KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

KUMASI, GHANA
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPOSTING OF SOLID WASTE
GENERATED IN THE ABURI TOWNSHIP
BY
EMMANUEL ASAMOAH-OKYERE
A Thesis Su!i""e# "$ "he De%&'"!e(" $) E(*i'$(!e("&+ S,ie(,e $) "he
K-&!e N.'u!&h U(i*e'si"/ $) S,ie(,e &(# Te,h($+$0/ i( %&'"i&+ Fu+)i+!e(" $)
"he 'e1ui'e!e(" )$' "he &-&'# $) M&s"e' $) S,ie(,e #e0'ee i( E(*i'$(!e("&+
S,ie(,e
2u(e 3455
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work towards the MSc and that, to
the best of my knowledge, it contains no material previously published by another
person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree of
the university, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Emmanuel Asamoah!kyere .................................. """"""""""
#$%&&'%(& Signature )ate
*ertified by+
)r. ,ernard -ei,affoe """"""""".. """""""""..
Signature )ate
.ev. S. Akyeampong """""""""". """""""""..
Signature )ate
Page | II
As"'&,"
/he composition of solid waste generated by %0 households was analysed over four
weeks and the waste was sorted into the following fractions1 !rganic waste, $lass
waste, #aper and cardboard, Metals and cans, .ubber and plastic. /he data gathered
showed that organic waste 23(45 was the most abundant waste type generated daily
per household followed by .ubber and plastic 26745 then #aper and cardboard
2745, $lass waste 2'45 and Metals and cans 2%45. /he per capita generation of
waste showed organic waste in the lead with (.(38

kg9week per person followed by
plastic waste with (.(67 kg9week per person then paper waste with (.((7 kg9week
per person followed by glass waste with (.((' kg9week per person and metal waste
trailing with (.((0

kg9week per person. A compost pile was prepared using food
waste collected from the participating households with an initial *9: ratio of
%3.80;(.771 the compost was ready in %' days. /he composting process was closely
monitored daily by measuring the temperature and its volume. /he analysis per
formed on the compost after composting showed that the compost had a final *9:
ratio of <%.3(, p= of <.73 and contained (.(34 potassium and (.(<4 of phosphorus.
/he levels of potassium and phosphorus were within the recommended values of
(.'6.< and (.%%.' respectively. /he *9: ratio exceeded the acceptable level of
88. =eavy metal analysis showed the level of mercury 2<8.60 ;%.(6 ppm5 to be high
above the recommended level of <8.60 ppm. ,ut the levels of copper 28.73( ;(.'%3
ppm5, lead 20(.'7( ;6.80' ppm5 and >inc 2(.3';(.868 ppm5 were within the re
?uired limits of <(, 6'( and %(( respectively. /he microbiological analysis of the
finished compost showed that the levels of E. coli 20.%@6(
6
5 and faecal coliforms
28.0@6(
%
5 were higher than recommended levels of A % and A 6((( respectively. /he
waste management plan revealed that the organic fraction of the waste was the most
abundant of the five kinds of waste that were characterised. /his waste type would
pose a big challenge to the town in the long term 28' years5 if management of the
waste is not taken seriously, which would destroy the tourism potential of the town.
Page | III
T&+e $) C$("e("s
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................III
/able of *ontents...........................................................................................................................IB
Cist of /ables.................................................................................................................................ID
Cist of -igures.................................................................................................................................D
Cist of #lates..................................................................................................................................DI
Acknowledgement........................................................................................................................DII
*=A#/E. !:E..............................................................................................................................6
6.(Introduction.................................................................................................................................6
6.6.Eustification................................................................................................................................%
6.8.!bFectives..................................................................................................................................0
Main Objectives ...................................................................................... 4
Specific Objectives...................................................................................4
*=A#/E. /G!.............................................................................................................................'
8.(Citerature review.........................................................................................................................'
2.1Definition of Solid Waste ........................................................................5
2.2Tpes and So!"ces of Solid Waste..........................................................5
2.2.1Ind!st"ial Waste...............................................................................#
2.2.2$onst"!ction and De%olition Deb"is.................................................&
2.2.'Instit!tional Waste...........................................................................&
2.2.4(esidential )*o!se+old, and $o%%e"cial Wastes............................&
2.2.5M!nicipal Se"vice Waste..................................................................-
2.2.#P"ocess Waste..................................................................................-
2.2.&.g"ic!lt!"al Waste............................................................................-
2.'$+a"acte"istics of Solid Waste................................................................/
Page | I0
2.'.11!antit........................................................................................... /
2.'.2$o%position..................................................................................... /
2.4P+sical $+a"acte"istics of Solid Waste.................................................12
2.4.1Moist!"e $ontent............................................................................12
2.4.2$alo"ific 0al!e 3 *eating 0al!e.......................................................12
2.4.'Densit...........................................................................................11
2.5$+e%ical $+a"acte"istics of Solid Waste...............................................11
2.5.1$a"bon34it"ogen (atio )$34 (atio,..................................................12
2.#Solid Waste 1!antification and .nalsis...............................................12
2.&Solid Waste $+a"acte"i5ation................................................................1'
2.-.pp"oac+es to 6"ban Solid Waste $+a"acte"i5ation..............................14
2.-.1Waste P"od!ct .nalsis..................................................................15
2.-.2Ma"7et P"od!ct .nalsis.................................................................15
2.-.'Di"ect Waste Sa%pling and .nalsis..............................................1#
2.-.4Waste 1!antification Met+ods.......................................................1#
2./Solid Waste T"eat%ent.........................................................................1&
2./.1Incine"ation....................................................................................1&
2./.2$o%posting....................................................................................22
2./.'Sanita" landfill..............................................................................21
2./.4(eccling........................................................................................ 24
2./.5(e!se.............................................................................................25
2.12$o%posting........................................................................................2&
2.12.1O!tline of .vailable $o%posting Tec+nologies.............................2&
2.12.28acto"s .ffecting $o%posting......................................................2-
2.12.'P+sical $+a"acte"istics................................................................'2
Page | 0
2.12.4$o%post 1!alit Pa"a%ete"s........................................................'1
2.119:isting Solid Waste Manage%ent $onditions....................................'5
2.12;ove"n%ent (esponse to Solid Waste P"oble%..................................'#
2.12.1Polic< =egal and Instit!tional 8"a%e>o"7s...................................'#
2.12.29nvi"on%ental 9d!cation and .>a"eness $"eation......................'-
2.12.'Waste (ecove"< (eccling and (e!se.........................................'-
2.12.48inancing Waste Manage%ent.....................................................'/
2.12.5Waste Manage%ent P"ojects and P"og"a%s.................................42
*=A#/E. /=.EE.......................................................................................................................0(
%.(Methodology.............................................................................................................................06
'.18ield >o"7.............................................................................................41
'.1.1St!d ."ea..................................................................................... 41
'.1.2Selection of Sa%ple Si5e................................................................41
'.1.'Selection of *o!se+olds.................................................................42
'.1.4Dist"ib!tion< $ollection and So"ting................................................42
'.2.dditional $alc!lations.........................................................................45
'.2.1Pe" $apita ;ene"ation of Waste.....................................................45
'.2.29:t"apolation of t+e .%o!nts of t+e Waste Mate"ial ;"o!ps..........45
'.2.'P"ojection of Waste to ?e ;ene"ated In T+e 8!t!"e........................4#
'.'Statistical Data .nalsis.......................................................................4#
'.4P+sicoc+e%ical .nalsis.....................................................................4#
'.4.1Moist!"e $ontent............................................................................4&
'.4.2Total 4it"ogen $ontent...................................................................4-
'.4.'Total O"ganic $a"bon.....................................................................4/
'.4.4p* of ;a"bage................................................................................52
Page | 0I
'.4.5P+osp+o"!s....................................................................................51
'.4.#Potassi!%....................................................................................... 52
'.5*eav Metal .nalsis............................................................................5'
'.5.14it"ic .cid Digestion.......................................................................54
'.#*eav %etal analsis............................................................................54
'.&Mic"obiological .nalsis........................................................................54
'.&.18aecal $olifo"%s.............................................................................55
'.&.29. coli.............................................................................................55
'.-$o%posting.......................................................................................... 5#
'.-.1Data .nalsis.................................................................................5&
*=A#/E. -!H...........................................................................................................................'<
0.(.esults.......................................................................................................................................'<
4.1Waste $+a"acte"isation .......................................................................5-
4.1.1Waste $o%position............................................................................5-
4.2$o%posting ......................................................................................... #2
4.2.1P+sicoc+e%ical .nalsis of 8eed Stoc7............................................#2
4.2.2P+sicoc+e%ical .nalsis..................................................................#2
4.'*eav Metal .nalsis............................................................................#'
4.4Mic"obiological .nalsis........................................................................#4
4.5$o%posting Pe"fo"%ance.....................................................................#5
4.5.1Te%pe"at!"e Patte"ns........................................................................#5
*=A#/E. -IBE...........................................................................................................................73
'.()iscussion.................................................................................................................................73
5.1Waste $+a"acte"isation .......................................................................#&
5.1.1O"ganic Waste )food >aste,...............................................................#&
Page | 0II
5.1.2Plastic @ Pape"...................................................................................#&
5.1.'Metal................................................................................................. #-
5.1.4;lass.................................................................................................. #/
5.2$o%posting.......................................................................................... #/
5.2.1P+sicoc+e%ical .nalsis of 8eed Stoc7............................................#/
5.2.2P+sicoc+e%ical .nalsis of $o%post...............................................&2
5.2.'$o%posting Pe"fo"%ance..................................................................&2
*=A#/E. SID..............................................................................................................................3%
7.(*onclusion and .ecommendations...........................................................................................3%
#.1$oncl!sion............................................................................................ &'
#.2(eco%%endations................................................................................&'
,I,CI!$.A#=I..........................................................................................................................30
A##E:)I*ES...............................................................................................................................<(
A##E:)ID A................................................................................................................................<(
A##E:)ID ,................................................................................................................................<<
A##E:)ID *................................................................................................................................<&
A##E:)ID )................................................................................................................................&(
A##E:)ID E................................................................................................................................&6
A##E:)ID -.................................................................................................................................&8
A##E:)ID $................................................................................................................................&%
Page | 0III
Lis" $) T&+es
/able %.6. )ifferent coloured bin bags and their respective material group..................................0%
/able %.8. #arameters to be measured before and after composting............................................03
/able 0.%. #er capita generation of waste of the town of Aburi....................................................'&
/able 0.0. #hysicochemical analysis performed on the feed stock used for composting .............78
/able 0.'. .esults of physicochemical Analysis carried out on the compost................................78
/able 0.7. *omparison of carbon, nitrogen and *+ : ratio before and after composting..............7%
/able 0.3+ Selected heavy metals analysed to determine compost ?uality....................................7%
/able 0.<. Microbiological analysis of compost to determine ?uality...........................................70
/able (.&. #er capita generation of the various waste materials....................................................<6
/able (.6(. Suggested waste collection method............................................................................<'
Page | IA
Lis" $) Fi0u'es
-igure 0.6. Aburi .esidential MSG *omposition.........................................................................'<
-igure 0.8. Mean amounts of .esidential MSG generated per day per household 2kg5. .............'&
-igure 0.%. .esidential MSG generated per day by the entire population 2kg5............................7(
-igure 0.0. .esidential MSG to be generated in the short, medium and long term......................76
-igure 0.'. /emperature profile during composting......................................................................7'
-igure 0.7. Bolume of windrow per week.....................................................................................77
-igure (.3. Aburi .esidential MSG *omposition.........................................................................<8
-igure (.<. -uture proFections........................................................................................................<8
Page | A
Lis" $) P+&"es
#late %.6. Gaste disposed close to a residence.............................................................................08
#late %.8+ *ollection of solid waste................................................................................................00
#late %.%. =eap of decomposing organic matter under the dense shade of trees ..........................'7
Page | AI
A,.($-+e#0e!e("
I give my profound thanks to my Supervisor )r. ,ernard -ei,affoe for his assist
ance and supervision. I also thank my parents .t. .ev )r. Jwaku Asamoah!kyere
and Agnes Asamoah!kyere and -amily for their, support and encouragement, con
tributions.
