. 7.14 Evaluation of the braking intensity
N
N

T
M
N
M
7.10

The braking intensity is a function of the brake geometry and, in a minor extent, of
the aircraft geometry. From fig. 7.14 the braking torque C can be easily evaluated as
a function of the hydraulic pressure and discs geometry, as follows:

B
R A p C = , (eq. 7.3)
where:
p = hydraulic pressure;
A = total lining friction area;
= disc friction coefficient, normally around 0.3;
R
B
= radius of the lining block centroids.

The braking force T
M
will be then given by:

R
M
R
C
T = ,

where R
R
is the rolling radius (that depends on the normal reaction N
M
, tyre pressure
and tyre geometry).
Of course the braking force cannot increase indefinitely with pressure, but is limited
by the tyre grip; this is defined by a factor
G
that ranges from 0.9 for dry runway and
tyre and asphalt in good conditions to 0.5 in case of wet runway and down to 0.1 for
iced runway. Then T
M
is limited by:

M G
MAX
M
N T = , (eq. 7.4)

where N
M
is the normal reaction of the main landing gear. In static conditions
(airplane at rest) N
M
will be equal more or less to 90% of the aircraft weight, due to
the conventional position of the aircraft centre of gravity. In braking conditions N
M
is
lower and the inertia forces overload the nose landing gear. Depending on the
longitudinal and vertical position of the centre of gravity, a simple algebraic system in
the two unknowns N
M
and T can be set up and solved if any drag contribution is
neglected.
MAX
M
7.8 Anti-skid and auto-braking systems
Deceleration is obtained through the friction between the braking wheels and ground.
By increasing the braking system pressure, the braking torque increases according to
eq. 7.3, and then also the tangential force between wheel and runway. The pilot
controls the system pressure through the pedals. If this tangential force exceeds the
limit indicated in eq. 7.4, the wheel tends to block, the wheel to ground friction
coefficient switches from static to dynamic and decreases. Three effects result from
the wheel blocking:
1. an increase of the stopping distance, due to reduction of the friction coefficient;
2. a loss of guidance control, due to the loss of tyre grip.
3. risk of tyre explosion.
The anti-skid braking systems, which were developed after the Second World War,
avoid wheel blocking by modulating the braking system pressure. The wheels are
equipped with speed sensors and their signal is transmitted to a processing unit (the
older systems were of course based on analogue technology, but worked on the
same principle). The speed decrease of all braking wheels is monitored and
compared to each other and with predetermined deceleration patterns. If one wheel
7.11

is decelerating more intensively than the others, or outside a predetermined
boundary, the event is interpreted as incipient wheel locking. A servo-valve then
releases the braking pressure of that specific wheel, by allowing it to spin-up to the
speed level sampled prior to slippage deceleration, and then the control system
starts to find the new modulating pressure.
Older systems were actually on-off control systems, because they operated an
intense reduction and increase of pressure; current systems have a smooth and
refined control, capable of maintaining the wheel speed at a limited skidding level
that maximises the ground friction.

The automatic braking system is often associated with anti-skid system. In auto-
braking the pilot does not need to use the pedals to brake, because a pre-set braking
deceleration is automatically applied.
With the auto-braking armed in landing mode, brakes will be automatically activated
a few seconds after touch down, or at spoiler extension, then providing a constant
deceleration; the intensity is pre-set by the crew before landing.
The system works also in take-off mode: if the pilot makes any operation typical of a
rejected take-off (extends the spoilers, or moves the thrust lever back to idle, or
operates the thrust reversers), auto-braking is triggered at maximum level.
In any case the pilot can overcome the auto-braking by pressing the pedals beyond a
predetermined excursion.
The anti-skid system is always operating, also during automatic braking.
7.9 Tyres and wheels
The tyres are the aircraft-to-ground interface and are then the regions where braking
and steering forces are generated, also contributing in a minor extent to shock
absorption.
The normal force N is generated by the tyre pressure p and the intersection area A
between tyre and ground:

A p N =

Braking force was already considered in the previous paragraph; its max value is
given by the normal force and the ground-tyre grip factor as indicated in eq. 7.4.
Now, if one defines the ground friction factor as the ratio between the longitudinal
braking force and the normal force, this depends on different factors: tyre material
and conditions, ground material
and conditions, longitudinal slip
and vehicle velocity. The
longitudinal slip k is given by the
ratio between the sliding speed v
SL

and the vehicle speed v:

v
R v
v
v
k
R SL

= =

where is the wheel rotational
speed and R
R
the already
mentioned rolling radius. As shown in fig. 7.15, the maximum value of the friction
factor is obtained around a 10% longitudinal slip and the friction factor decreases
when the vehicle velocity increases.
Fig. 7.15 Friction factor vs. longitudinal slip
and vehicle velocity
7.12

c of Milan for free download.
net dagli studenti del Politecnico di Milano.
7.13
Queste dispense possono essere gratuitamente scaricate da Inter
A lateral force arises when the tyre has a slip angle with respect to ground: this is
responsible for steering. A law similar to eq. 7.4,
given by the normal force and a side friction
coefficient, can approximate this force:

Fig. 7.16 Side friction coefficient

10
5
1.0

0.5

N S = .

This coefficient, , is a function of the slip angle
and is linear for angles lower than 5, then tending
rather rapidly to the ground friction factor
G
, as
indicated in fig. 7.16.

Aircraft tyres can be both with internal tube or tubeless. Fig. 7.17 shows some details
of the tyre structure.
The external layer in contact with the ground is the tread, made of rubber, thicker
than the automotive version, because it is subject to severe wearing during spin up at
landing.
The side external layer, from the tread to the beads, is the sidewall, still made of
rubber but smooth.
The internal multiple layer structure is the
cord body. Each layer may be considered a
composite structure, made of parallel nylon
cords imbedded in rubber. Since the cords
are capable to withstand only tensile loads,
adjacent layers have orthogonal cord
directions, which give the body a uniform
stiffness and strength.

TREAD

Fig. 7.17 Tyre section
BEAD TOE
CORD LAYERS
BEAD WIRES
SIDEWALL
CORD BODY
The beads are the edges of the tyre,
connected to the wheel rim. They contain a
ring of high strength steel wires covered by
the rubber and by chafing strips for
reinforcement; the wires also serve as
anchoring line of the cords.
Tyre designation follows one of the two rules as follows: AxB and AxB-C, where A, B
and C represent respectively the overall outside diameter, cross sectional width and
rim diameter; measures are in inches.

The wheels have the double function to carry the tyre and, in many cases, house the
brakes. Aircraft wheels are made of aluminium or magnesium alloys. There are
substantially two types of wheels: split wheel and demountable flange wheel.
The first one is made of two halves bolted together and with the connection line
sealed by an o-ring. The second one is made of a main wheel body closed on one
side by a bolted flange.
The wheel is then mounted on the axle by tapered roller bearing, capable to
withstand high radial and lateral loads. These are the wheel parts that mostly require
maintenance, basically consisting in cleaning and lubrication.
Some wheels for military aircraft are equipped with fusible plugs, or pressure relief
valves, activated by the overheating that may occur during the spin up in high
velocity landing conditions.
These lecture notes are available for the students of the Polytechni

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POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2004

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