Page | AII
CHAPTER ONE
564 I("'$#u,"i$(
-or the purposes of urban development planning, the type and amount of solid waste that
is produced and the behaviour of solid waste generators must be identified. A detailed
characteri>ation of solid waste is also necessary for integrated solid waste management
strategies to be successful 2Shakai et al., 6&&75. /he design, implementation and opera
tion of the economical solid waste handling, collection, transport and disposal systems re
?uire accurate information on the ?uantities and characteristics of the solid waste to be
processed 2Cohani K =artono, 6&<'5.
In recognition of the fact that guidelines for the development of waste management plan
have been made available to )istricts, most of these )istricts have not developed the
plans because re?uired information is absent including waste characteri>ation informa
tion. /he Akuapim south )istrict 2AS)5 falls into the category of )istricts who have not
developed plan for the management of its solid waste and very little has been done in
terms of research with the aim of developing a plan.
It is therefore necessary to carry out a waste characteri>ation study in the town of Aburi
located in Akuapim South of the Eastern .egion of $hana which has a solid waste prob
lem because there is no appropriate plan in place for the management of solid household
waste. Gastes generated in Aburi are Fust disposed of in open dumps by individual
Page | 1
households which have led to environmental degradation and its attendant health prob
lems.
In the execution of this study, one of the most accurate approaches for the characterisa
tion of solid waste is the collection of the waste at the point of generation, which is the
household and directly sorting out the various materials 2Martin et al., 6&&'5.
=ouseholds are the best place to collect =ousehold Solid Gaste samples, as this makes
the identification of waste materials easier and eliminates any uncertainty as to their ori
gins 2,ernache#Lre> et al., 8((65.
/o characteri>e the solid waste itMs necessary to access the individual wastes generated at
the household level and analyse them and develop key patterns to help develop interven
tion measures to help improve the solid waste management system in Aburi.
Page | 2
5656 2us"i)i,&"i$(
/here does not appear to be a planned system available to manage the waste produced in
this town and waste is Fust disposed off at rubbish dumps most of which has not been des
ignated by the district assembly and poses health ha>ards. -obil et al. 28((65 stated that
effective sustainable waste management re?uires that waste management and planning
authorities know and understand the materials they will be handling or disposing in order
to be able to set up effective sustainable waste management programs.
Also in setting up a waste management program for a region or city it is critical to have
reliable data on waste stream characteristics such as the nature, characteristics, types and
?uantities of waste components in the waste streams of that locality 2-obil et al., 8((85.
ItMs because of the above stated reasons that AburiMs .esidential waste has to be charac
teri>ed to provide reliable data on the residential waste stream of the township.
Page | '
5636 O7e,"i*es
M&i( O7e,"i*es
/he main obFective is to determine the ?uantity and composition of residential
solid waste generated in the Aburi /ownship and also, to assess the compost ?ual
ity of the degradable organic fraction.
S%e,i)i, O7e,"i*es
/o estimate the ?uantity of organics 2food waste5, plastic, paper, metals and glass
that make up the residential solid waste generated in Aburi.
/o compost the organic fraction of the waste under local conditions.
/o develop waste management plan
Page | 4
CHAPTER TWO
364 Li"e'&"u'e 'e*ie-
365 De)i(i"i$( $) S$+i# W&s"e
/here is no such thing as waste in natural systems. Everything flows in a natural cycle of
use and reuse. Civing organisms consume materials and eventually return them to the en
vironment, usually in a different form for reuse 2Hniversity of *alifornia, 8((&5. Solid
waste is material, which is not in li?uid form, and has no value to the person who is re
sponsible for it, Synonyms to solid waste are terms such as NgarbageO, NtrashO, NrefuseO
and Nrubbish 2Purbrugg, 8((%5.
363 T/%es &(# S$u',es $) S$+i# W&s"e
/here are two basic sources of solid wastes+ nonmunicipal and municipal as discussed
below 2H**# K *alifornia Hniversity, 8((&5.
:onmunicipal solid waste is the discarded solid material from industry, agriculture, min
ing, and oil and gas production. Some common items that are classified as nonmunicipal
waste are+ construction materials 2roofing shingles, electrical fixtures, bricks51 waste
water sludge1 incinerator residues1 ash1 scrubber sludge1 oil9gas9mining waste1 railroad
ties, and pesticide containers 2H**# K *alifornia Hniversity, 8((&5.
Page | 5
Municipal solid waste is made up of discarded solid materials from residences, busi
nesses, and city buildings. !ther common components are+ yard waste 2green waste5,
plastics, metals, wood, glass and food waste. /he composition of the municipal wastes
can vary from region to region and from season to season. -ood waste, which includes
animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the preparation and consumption of food, is
commonly known as garbage 2H**# K *alifornia Hniversity, 8((&5.
Some solid wastes are detrimental to the health and wellbeing of humans. /hese materi
als are classified as ha>ardous wastes. =a>ardous wastes are defined as materials which
are toxic, carcinogenic 2cause cancer5, mutagenic 2cause ):A mutations5, teratogenic
2cause birth defects5, highly flammable, corrosive or explosive 2Hniversity of *alifornia,
8((&5.
*ategori>ation of solid waste generators are linked to >oning and land use. /hey are1 .es
idential, Industrial, *ommercial, Institutional, *onstruction and demolition, Municipal
services, process and Agriculture. /he term solid waste is all inclusive and encompasses
all the source, types of classification, composition and properties 2#eavy et al., 6&<'5.
36365 I(#us"'i&+ W&s"e
Industrial waste is a type of waste produced by industrial activity, such as that of factor
ies, mills and mines. It has existed since the outset of the industrial revolution 2HSE#A,
8(6(5. Much industrial waste is neither ha>ardous nor toxic, such as waste fibre produced
by agriculture and logging. /he typical waste generators are Cight and heavy manufactur
ing, fabrication, construction sites, power and chemical plants and the type of wastes gen
erated are packaging waste, food wastes, construction and demolition materials, ha>ard
ous wastes, ashes and special wastes 2 =oornweg K /homas, 6&&&5.
Page | #
36363 C$(s"'u,"i$( &(# De!$+i"i$( De'is
Hncontaminated solid waste results from the construction, remodelling, repair, demoli
tion of utilities, structures roads and uncontaminated solid waste results from land clear
ing 2HSE#A, 6&&<5. *onstruction and demolition waste includes, but is not limited to
bricks, concrete and other masonry materials, soil, rock, wood 2including painted, treated
and coated wood and wood products5, land clearing debris, wall coverings, plaster, dry
wall, plumbing fixtures, nonasbestos insulation, roofing shingles and other roof cover
ings, asphaltic pavement, glass, plastics that are not sealed in a manner that conceals oth
er wastes, empty containers which are ten gallons or less in si>e and having no more than
one inch of residue remaining on the bottom, electrical wiring and components contain
ing no ha>ardous li?uids 2:IS )ept. of Environmental *onservation, 8(6(5.
36368 I(s"i"u"i$(&+ W&s"e
/he waste generators in this category are Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centres,
the wastes produced here are paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals,
special wastes, ha>ardous wastes 2=oornweg K /homas, 6&&&5.
36369 Resi#e("i&+ :H$useh$+#; &(# C$!!e',i&+ W&s"es
Hsually residential waste consist of food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles,
leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes, special wastes 2e.g., bulky items, con
sumer electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, tires5, and household ha>ardous wastes5 and
these are generated by single and multifamily dwellings whiles commercial wastes con
Page | &
sist of paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, ha>
ardous wastes are generated by Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc
2=oornweg K /homas, 6&&&5.
3636< Mu(i,i%&+ Se'*i,e W&s"e
Services such as street cleaning, landscaping, parks and beaches maintenance, upkeep of
other recreational areas and water and wastewater treatment plants generate wastes such
as street sweepings1 landscape and tree trimmings1 general wastes from parks, beaches,
and other recreational areas and sludge 2=oornweg K /homas, 6&&&5.
3636= P'$,ess W&s"e
=eavy and light manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants, mineral extrac
tion and processing are responsible for the generation of the following solid waste1 indus
trial process wastes, scrap materials, offspecification products, slay, tailings 2=oornweg
K /homas, 6&&&5.
3636> A0'i,u+"u'&+ W&s"e
/he cultivation of crops, tending of orchards, vineyards, dairies, feedlots and the running
of farms in general contributes to the solid waste stream in the form of spoiled food
wastes, agricultural wastes such as dung, animal carcass, husks of corn etc., ha>ardous
wastes 2e.g., pesticides5 2=oornweg K /homas, 6&&&5.
Page | -
368 Ch&'&,"e'is"i,s $) S$+i# W&s"e
36865 ?u&("i"/
/here are very significant differences in ?uantity depending on many factors, such as+
/he si>e of the population living in the area,
/he source of the waste generated 2commercial, residential, touristic, industrial,
etc.5
/he number of public or private gardens,
Ghether the families living in the area are predominantly poor or rich,
/he season of the year, and the cultural aspects of the area affecting the composi
tion, ?uantity and peakdays of the solid waste produced 2Medcities :etwork,
8((%5.
36863 C$!%$si"i$(
Jnowing the composition of waste is important for deciding the treatment systems. :u
merous factors have an influence on the composition and characteristics of solid waste
2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
/he area+ residential, commercial, etc.
/he season and weather 2differences in the amount of population during the year,
tourist places5
/he economic level 2differences between high and lowincome areas5. =igh
income areas usually produce more inorganic materials such as plastics and paper,
while lowincome areas produce relatively more organic waste.
/he cultural aspects of the >one.
Page | /
Hrban waste is normally divided into three big groups 2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
Inert waste+ metals, glass, soil, slags and ashes
#utrescible+ food waste, yard trimmings
*ombustibles+ paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, tires, leather, textiles
369 Ph/si,&+ Ch&'&,"e'is"i,s $) S$+i# W&s"e
/here are four characteristics that are absolutely necessary when setting up the
treatment9disposal system 2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5. /hese are+
36965 M$is"u'e C$("e("
Moisture content of solid waste is the weight loss 2expressed in percentage5 when a
sample of solid waste is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 6(( 6(' . /he
percentage of moisture contained in a solid waste sample can be calculated on a dry or
wet basis. Moisture content has a great influence on the heat of combustion as well as de
composition of organic matter. It depends on the organic content, as well as the source of
waste and the weather 2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
36963 C&+$'i)i, V&+ue @ He&"i(0 V&+ue
/his is a physical property and a measure of the energy released when waste is burnt. A
heating value of about 66.7x6(7 E9Jg is needed to sustain combustion 2Cee, 8(('5. Gaste
with lower heat value can be burnt, but it will not maintain ade?uate temperatures
without addition of auxiliary fuel. *alorific values increase when there is more paper,
card board and plastics because they have a high heating value, and decreases when there
is a high content of organic matter, and therefore of moisture 2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
Page | 12
36968 De(si"/
)ensity varies depending on the composition of waste. It is normally higher in residential
areas where organic matter makes up a large proportion of the waste, and lower in com
mercial districts where waste contains more paper and cardboard. It also varies with the
economic level, being less dense in high income areas where there is a higher percentage
of packaging waste1 the density of waste may also change during waste transportation
2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
/herefore it is essential to indicate where density has been measured 2at the point of gen
eration, in the container, or at the disposal site5, usually the density increases by
8(48'4 during transport in a noncompaction truck.
/he density is important for the selection of waste collection e?uipment. -or example,
compactor trucks, which press the waste together, are most effective if the waste has a
low density, for example, if it has a high proportion of paper, cardboard and plastics
2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
36< Che!i,&+ Ch&'&,"e'is"i,s $) S$+i# W&s"e
Information on the chemical configuration of solid wastes is important in appraising, pro
cessing and recovery alternatives. In addition, the analysis helps in adopting and utili>ing
proper e?uipment and techni?ues for collection and transportation. /he chemical charac
teristics like p=, chemical constituents like carbon content, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassi
um, micronutrients etc. are to be analysed for the selection of proper waste management
technology 2Iousof K .ahman, 8((35.
Page | 11
36<65 C&'$(@Ni"'$0e( R&"i$ :C@N R&"i$;
It is the ratio of the weight of carbon to the weight of nitrogen present in the waste. It is
an important parameter in composting processes and should always be between 8( and
%'. Cower ratios indicate the loss of nitrogen as ammonia gas and render composting im
practical 2Medcities :etwork, 8((%5.
36= S$+i# W&s"e ?u&("i)i,&"i$( &(# A(&+/sis
Ghen implementing a solid waste management program, solid waste analysis is crucial to
determine which techni?ues, systems and procedures are suitable to the waste stream.
/here are essentially two different methods of sampling+
*ontinuous sampling of a low fraction of waste.
Intensive sampling carried out over one or more relatively short periods.
Statistical reliability favours continuous sampling, but practical considerations, including
cost mean that the latter method has to be considered.
At a minimum, surveys should collect data covering a period of one week. /his will al
low for measurement of variation of refuse within cycles of a day or week.
/o take into account the changes over monthly, seasonal and year long periods, it is ne
cessary to either+
repeat the survey at different times , or
spread the survey period over a long time.
Page | 12
/he following approach is recommended for the overall sampling regime 2Medcities
:etwork, 8((%5+
Surveys should be carried out over a minimum period of one week.
Seasonal variation should be estimated by repeating the survey at different times
of the year, which are generally best done over a week in the middle of each of
the four seasons.
Ghere baseline data is re?uired, four surveys of one week each should be done in
each season over a single year.
Ghere monitoring of longterm trends is needed, a singleweek survey should be
done every year, in each season, over a four year cycle.
If it is possible, it is very useful to carry out a survey differentiating between the
different >ones of the town, with special emphasis on waste composition.
36> S$+i# W&s"e Ch&'&,"e'iA&"i$(
Iu K Maclaren 26&&'5 described waste characteri>ation as the examination of the com
position of waste stream by material types 2such as paper, glass, metal, etc.5 or by product
types 2such as cans, maga>ines, glass containers, etc.5.
Jnowledge of the ?uantity and composition of municipal solid waste is important for the
planning and management of municipal solid wastes 2-obil et al., 8((65. Such knowledge
is important to direct waste policy and to plan for waste management options such as
composting, recycling, recovery, transportation and disposal of solid wastes.
In order to describe waste, two concepts are re?uired+ waste stream amounts and the com
position of the waste streams 2Moore et al., 6&&<5..esidential waste can be segregated
into eight 2<5 components based on intrinsic material properties 2-obil, 8((65.
Solid waste is generally composed of organic, paper, glass, plastic, metal, textile, residues
or inert wastes as well as miscellaneous or other wastes 2$overnment of /amil :adu, )e
partment of Environment, 8((35.
Page | 1'
!rganic waste or biodegradable includes largely putrescible components such as food
materials, leaves, garden trimmings, grasses and other easily decomposable waste. #aper
waste includes newsprint paper, scrap paper, and cardboard, waste paper, paper products
and packaging materials 2!ntario Ministry of environment, 8(6(5.
$lass waste consists of broken glassware, used and9or broken bottles, broken light bulbs
and other glass products 2Gaste Gatch, 8(665.
#lastic wastes comprise waste plastic products such as polyethylene products and other
types of plastics used as packaging material 2wienaah, 8((35.
Metal waste includes tin cans, both ferrous and nonferrous scrap metal 2Pero Gaste
America, 8(6(5.
/extiles in municipal solid waste are found mainly in discarded clothing, although other
sources include furniture, carpets, tires, footwear, and nondurable goods such as sheets
and towels 2*ontributors, Gikipedia, 8(685
a
.
Inert waste includes construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris 2*ontributors,
Gikipedia, 28(685
b
36B A%%'$&,hes "$ U'&( S$+i# W&s"e Ch&'&,"e'iA&"i$(
/here are three methods for determining the composition of urban solid waste streams
2,runner K Ernst, 6&<75+
Gaste #roduct Analysis
Market #roduct Analysis
)irect Sampling and Analysis
An outline of each of these methods, and an indication of when they should be used, is
provided in this section.
Page | 14
36B65 W&s"e P'$#u," A(&+/sis
In this method, the products of treatment processes such as incinerator bottom ash and fly
ash are analysed for various chemical elements. -rom knowledge of the partition coeffi
cients for these elements through the process, it is possible to infer the chemical composi
tion of the raw waste stream 2,runner K Ernst, 6&<75.
It is necessary to have a waste processing facility available, and to know the details of
materials balances through it in order to apply this techni?ue. )evelopment of the tech
ni?ue is ongoing 2,runner K Schackermayer, 6&&05, and it offers a reliable and cost ef
fective alternative to conventional direct methods where a suitable treatment process is
available.
36B63 M&'.e" P'$#u," A(&+/sis
In this approach, a materials balance is undertaken for a material in a region to derive the
?uantity of that material that would be expected to report to the waste stream 2,runner K
Ernst, 6&<75.
Extensive studies by -ranklin Associates have been undertaken in the HSA1 the method
is ?uick and can be undertaken at little cost where the data is available. :ormally, this is
limited to regions as defined by country borders, where the data is collected by a Statist
ics ,ureau.
/his method is also likely to be of use for materials which make up a small percentage of
the waste stream. -or instance determining the amount of dry cell batteries in direct
sampling and analysis studies is either very unreliable or very expensive. Market product
analysis, if possible at a regional level would give a ?uicker, cheaper and more reliable
result 2Moore et al., 6&&<5.
Page | 15
36B68 Di'e," W&s"e S&!%+i(0 &(# A(&+/sis
In this conventional approach, sampling from a particular waste stream in a region is un
dertaken before manually sorting it into its material types. Subse?uently, additional
physical and chemical analysis such as moisture content, density under standard pres
sures, specific energy 2calorific value5 and elemental analysis may be undertaken 2Moore
et al., 6&&<5.
36B69 W&s"e ?u&("i)i,&"i$( Me"h$#s
According to the HSE#A, 26&&&5, there are two basic approaches to estimating ?uantities
of municipal solid waste
/he first method, which is sitespecific, involves sampling, sorting, and weighing the in
dividual components of the waste stream. /his method is useful in defining a local waste
stream, especially if large numbers of samples are taken over several seasons.
/he second approach to ?uantifying and characteri>ing the municipal solid waste stream
utili>es a material flow approach to estimate the waste stream on a nationwide basis. /he
material flows methodology produces an estimate of total municipal solid waste gener
ated, by material categories and by product categories.
Sampling to ?uantify waste could either be done at the point of generation or at the point
of disposal. =owever, most previous studies considered the characteristics of municipal
wastes at final disposal sites 2,light et al., 6&&&5.
,ecause of the shift in focus of waste management strategies towards more recycling and
resource recovery, determining the ?uantity and composition of waste at the point of gen
eration is getting more attention 2Qdais et al., 6&&35.
Page | 1#
36C S$+i# W&s"e T'e&"!e("
!nce collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume
and weight of material that re?uires final disposal. /reatment changes the form of the
waste and makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well
as heat energy, for recycling or reuse. 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
36C65 I(,i(e'&"i$(
Fu'(&,e O%e'&"i$(
,urning is a very effective method of reducing the volume and weight of solid waste. In
modern incinerators the waste is burned inside a properly designed furnace under very
carefully controlled conditions. /he combustible portion of the waste combines with oxy
gen, releasing mostly carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. Incineration can reduce the
volume of uncompacted waste by more than &( per cent, leaving an inert residue of ash,
glass, metal, and other solid materials called bottom ash 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica,
8(6(5.
/he gaseous byproducts of incomplete combustion, along with finely divided particulate
material called fly ash, are carried along in the incinerator airstream. -ly ash includes
cinders, dust, and soot. In order to remove fly ash and gaseous byproducts before they
are exhausted into the atmosphere, modern incinerators must be e?uipped with extensive
emission control devices. Such devices include fabric baghouse filters, acid gas scrub
bers, and electrostatic precipitators. ,ottom ash and fly ash are usually combined and dis
posed of in a landfill. If the ash is found to contain toxic metals, it must be managed as a
ha>ardous waste 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 1&
Municipal solidwaste incinerators are designed to receive and burn a continuous supply
of refuse. A deep refuse storage pit, or tipping area, provides enough space for about one
day of waste storage. /he refuse is lifted from the pit by a crane e?uipped with a bucket
or grapple device. It is then deposited into a hopper and chute above the furnace and re
leased onto a charging grate or stoker. /he grate shakes and moves waste through the fur
nace, allowing air to circulate around the burning material. Modern incinerators are usu
ally built with a rectangular furnace, although rotary kiln furnaces and vertical circular
furnaces are available. -urnaces are constructed of refractory bricks that can withstand
the high combustion temperatures 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
*ombustion in a furnace occurs in two stages+ primary and secondary. In primary com
bustion, moisture is driven off, and the waste is ignited and volatili>ed. In secondary
combustion, the remaining unburned gases and particulates are oxidi>ed, eliminating
odours and reducing the amount of fly ash in the exhaust. Ghen the refuse is very moist,
auxiliary gas or fuel oil is sometimes burned to start the primary combustion 2EncyclopR
dia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
In order to provide enough oxygen for both primary and secondary combustion, air must
be thoroughly mixed with the burning refuse. Air is supplied from openings beneath the
grates or is admitted to the area above. /he relative amounts of this underfire air and
overfire air must be determined by the plant operator to achieve good combustion effi
ciency. A continuous flow of air can be maintained by a natural draft in a tall chimney or
by mechanical forceddraft fans 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 1-
E(e'0/ Re,$*e'/
/he energy value of refuse can be as much as onethird that of coal, depending on the pa
per content, and the heat given off during incineration can be recovered by the use of a
refractorylined furnace coupled to a boiler. ,oilers convert the heat of combustion into
steam or hot water, thus allowing the energy content of the refuse to be recycled. Inciner
ators that recycle heat energy in this way are called wastetoenergy plants. Instead of a
separate furnace and boiler, a watertube wall furnace may also be used for energy recov
ery 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Such a furnace is lined with vertical steel tubes spaced closely enough to form continuous
sections of wall. /he walls are insulated on the outside in order to reduce heat loss. Gater
circulating through the tubes absorbs heat to produce steam, and it also helps to control
combustion temperatures without the need for excessive air, thus lowering airpollution
control costs 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Gastetoenergy plants operate as either mass burn or refusederived fuel systems. A
mass burn system uses all the refuse, without prior treatment or preparation. A refuse
derived fuel system separates combustible wastes from noncombustibles such as glass
and metal before burning. If a turbine is installed at the plant, both steam and electricity
can be produced in a process called cogeneration 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Gastetoenergy systems are more expensive to build and operate than plain incinerators
because of the need for special e?uipment and controls, highly skilled technical person
nel, and auxiliary fuel systems. !n the other hand, the sale of generated steam or electri
city offsets much of the extra cost, and recovery of heat energy from refuse is a viable
solidwaste management option from both engineering and an economic point of view
2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 1/
36C63 C$!%$s"i(0
Another method of treating municipal solid waste is composting, a biological process in
which the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled
conditions. Microbes metaboli>e the organic waste material and reduce its volume by as
much as '( percent. /he stabili>ed product is called compost or humus1 it resembles pot
ting soil in texture and odour and may be used as a soil conditioner or mulch 2Encyc
lopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
*omposting offers a method of processing and recycling both garbage and sewage sludge
in one operation. As more stringent environmental rules and siting constraints limit the
use of solidwaste incineration and landfill options, the application of composting is
likely to increase. /he steps involved in the process include sorting and separating, si>e
reduction, and digestion of the refuse 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
S$'"i(0 &(# Sh'e##i(0
/he decomposable materials in refuse are isolated from glass, metal, and other inorganic
items through sorting and separating operations. /hese are carried out mechanically, us
ing differences in such physical characteristics of the refuse as si>e, density, and magnet
ic properties. Shredding or pulveri>ing reduces the si>e of the waste articles, resulting in a
uniform mass of material. It is accomplished with hammer mills and rotary shredders
2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Di0es"i(0 &(# P'$,essi(0
Page | 22
#ulveri>ed waste is ready for composting either by the open windrow method or in an en
closed mechanical facility. Gindrows are long, low mounds of refuse. /hey are turned or
mixed every few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. )epending
on moisture conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the
waste. ,ecause of the metabolic action of aerobic bacteria, temperatures in an active
compost pile reach about 6'( S- 27' S*5, killing pathogenic organisms that may be in the
waste material 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
!pen windrow composting re?uires relatively large land areas. Enclosed mechanical
composting facilities can reduce land re?uirements by about <' percent. Mechanical com
posting systems employ one or more closed tanks or digesters e?uipped with rotating
vanes that mix and aerate the shredded waste. *omplete digestion of the waste takes
about one week 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
)igested compost must be processed before it can be used as a mulch or soil conditioner.
#rocessing includes drying, screening, and granulating or pelleti>ing. /hese steps im
prove the market value of the compost, which is the most serious constraint to the success
of composting as a waste management option. Agricultural demand for digested compost
is usually low because of the high cost of transporting it and because of competition with
inorganic chemical fertili>ers 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
36C68 S&(i"&'/ +&(#)i++
Cand disposal is the most common management strategy for municipal solid waste. .e
fuse can be safely deposited in a sanitary landfill, a disposal site that is carefully selected,
designed, constructed, and operated to protect the environment and public health. !ne of
the most important factors relating to landfilling is that the buried waste never comes in
contact with surface water or groundwater. Engineering design re?uirements include a
Page | 21
minimum distance between the bottom of the landfill and the seasonally high groundwa
ter table. Most new landfills are re?uired to have an impermeable liner or barrier at the
bottom, as well as a system of groundwater monitoring wells.
*ompleted landfill sections also must be capped with an impermeable cover to keep pre
cipitation or surface runoff away from the buried waste. ,ottom and cap liners may be
made of flexible plastic membranes, layers of clay soil, or a combination of both 2Encyc
lopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
C$(s"'u,"i(0 "he L&(#)i++
/he basic element of a sanitary landfill is the refuse cell. /his is a confined portion of the
site in which refuse is spread and compacted in thin layers1 several layers may be com
pacted on top of one another to a maximum depth of about 6( feet 2% meters5. /he com
pacted refuse occupies about one?uarter of its original loose volume.
At the end of each dayTs operation, the refuse is covered with a layer of soil to eliminate
windblown litter, odours, and insect or rodent problems. !ne refuse cell thus contains the
daily volume of compacted refuse and soil cover. Several adFacent refuse cells make up a
lift, and eventually a landfill may comprise two or more lifts stacked one on top of the
other. /he final cap for a completed landfill may also be covered with a layer of topsoil
that can support vegetative growth 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
)aily cover soil may be available onsite, or it may be hauled in and stockpiled from off
site sources. Barious types of heavy machinery, such as crawler tractors or rubbertired
do>ers, are used to spread and compact the refuse and soil. =eavy steelwheeled com
pactors may also be employed to achieve highdensity compaction of the refuse 2Encyc
lopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 22
/he area and depth of a new landfill is carefully staked out, and the base is prepared for
construction of any re?uired liner and leachate collection system. Ghere a plastic liner is
used, at least 68 inches 2%( cm5 of sand is carefully spread over it to provide protection
from landfill vehicles. At sites where excavations can be made below grade, the trench
method of construction may be followed.
Ghere this is not feasible because of topography or groundwater conditions, the area
method may be practiced, resulting in a mound or hill rising above the original ground.
Since no ground is excavated in the area method, soil usually must be hauled to the site
from some other location. Bariations of the area method may be employed where a land
fill site is located on sloping ground, in a valley, or in a ravine1 the completed landfill
eventually blends in with the landscape.
C$("'$++i(0 B/-P'$#u,"s
!rganic material buried in a landfill decomposes by anaerobic microbial action. *om
plete decomposition usually takes more than 8( years. !ne of the byproducts of this de
composition is methane gas. Methane is poisonous and explosive when diluted in the air,
and it can flow long distances through porous layers of soil.
If it is allowed to collect in basements or other confined areas, dangerous conditions may
arise. In modern landfills methane movement is controlled by impermeable barriers and
by gas venting systems. In some landfills the methane gas is collected and recovered for
use as a fuel.
A highly contaminated li?uid called leachate is another byproduct of decomposition in
sanitary landfills. Most leachate is the result of runoff that infiltrates the refuse cells and
comes in contact with decomposing garbage. If leachate reaches the groundwater or seeps
Page | 2'
out onto the ground surface, serious environmental pollution problems can occur, includ
ing the possible contamination of drinkingwater supplies.
Methods of controlling leachate include the interception of surface water in order to pre
vent it from entering the landfill and the use of impermeable liners or barriers between
the waste and the groundwater. :ew landfill sites should also be provided with ground
water monitoring wells and leachate collection and treatment systems 2EncyclopRdia
,ritannica, 8(6(5.
36C69 Re,/,+i(0
Separating, recovering, and reusing components of solid waste that may still have eco
nomic value is called recycling. !ne type of recycling is the recovery and reuse of heat
energy, a practice discussed separately in Incineration. *omposting can also be con
sidered a recycling process, since it reclaims the organic parts of solid waste for reuse as
mulch or soil conditioner. Still other waste materials have potential for reuse. /hese in
clude paper, metal, glass, plastic, and rubber, and their recovery is discussed here.
Se%&'&"i$(
,efore any material can be recycled, it must be separated from the raw waste and sorted.
Separation can be accomplished at the source of the waste or at a central processing facil
ity. Source separation, also called curb side separation, is done by individual citi>ens who
collect newspapers, bottles, cans, and garbage separately and place them at the curb for
collection. Many communities allow NcomminglingO of nonpaper recyclables 2glass,
metal, and plastic5. In either case, municipal collection of sourceseparated refuse is more
expensive than ordinary refuse collection 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 24
In lieu of source separation, recyclable materials can be separated from garbage at cent
rali>ed mechanical processing plants. Experience has shown that the ?uality of recyc
lables recovered from such facilities is lowered by contamination with moist garbage and
broken glass. /he best practice, as now recogni>ed, is to have citi>ens separate refuse into
a limited number of categories, including newspaper1 maga>ines and other waste paper1
commingled metals, glass, and plastics1 and garbage and other nonrecyclables 2Encyc
lopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
/he newspaper, other paper wastes, and commingled recyclables are collected separately
from the other refuse and are processed at a centrali>ed material recycling facility, or
M.- 2pronounced NmurfO in wastemanagement Fargon5. A modern M.- can process
about %(( tons of recyclable wastes per day.
At a typical M.- commingled recyclables are loaded onto a conveyor. Steel cans 2NtinO
cans are actually steel with only a thin coating of tin5 are removed by an electromagnetic
separator, and the remaining material passes over a vibrating screen in order to remove
broken glass. :ext, the conveyor passes through an air classifier, which separates alu
minium and plastic containers from heavier glass containers. $lass is manually sorted by
colour, and aluminium cans are separated from plastics by an eddycurrent separator,
which repels the aluminium from the conveyor belt 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
36C6< Reuse
.ecovered broken glass can be crushed and used in asphalt pavement. *oloursorted
glass is crushed and sold to glass manufacturers as cullet, an essential ingredient in glass
making. Steel cans are baled and shipped to steel mills as scrap, and aluminium is baled
or compacted for reuse by smelters 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 25
Aluminium is one of the smallest components of municipal solid waste, but it has the
highest value as a recyclable material. .ecycling of plastic is a challenge, mostly because
of the many different polymeric materials used in its production. Mixed thermoplastics
can be used only to make lower?uality products, such as Nplastic lumberO 2EncyclopRdia
,ritannica, 8(6(5.
In the paper stream, old newspapers are sorted by hand on a conveyor belt in order to re
move corrugated materials and mixed papers. /hey are then baled or looseloaded into
trailers for shipment to paper mills, where they are reused in the making of more newspa
per 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Mixed paper is separated from corrugated paper for sale to tissue mills. Although the pro
cesses of pulping, deinking, and screening waste paper are generally more expensive
than making paper from virgin wood fibres, the market for recycled paper should im
prove as more processing plants are established 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
.ubber is sometimes reclaimed from solid waste and shredded, reformed, and remoulded
in a process called revulcani>ation, but it is usually not as strong as the original material.
Shredded rubber can be used as an additive in asphalt pavements, and discarded tires may
be employed in Ntire playgroundsO 2EncyclopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
In general, the most difficult problem associated with the recycling of any solidwaste
material is finding applications and suitable markets. .ecycling by itself will not solve
the growing problem of solidwaste management and disposal. /here will always be
some unusable and completely valueless solid residue re?uiring final disposal 2Encyc
lopRdia ,ritannica, 8(6(5.
Page | 2#
3654 C$!%$s"i(0
*omposting is a naturally occurring phenomenon that works under controlled conditions
in which air, temp, moisture content are regulated for the growth of microorganisms and
multiplication through, which organic material is converted into more usable form of or
ganic matter 2*hapman, 8(('5, it involves the minerali>ation and partial humification of
the organic matter, leading to a stabili>ed final product 2,ernal et al., 8((&5.
365465 Ou"+i(e $) A*&i+&+e C$!%$s"i(0 Te,h($+$0ies
/he two main types of composting processes are
I("e'*e("i$(&+ P'$,esses
/hese are essentially processes in which some form of agitation is used either as the sole
form of aeration or in combination of forced aeration system. Examples of this type are
windrows, agitated bays, stirred vessels and multifloor towers. /he great advantage of
these systems is that initial mixing conditions are not critical as in their nonintervention
al counterparts 2,asnayake, 8((65.
,asnayake 28((65 stated that Mixing and adding dry materials could adFust nonhomo
genous materials or moisture contents. /he leachate production can be controlled in such
systems. Gindrowing in tropical conditions re?uires some form of shelter to prevent ex
cessive moisture, leading to higher amounts of leachate formation.
N$(-I("e'*e("i$(&+ P'$,esses
/he principal processes in this category are the aerated static piles 2AS#5 and the silo.
Several problems are associated with these systems such as excessive odour, high
Page | 2&
strength leachate production and excessive drying. AS# too re?uires shelter to protect
from rain. A greater knowledge of the substrates and the processes conditions are re
?uired with these systems because once established, the mass remains unmoved until the
completion of the process two or three weeks later 2,asnayake, 8((65.
)epending on the mixture, a significant change of bulk density can occur in the first
week. It has been shown that in AS#Ts a %(4 of volume reduction takes place in ' days.
/his has great significance in terms of aeration and can lead to both channelling and the
creation of anaerobic pockets 2,asnayake, 8((65.
365463 F&,"$'s A))e,"i(0 C$!%$s"i(0
/here are five maFor factors that affect composting process. /hese factors coordinate with
each other, and also with organic materials and begin decaying process by the action of
decomposers 2Mahfoo> et al., 8((75.
Ai' C$("'$+
*omposting is an aerobic process 2in the presence of oxygen5. Air should regularly be
provided by exhausts, fans and blower or by continuous stirring or mixing the organic
material 2*hapman, 8(('5.
Nu"'i"i$(&+ T'&))i,
*ompost should have a definite ratio of incoming and outgoing nutrient traffic in order
to maintain the balance. /his process is mostly successful when the pile contains 8( 0(
parts of *arbon to oxygen 2Eldridge, 6&&'5 i.e. *9: ratio as 8(96 and varies to 0(96
2Jorner, et al., 8((%5.
Page | 2-
If :itrogen is too high, excess nitrogen is converted to ammonia and escapes into the air
cause odour and air pollution. !n the other hand if this ratio is too high, the process re
duces.
Sui"&+e Te!%e'&"u'e
/emperature is an integral factor of every decomposing process like composting in order
to regulate the breakdown of organic material by microbial activity. /he process begins
when the outer temperature is up to 0' S* for two days 2Morrow, 8((65. /he optimum
temperature to maximi>e composting is between %'0' S* and for global market produc
tion 0( S* for three days to destroy all weed seeds, parasites and unnecessary microbes
2Mahfoo> et al., 8((75.
It is well documented that a minimum height of 6.' m and width of 8.' m is necessary to
retain enough heat in composting mass to promote the desirable thermophillic activity
2,iddlestone et al., 6&<35, although Mathur et al., 26&<'5 showed that a height of 6 m was
sufficient where the medium of composting is peat and mixtures of peat with fibre con
taining manure, both of high thermal insulation capacities.
M$is"u'e C$("e("s
Moisture contents are essential to integrate the composting process1 however, it also de
pends on continuous mixing. /he stabili>ing rate for moisture content is between
0(7(4. ,elow 0(4, the process reduces and beyond 7( it becomes more anaerobic.
!verall '(4 moisture contents can be maintained by adding water in case of dryness
2,onhotal, 8((%5.
Page | 2/
365468 Ph/si,&+ Ch&'&,"e'is"i,s
/he physical characteristics of the ingredients must also be considered when developing a
compost mix. )ifferent physical characteristics affect aeration, the amount of decomposi
tion and the ability of a pile to maintain aerobic conditions. /hree main physical charac
teristics of the compost mix of main concern are+
P$'$si"/
#orosity is a measure of the air space within the compost mix and influences the resist
ance to airflow through the pile. If the pores become filled with water because of high
moisture content, then the resistance to airflow increases. Cess oxygen reaches the micro
organisms and anaerobic activity begins to dominate 2Mahfoo> et al., 8((75.
According to Mahfoo> et al. 28((75 porosity is improved by a more uniform mix of ma
terial that provides continuity of air spaces, proper moisture to allow ade?uate free air
space and larger particles to increase the pore si>e and reduce the resistance to airflow.
Carger particles are desirable to promote the flow of air, but they also diminish the sur
face area of the particles.
MaFority of the microbial activity occurs on the surface of the compost particles within a
thin li?uid layer. $reater the amount of surface area exposed, the greater the amount of
decomposition 2Mahfoo> et al., 8((75.
TeD"u'e
/exture is the relative proportion of various particle si>es of a material and is descriptive
of the amount of surface area that is available to the microorganisms. /he finer the tex
ture, the greater the surface area exposed to microbial activity 2Su et al., 8((%5.
Page | '2
Minimi>ing the particle si>e by such methods as selection and grinding also increases the
overall surface area of the material in the pile that is exposed to microbial decomposition.
Structure refers to the ability of a particle to resist compaction and settling. It is a key
factor in establishing and maintaining porosity during the composting process 2Mahfoo>
et al., 8((75.
=oare, 26&<35 stated that Structure is important because even a mix that has all of the ne
cessary components may not be able to sustain rapid composting. If the pile begins to
settle and close off air spaces as the material decomposes, the compost process slows
down.
=ighly absorbent material tends to maintain better structure than less absorbent ones. /he
ideal particle si>e of the compost material must therefore be a compromise between max
imi>ing porosity, maximi>ing surface area and increasing structure 2=oare, 6&<35.
365469 C$!%$s" ?u&+i"/ P&'&!e"e's
A number of important compost parameters can also be determined by laboratory testing
some of which are as follows.
G'&#&"i$(
$radation or particle si>e is determined by passing the compost through a set of sieves
and then determining the weight fraction retained on each sieve si>e. -or turf or land
scape establishment all the particles should pass a oneinch screen with a minimum of
&(4 of the material by weight passing a U inch screen. Although fine textured compost
is generally preferred, excessive dust fraction 2particles less than '(( micron5 can cause
difficulties in handling and can also be an indication of low organic content 2)arlington,
8((65.
Page | '1
O'0&(i, C$("e("
!rganic matter is the measure of carbon based materials in the compost. =igh ?uality
compost will usually have a minimum of '(4 organic content based on dry weight. An
other means of expressing organic content is to list the weight of organic matter per unit
volume of compost. Most high ?uality composts will have a minimum of 8'( pounds of
organic material per cubic yard 2)arlington, 8((65.
C&'$( "$ Ni"'$0e( R&"i$
/he carbon to nitrogen ratio is a parameter used to determine if compost is nitrogen
stable. *omposts that are derived primarily from wood byproducts have high carbon to
nitrogen ratios unless additional nitrogen is added during the composting process.
,iosolids and manures generally have low carbon to nitrogen ratios since these materials
are nitrogen rich.
In general, a carbon to nitrogen ratio of %' or lower is preferred if the material is claimed
to be nitrogen stabili>ed. At higher carbon to nitrogen ratios, nitrogen can be tied as the
compost further decomposes. :itrogen is then less available to plant material, and high
levels of nitrogen fertili>ation are re?uired to maintain optimum plant colour and growth.
#roducts with low carbon to nitrogen ratios 2less than 8(5 can supply significant ?uantit
ies of nitrogen as they decompose 2)arlington, 8((65.
%H
p= is a numerical measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. /he p= scale ranges
from ( to 60 with a p= of 3 indicating neutrality. Most compost has a p= between 7 and
<. #roducts derived from wood residuals or peat moss can have p= values as low as 0.',
while manures are fre?uently alkaline 2p= <.(<.'5. Since specific plant species some
Page | '2
times prefer a specific p= range, knowledge of both soil and compost p= can be import
ant.
p= can be further adFusted through the use of such materials as lime 2to increase p=5 and
sulphur or iron sulphate 2to decrease p=5. *omposts with very low p= 2A0.(5 should be
used with caution since the low p= can be an indication or poor composting practices
which result in the formation of potentially toxic organic acids 2)arlington, 8((65.
S$+u+e S&+"s :S&+i(i"/;
Soluble salt concentration is the concentration of soluble ions in solution. It is usually ex
pressed as electrical conductivity 2dS9m5 of a saturated extract of either soil or compost.
Soluble salt levels in compost can vary considerably, depending on feed stock and pro
cessing. *ompost may therefore contribute to or dilute the accumulative soluble salt con
tent in the amended soil 2)arlington, 8((65.
Jnowledge of soil salinity, compost salinity, and plant tolerance to salinity is necessary
for the successful establishment of plant material. -or most turf and landscape plantings
the final salinity 2E*5 of the amended soil should be less than 0.( dS9m. =igher soluble
salt levels would likely re?uire leaching irrigations. Soluble nutrients, particularly po
tassium, calcium and nitrogen typically account for most of the salinity in compost
products. Sodium is an undesirable soluble salt. /his element should ideally account for
less than 8'4 of the total soluble salts in compost 2)arlington, 8((65.
M$is"u'e C$("e("
Moisture content should be between %'4 and 7(4. /he moisture content of compost af
fects its bulk density and therefore may affect transportation cost. Moisture content can
also affect product handling. *ompost which is too dry can be dusty and irritating to
Page | ''
work with while compost which is excessively wet can be heavy and difficult to uni
formly apply 2)arlington, 8((65.
C$("&!i(&("s
*ompost materials used for horticultural application should be as free as possible of inert
contaminants such as glass, metal and plastic 2)arlington, 8((65.
M&"u'i"/ &(# S"&i+i"/
Maturity is the degree to which the compost is free of organic phytotoxic substances that
can adversely affect seed germination or plant growth. Maturity and stability also relate
to the level of biological activity in compost. Stable compost consumes almost no nitro
gen or oxygen and generates little carbon dioxide or heat 2)arlington, 8((65.
Maturity and stability are difficult parameters to evaluate. #hysical characteristics that are
suggestive of mature compost include a dark brown to black colour and a soillike or
musty odour. /here should be little or no recogni>able grass or leaves. *ompost that has
a sour or putrid smell should not be accepted or if the pile becomes very hot after rewet
ting then the product is not stable 2)arlington, 8((65.
Nu"'ie(" C$("e("
Although the nutrient content of compost is low compared to synthetic fertili>er products,
compost is usually applied at greater rates and therefore nutrient contribution can be sig
nificant. /he most commonly re?uired nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
2)arlington, 8((65.
*omposts are often analysed for total and available nutrients. Good residuals have relat
ively low nutrient content. Manure products are typically high in phosphorous and po
Page | '4
tassium. Iard waste products are often high in potassium. Materials derived from bio
solids often have substantial nitrogen 2)arlington, 8((65.
He&*/ Me"&+ T'&,e E+e!e("s
=eavy metals are trace elements whose concentrations are regulated by the E#A due to
the potential for toxicity to humans, animals, and plants. .egulations governing the heavy
metal derived from specific feed stocks have been promulgated on both the State and
-ederal levels 2)arlington, 8((65.
/race elements referred to as heavy metals include arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper,
lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and >inc. Many of these elements are actu
ally needed by plants for normal growth. *ommercial compost producers are re?uired to
routinely test for heavy metals. /his data is usually available from compost producers
upon re?uest 2)arlington, 8((65.
Wee# &(# Dise&se
*ommercial production of compost usually entails high temperature aerated composting
which kills most weed seed along with diseases of animal and plant concern. *ompost
producers and users need to be careful not to reintroduce weed seed into compost prior to
use. If compost is properly processed, there has been very little evidence of plant disease
carry over. In fact, there has been considerable interest in the ability of compost to sup
press soilborne plant diseases 2)arlington, 8((65.
3655 EDis"i(0 S$+i# W&s"e M&(&0e!e(" C$(#i"i$(s
:o detailed data on waste types has been collected before September 8(6(, to facilitate
the design of a solid waste management plan for Aburi.
Page | '5
Some work has been done recently involving residential solid waste stream. /he total
?uantity of solid waste generated in the township is not known, neither is the rate at
which the waste is generated, collected or disposed off. Information available currently is
on residential solid waste generated which is mainly made up of organic 2food waste5,
plastic K rubber, metals K cans, paper K cardboard and glass waste.
Available information shows that organic waste tops the list of most generated solid
waste followed by packaging material such as plastic waste, paper waste, glass waste and
finally metal waste.
3653 G$*e'(!e(" Res%$(se "$ S$+i# W&s"e P'$+e!
/he government of $hana in her efforts to address the waste management problems
has developed various strategies and solutions which are still very relevant. /hese
measures include the following+
365365 P$+i,/, Le0&+ &(# I(s"i"u"i$(&+ F'&!e-$'.s
In an effort to address the problem of waste management, $overnment has over the
years put in place ade?uate national policies, regulatory and institutional frame
works. An Environmental Sanitation #olicy was formulated in 6&&&. /his policy has
currently been amended and strategic action plans developed for implementation.
Barious relevant legislations for the control of waste have also been enacted 2$ov
ernment of $hana, 8(6(5. /hese include the following
Cocal $overnment Act, 6&&( 2Act 07851
Environmental Assessment .egulations, 6&&& 2CI 67'851
*riminal *ode, 6&7( 2Act 8&51
Page | '#
Gater .esources *ommission Act, 6&&7 2Act '885
:ational ,uilding .egulations, 6&&7 2CI 67%(5.
In addition to the above policies and legislations, the Ministry of Environment, Sci
ence and /echnology, the E#A, Ministry of Cocal $overnment and .ural )evelop
ment and the Ministry of =ealth have prepared the following guidelines and stand
ards for waste management+
:ational Environmental Quality $uidelines 26&&<5
$hana Candfill $uidelines 28((85
Manual for the preparation of district waste management plans in $hana
28((85
$uidelines for the management of healthcare and veterinary waste in
$hana 28((85
=andbook for the preparation of )istrict level Environmental Sanitation
Strategies and Action #lans 2)ESSA#s5.
/he )istrict Assemblies are the key institutions responsible for the management of
sanitation and waste at the local and community level. /hey are however, supported
in this task by a number of other institutions and organi>ations 2$overnment of
$hana, 8(6(5.
-or instance, the Environmental #rotection Agency 2E#A5 gives technical support to
the )istrict Assemblies by setting environmental standards and guidelines on waste
management1 administration of Environmental Assessment .egulations1 undertaking
environmental education and awareness programs1 and monitoring environmental
?uality 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
$hana Environmental Assessment .egulations, 6&&& 2CI 67'85 make provisions for
existing undertakings, which are re?uired to submit Environmental Management
Page | '&
#lans. A :ational Environmental Sanitation #olicy *oordination *ouncil has been
established within the Ministry of Cocal $overnment and .ural )evelopment to
oversee to the implementation of the policy obFectives 2$overnment of $hana,
8(6(5.
365363 E(*i'$(!e("&+ E#u,&"i$( &(# A-&'e(ess C'e&"i$(
Barious capacity building programs, seminars and workshops have been organi>ed
and9or are still ongoing. -or example, the %'
th
Annual $eneral Meeting of the $hana
Institute of Engineers organi>ed lectures held in March 8((0 on NSanitation and
Gaste management in $hana+ Gay -orwardO1 the Inter-aith Gaste Management
Initiative V :ovember 60, 8((' etc.
All of these workshops came out with very practicable solutions to the waste man
agement menace, however, the evidence on the ground points to the fact that there is
still a lot to be done. A :ational Environmental Sanitation )ay has been established
and observed annually to sensiti>e the general public in keeping their environment
sound and clean 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
365368 W&s"e Re,$*e'/, Re,/,+i(0 &(# Reuse
Gaste recycling has become a viable economic option in the country despite the
considerable cost of collection. Gaste recycling technologies are being used by
some few industries to circumvent the need for treatment and the discharge and dis
posal of large volumes of waste and to reduce demand for raw materials, energy and
water 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
In many instances, these industries have found waste recycling as effective ways of
improving the economic competition of their products. -or example $uinness
Page | '-
2$hana5 Cimited, Jumasi, derives part of its revenue from the sale of yeast and
spent grain used as animal feed. =owever, most maFor industrial establishments still
practice very little recycling 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
$enerally, scavenging has often been considered a hindrance to municipal waste
disposal operations1 however they play a vital role in the waste recycling process.
Gays of officially incorporating scavengers into municipal waste operations should
be seriously considered. -or example, they can be designated as official usedmater
ials merchants and given training and status upgrading 2$overnment of $hana,
8(6(5.
365369 Fi(&(,i(0 W&s"e M&(&0e!e("
#oor national economic policies and poverty of the rural communities make finan
cial considerations one of the most obvious constraints to developing appropriate
waste management systems for the country. As the urban areas grow, they exhaust
the capacity of existing traditional disposal sites so that wastes must be transported
greater distances to sites outside the city. =ouseholders often complain of unsatis
factory or unreliable waste management services 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
As a result they often resist paying the charges levied and instead preferring to dis
pose by informal dumping. /he collection agencies have then less funding for their
services. /here is thus a clear need for more appropriate methodologies or financing
mechanisms for waste management 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
*urrently, it costs about six $hana *edis 2W7.((5 for every ton of waste collected in
Accra. /he private contractors provide containers to store the waste and see to it
Page | '/
that all wastes are cleared from the various points of collection 2$overnment of
$hana, 8(6(5.
=owever, because the AMA is not able to pay regularly for the refuse they collect,
they are also not able to maintain their trucks and as a result, most of them are
broken down leaving a lot of waste uncollected within the metropolis. /he Metropol
itan Assembly spends an amount of about W8'(,((( alone on solid waste manage
ment every month 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
36536< W&s"e M&(&0e!e(" P'$7e,"s &(# P'$0'&!s
Several waste management proFects and other related programs have been imple
mented and some still being implemented in the country. -or examples, the govern
ment of $hana with the support of the Gorld ,ank implemented different phases of
an Hrban )evelopment #roFect 2i.e. Hrban I, II, and III5 in the 6&&(s, and the NHrb
an Environmental Sanitation #roFect 2HES#5 6&&78(((O in Accra, Jumasi, /amale,
/akoradi and /ema including construction of sanitary infrastructure such as night
soil treatment plant and private toilets. )-I) also supported the NAccra Gaste Man
agement #roFectO designed to address wastewater and night soil treatment options in
the city. /he installed capacity of the plant was 66,(6( kg ,!)
'
per day e?uivalent to
888,(8( kg *!) 2biological organic load5 per day 2$overnment of $hana, 8(6(5.
CHAPTER THREE
Page | 42
864 Me"h$#$+$0/
/his involved both field work and laboratory work.
865 Fie+# -$'.
/he field work included studying the location of interest which aided in the design of a
system for the selection of candidate households, the distribution of bin bags, collection
of bin bags and the sorting of the collected waste.
86565 S"u#/ A'e&
/he town of Aburi is located on the Akuapim .idge 2'S'6:, (S66G5, with a population
of 6<,033 with an annual growth rate of 6.04. /he town is at an elevation of 0'3 meters
above sea level1 due to the altitude of Aburi it has a cool climate. /he town lies within the
wet semie?uatorial >one which is characteri>ed by double maxima rainfall in Eune and
!ctober 2Asubonteng, 8(6(5.
/he first rainy season is from May to Eune, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in Eune
while the second season is from September to !ctober, the relative humidity which is
high throughout the year varies between 3( V <(4 2Asubonteng, 8(6(5.
86563 Se+e,"i$( $) S&!%+e SiAe
A sample si>e of 0( households was selected and samples were taken 0 times on a weekly
basis from these households. /he survey of the whole population was not done for two
reasons1 the cost is too high, and the population is dynamic, in that the individuals mak
ing up the population may change over time through migration, births and deaths of indi
viduals. /he three main advantages of sampling is that the cost is lower, data collection is
Page | 41
faster and since the data set is smaller it is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve
the accuracy and ?uality of the data 2AdXr et al., 8((<5.
86568 Se+e,"i$( $) H$useh$+#s
/his was done by random sampling. /he study area comprises of % >ones namely Aburi
East 2AE5, Aburi :orth 2A:5, Aburi South 9Aburi Gest 2AS9AG5 based on the Electoral
>ones, 6% households including those residing in multifamily dwellings and single fam
ily dwellings were chosen in each >one using random sampling 2where house numbers
were written down on paper and mixed in a bag and selections made5.
#late %.6. Gaste disposed close to a residence
86569 Dis"'iu"i$(, C$++e,"i$( &(# S$'"i(0
Dis"'iu"i$(
Page | 42
/he sitespecific waste ?uantification method was used 2HSE#A, 6&&&5. All households
involved were provided with disposable bin bags of ' different colours of dimension 3'(
mm@&'( mm. Each coloured bag was labelled for a particular kind of waste as indicated
in /able %.6.
/able %.6. )ifferent coloured bin bags and their respective material group
C$+$u' M&"e'i&+ G'$u%
B+&,. !rganic 2-ood Gaste5
B+ue #lastic and .ubber
G'ee( Metals and *ans
O'&(0e #aper and *ardboard
Ye++$- $lass
.esidents were educated on the aim of the exercise and encouraged to help by participat
ing in the sampling exercise. /hey were provided with the necessary information to sort
out their waste according to the respective colours as indicated in /able %.6. /he incent
ive for participation was the free disposal of their household waste for 0 weeks.
C$++e,"i$(
/here was a 7 day interval between distribution of the bin bags and collection of the bin
bags. /he samples were collected over 0 consecutive weeks thus in all 0 samples were
taken. $arbage was picked up on Saturday mornings 2#late %.85.
Page | 4'
#late %.8+ *ollection of solid waste
S$'"i(0
/he waste was sorted by hand into the following categories1 organic 2food waste5, plastic
Krubber, paperK cardboard, metal K cans and glass. Each category was then weighed
2wet weight in kg5 using a S=EMA.H
Y
spring platform scale. /he collected waste was
hauled to the Akuapim South )istrict Assembly 2AS)A5 managed garbage dumpsite.
Page | 44
863 A##i"i$(&+ C&+,u+&"i$(s
86365 Pe' C&%i"& Ge(e'&"i$( $) W&s"e
/he formula stated below was used 2H:ES*A#, 8(6(51
Cap waste+ #er capita waste generation 2kg9 day5
HH waste+ Average waste generation of one household 2kg9day5
HH+ :umber of households surveyed
HM+ Average number of household members
86363 ED"'&%$+&"i$( $) "he A!$u("s $) "he W&s"e M&"e'i&+ G'$u%s
/he formula stated below was used 2H:ES*A#, 8(6(5
A+ Average waste generation of the entire township 2kg9day5
Cap waste+ #er capita waste generation 2kg9 day5
#+ Entire #opulation
Page | 45
86368 P'$7e,"i$( $) W&s"e "$ Be Ge(e'&"e# I( The Fu"u'e
*ompound rate of growth method of population proFection 2H:ES*A#, 8(6(5
P
n:
#opulation of re?uisite year
P
o
+ #opulation in the current year
A
n
+ Average waste generation of the /ownship 2kg9day5
n+ :umber of intermediary years
.+ .ate of $rowth
868 S"&"is"i,&+ D&"& A(&+/sis
/he data compiled was analysed using the Minitab statistical software 2version 6'.6.%5
and Microsoft Excel 2version 605. All data compiled on selected waste material groups
were analysed using descriptive statistics to determine the mean, standard deviation, min
imum and maximum values and percentage composition. .esults were presented in
tables, charts and figures.
869 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ A(&+/sis
Analysis was conducted on two samples1 the organic 2food waste5 fraction of the garbage
and the product of composting the organic fraction as shown in /able %.8. After the de
Page | 4#
termination of the moisture content of the garbage, the sample was dried and milled for
further analysis. All analysis was conducted in triplicate.
T&+e 8636 P&'&!e"e's "$ e !e&su'e# e)$'e &(# &)"e' ,$!%$s"i(0
SAM#CE #A.AME/E.
Be)$'e ,$!%$s"i(0 Moisture *ontent, /otal :itrogen, /otal *arbon K p=.
A)"e' ,$!%$s"i(0 /otal :itrogen, /otal *arbon, p=, #otassium, #hosphorus.
86965 M$is"u'e C$("e("
/he moisture content of a grab sample of the feed stock and unsorted garbage 2food
waste Kpackaging material5 were determined as follows1
/he particle si>e of the waste was reduced by cutting with a knife. A grab sample of the
si>ereduced waste was weighed and recorded as wet weight of sample. /he sample was
then dried to a constant weight in an oven at a temp of 6(' S*. /he sample was allowed
to cool in a dry atmosphere after which the sample was weighed again and recorded as
dry weight of sample 2)elaware )epartment of /ransportation, 8((&5.
/he *alculation is1
%W Z #ercentage of moisture in the sample,
A Z Geight of wet sample 2grams5,
B Z Geight of dry sample 2grams5
Page | 4&
86963 T$"&+ Ni"'$0e( C$("e("
/he JFeldahl method was adopted, at the end of digestion, all organic and inorganic salts
were converted into ammonium form, which was distilled and estimated by titration us
ing standard acid 2Motsara K .oy, 8((<5.
The P'$,e#u'e
!ne gram of the feed stock was placed in a JFeldahl flask and (.3 g of copper sulphate,
6.' g of J
8
S!
0
and %( ml of =
8
S!
0
was added. /he sample was gently heated until the
frothing ceased. /he solution was boiled briskly until it became clear and then digestion
was continued for %( more minutes. /he flask was then removed from the heater and al
lowed to cool after which '(ml of water was added and transferred to a distilling flask.
8( ml of standard acid 2(.6M =*l5 was placed in the receiving conical flask such that
there was an excess of at least 'ml of the acid. % drops of methyl red indicator was added
to the acid and enough water was added to cover the end of the condense outlet tubes.
/ap water was then run through the condenser.
%( ml of %'4 :a!= was added in the distilling flask such that the contents did not mix.
/he contents of the flask were heated for about %(0' minutes to distil the ammonia. /he
receiving flask was removed and the outlet tube rinsed into the receiving flask with a
small amount of distilled water. Excess acid was titrated in the distillate with (.6M
:a!=. ,lank on reagents were determined using the same ?uantity of standard acid in a
receiving conical flask.
Page | 4-
The C&+,u+&"i$(
Ghere+
V1 V millilitres of standard acid put in receiving flask for samples1
V2 V millilitres of standard :a!= used in titration1
V3 V millilitres of standard acid put in receiving flask for blank1
V4 V millilitres of standard :a!= used in titrating blank1
M1 V molarity of standard acid1
M2 V molarity of standard :a!=1
W V Geight of sample taken 26 g51
dfV dilution factor of sample 26((5.
86968 T$"&+ O'0&(i, C&'$(
/he loss of Geight on Ignition method was used 2MotsaraK .oy, 8((<5.
The P'$,e#u'e
!ne gram of milled feed stock was weighed into an ashing vessel of known weight and
placed in a muffle furnace set at 0'(S* and ashed for 0 hours. /he crucible was removed
from the furnace and placed in a dry atmosphere for it to cool after which it was weighed
to the nearest (.(6 g 2Motsara K .oy, 8((<5.
/he percentage of organic carbon is given by+
Page | 4/
Ghere
W1 is the weight of crucible1
W2 is the weight of Ash and crucible
.
86969 %H $) G&'&0e
The P'$,e#u'e
/he p= meter was calibrated using two buffer solutions, the first buffer solution chosen
had a p= of 3.( and the second had a p= of &.(.
/he buffer solutions were put in beakers and the electrodes of the p= meter was inserted
into the beakers of buffer solutions alternately whiles adFusting the p= meter until it in
dicated the p= as per the buffer solutions 2Motsara K .oy, 8((<5.
'.( g of a milled sample of the feed stock was placed into a 8' ml of distilled water and
then the sample was allowed to absorb the water without stirring and then thoroughly
stirred for 6( seconds using a glass rod. /he suspension was then stirred for %( minutes
and the p= recorded using the calibrated p= meter 2Motsara K .oy, 8((<5.
Page | 52
8696< Ph$s%h$'us
Spectrophotometric vanadium phosphomolybdate method was used where the #hosphor
us 2#5 content of the compost sample is converted to orthophosphates by digestion with
an acid mixture 2diacid or triacid5, after which the digested sample was used for # es
timation 2Motsara K .oy, 8((<5.
The P'$,e#u'e
Standard solutions 2'( [g #9ml5 of (, 6, 8, %, 0, ' and 6( ml were put in '(ml volumetric
flasks. 6( ml of vanadomolybdate reagent was added to each flask to make up the
volume. /he # contents that were in the flasks were (, 6, 8, %, 0, ' and 6( [g #9ml, re
spectively. /he standard curve was prepared by measuring these concentrations on a
spectrophotometer 203( nm5 and the corresponding absorbanceMs recorded.
!ne g of milled feed stock was taken and digested as per the wet digestion method and
the volume was made up to 6(( ml. ' ml of digest was put in a '( ml volumetric flask
and 6(ml of vanadomolybdate reagent was added. /he volume was made up with dis
tilled water and shook thoroughly and it was allowed to sit for %( minutes after which a
yellow colour developed, which was read on the spectrophotometer at 03( nm. /he #
content was determined from the standard curve for the observed absorbance.
The C&+,u+&"i$(
Page | 51
Ghere1
4 # Z # content 2g5 in 6(( g sample
* Z concentration of # 2[g9ml5 as read from the standard curve1
df Z dilution factor, which is 6(( @ 6( Z 6 (((, as calculated below+
6 g of sample made to 6(( ml 26(( times51
' ml of sample solution made to '( ml 26( times5.
6 ((( ((( Z factor for converting [g to g.
8696= P$"&ssiu!
/he Atomic Absorption Spectrometer 2AAS5 method was used to estimate the amount of
potassium present in the sample after the sample was aciddigested 2Motsara K .oy,
8((<5.
The P'$,e#u'e
/he AAS was standardi>ed using the relevant parameters for potassium estimation which
are stated below1
Camp current Z 7 m AS
Gavelength Z 377.' nm
Cinear range Z (.0V6.' [g9ml
Slit width Z (.' nm
Integration time Z 8 seconds
-lame Z air acetylene
Page | 52
A standard curve was prepared using (, ', 6(, 6' and 8( [g J9ml. 6 g of feed stock was
digested in acid and made up to 6(( ml by the addition of water. /he sample was kept in
the range of 'V6( mg J9kg 2'V6( [g J9ml5 by further diluting as appropriate. A blank
was prepared in the same way without adding compost digested material. An ali?uot of '
ml was taken as estimation and made up to 6(( ml. /he samples were atomi>ed on the
calibrated AAS on which the standard curve had also been prepared. /he absorbance of
each sample was recorded. /he standard curve was then used to note the concentrations
of potassium for the particular absorbance observed for the sample.
/he relevant calculation is+
Ghere1
J4 Z J content 2g5 in 6(( g sample
* Z concentration of J 2[g9ml5 as read from the standard curve1
df Z dilution factor, which is 6(( @ 8( Z 8 (((, as calculated below+
6 g of sample made to 6(( ml 26(( times51
' ml of sample solution made to 6(( ml 28( times5.
6 ((( ((( Z factor for converting [g to g.
86< He&*/ Me"&+ A(&+/sis
Analysis was carried out on the finished product 2compost5 to determine if it meets the
standard ?uality to make it safe to be used as a soil conditioner.
Page | 5'
,efore digestion to analyse heavy metals, the compost sample was dried at 7' S* for 0<
hours. /he digestion method applied was the nitric acid digestion method. /he method
was done in triplicate
86<65 Ni"'i, A,i# Di0es"i$(
!ne gram of sample was placed in a 8'( ml digestion tube and 6( ml of concentrated
=:!
%
was added. /he sample was heated for 0' min at &(S*, and then the temperature
was increased to 6'(S* at which the sample was boiled for at least < hours until a clear
solution was obtained. *oncentrated =:!
%
was added to the sample 2' ml was added at
least three times5 and digestion occurred until the volume was reduced to about 6 ml.
/he interior walls of the tube were washed down with a little distilled water and the tube
was swirled throughout the digestion to keep the wall clean and prevent the loss of the
sample. After cooling, ' ml of 64 =:!
%
was added to the sample. /he solution was
filtered with Ghitman :o. 08 filter paper and A(.0' lm Millipore filter paper. It was
then transferred ?uantitatively to a 8' ml volumetric flask by adding distilled water.
86= He&*/ !e"&+ &(&+/sis
/he concentrations of =g, *u, #b and Pn in the final solutions were determined by an
atomic absorption spectrometer 2AAS5 2=itachi P<6((, Eapan5.
86> Mi,'$i$+$0i,&+ A(&+/sis
Page | 54
Analysis was carried out on the finished product 2compost5 to determine if it meets the
standard ?uality to make it safe to be used as a soil conditioner.
/he most probable number method 2M#:5 was used to determine total, E. coli and faecal
coliforms in the sample.
86>65 F&e,&+ C$+i)$'!s
Serial dilutions of 6(
6
to 6( were prepared by picking 6 ml of sample into & ml of sterile
distilled water. !ne millimetre ali?uots from each of the dilutions were inoculated into '
ml of Maconkey ,roth with inverted )urham tubes and incubated at %' \* for total coli
forms and 00 \* for faecal coliforms for 6<80 hours.
/ubes showing colour change from purple to yellow and gas collected in the )urham
tubes after 80 hours were identified as positive for both total and faecal coliforms. *ounts
per 6(( ml were calculated from Most #robable :umber 2M#:5 tables.
3.7.2 E. coli
-rom each of the positive tubes identified a drop was transferred into a ' ml test tube of
trypton water and incubated at 00 \* for 80 hours. A drop of JovacsM reagent was then
added to the test tube of trypton water. All tubes showing a red ring colour development
after gentle agitation denoted the presence of indole and recorded as presumptive for
thermo tolerant coliforms 2E.coli5. *ounts per 6(( ml were calculated from Most #rob
able :umber 2M#:5 tables.
Page | 55
86B C$!%$s"i(0
/he organic solid waste 2food waste5 was collected from 67 households randomly as the
material to be used for the composting process. /he total wet weight of waste composted
was 666.& kg.
/he windrow method of composting was employed where the organic material was
heaped on the bare ground under the shade of trees 2,asnayake, 8((65.
#late %.%. =eap of decomposing organic matter under the dense shade of trees
/he windrow was mechanically stirred every evening after the temperature had been read
and occasionally watered when moisture content reduced below the optimal level for mi
crobial activity. /he moisture content was estimated based on a rule of thumb that states
that a mixture of organic wastes that contains '( per cent moisture feels damp to the
touch but is not soggy 2=ansen et al., 6&&'5.
/he temperature of the pile of compost was recorded 2at the centre of the heap5 using a
.ay /emp %] noncontact infrared thermometer twice daily1 7 am and 7 pm respect
Page | 5#
ively from which an average daily temperature was calculated. /he compost heap which
took the form of a cone was measured weekly for its height and base circumference used
to compute the volume of the compost remaining weekly.
/he volume was calculated using the following e?uation
V Z Bolume
Z .adius
H Z=eight
86B65 D&"& A(&+/sis
Microsoft Excel version 60 was used in the analysis of the data on the change in temper
ature and volume of the compost pile. .esults were presented in graphs, tables and fig
ures.
Page | 5&
CHAPTER FOUR
964 Resu+"s
#resented in this chapter are the results of data that was collected during waste character
isation, the fractions obtained were organic, paper, plastic, glass and metal as well as the
results of composting the organic fraction of the solid waste collected during the solid
waste characterisation which are represented in tables and figures below. Also presented
in this chapter is a waste management plan developed for Aburi.
965 W&s"e Ch&'&,"e'is&"i$(
96565 W&s"e C$!%$si"i$(
-igure 0.6 below represents the percentages of the various waste types generated daily.
Fi0u'e 9656 Aburi .esidential MSG *omposition
Page | 5-
/he largest ?uantity of waste generated per households was organic waste 23(45, fol
lowed by plastic waste at 674 then next in line was paper waste at 74 followed by glass
waste at '4 and metal waste being the least generated with %4.
-igure 0.8 below shows the mean amounts of waste types generated daily per household.
Fi0u'e 9636 Mean amounts of .esidential MSG generated per day per household 2kg5.
/he waste type that was generated the most per household per day was organic waste
2(.'67 kg5 followed by plastic waste 2(.663 kg5 and then paper at 2(.(0' kg5 and glass
waste 2(.(0( kg5 and with metal waste trailing at (.(87 kg.
/able 0.6 below shows the per capita generation of the various waste types
T&+e 9686 Pe' ,&%i"& 0e(e'&"i$( $) -&s"e $) "he "$-( $) Au'i
W&s"e T/%e Me&( %e's$(
-5
.0@-ee.
O'0&(i, W&s"e (.(36<3
P+&s"i, W&s"e (.(6787
Me"&+ W&s"e (.((%''
P&%e' W&s"e (.((788
G+&ss W&s"e (.(('''
Page | 5/
Every individual in each of the households generates a mean of (.(38 kg9day of organic
waste followed by plastic waste with (.(67 kg9day then paper waste with (.((7 kg9day
followed by glass waste at (.((7 kg9day with metal waste trailing with (.((0 kg9day.
-igure 0.% below represents the amounts of waste generated by the entire population per
day.
Fi0u'e 968. .esidential MSG generated per day by the entire population 2kg5
)aily the entire population generates more organic waste than any other waste type
26%83.&0 kg5 followed by plastic waste 2%((.00 kg5 and then paper 2660.&% kg5 followed
by glass waste 26(8.'' kg5 and with metal waste trailing at 7'.'& kg.
Page | #2
-igure 0.0 below represents daily production of waste to be generated in the short, medi
um and long term.
Fi0u'e 9696 .esidential MSG to be generated in the short, medium and long term
In the next five years the largest amount of waste to be generated by the entire population
daily would be organic waste with an amount of 608%.'% kg followed by plastic waste
with an amount of %88.(7 kg then paper waste with an amount of 660.&% kg followed by
glass waste with an amount of 6(8.'' kg and metal waste trailing with 7'.'& kg.
/he amount of waste to be generated in the medium term by the entire population daily
would be organic waste with an amount of 67%'.<% kg followed by plastic waste with an
amount of %3(.(&0 kg then paper waste with an amount of 606.'3 kg followed by glass
waste with an amount of 687.%8 kg and metal waste trailing with <(.<( kg.
/he amount of waste to be generated in the long term by the entire population daily
would be organic waste with an amount of 6<3&.<% kg followed by plastic waste with an
amount of 08'.%( kg then paper waste with an amount of 678.7& kg followed by glass
waste with an amount of 60'.63 kg and metal waste trailing with &8.<' kg.
Page | #1
963 C$!%$s"i(0
96365 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ A(&+/sis $) Fee# S"$,.
/able 0.8 below shows results of physicochemical analysis carried out on the feed stock
before composting.
T&+e 9696 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ &(&+/sis %e')$'!e# $( "he )ee# s"$,. use# )$' ,$!%$s"i(0
,$!%&'e# -i"h 'e,$!!e(#e# +e*e+s / "he USEPA.
P&'&!e"e' V&+ue Mi( M&D Re,$!!e(#e#
Le*e+s
%H '.<73 ; (.('< '.<((( '.&((( :eutral
M$is"u'e :E; 7&.7%4 ; (.('3 7&.7'( 37.7<( 7(
C&'$( :E; 00.%84 ; (.(8%6 00.('( 00.0'( 8(0(
Ni"'$0e( :E; 6.6&4 ; (.(%' 6.67(( 6.8%(( 6
C@N '&"i$ %3.80 ; (.77 %7.'< %3.&( 86+6 0(+6
/he feed stock had a p= of '.<73 ; (.('< with a moisture content of 7&.7%4 ; (.('3. It
had carbon content of 00.%84 ; (.(8%6 and a nitrogen content of 6.6&4 ; (.(%' in addi
tion to a *9: ratio of %3.80.
96363 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ A(&+/sis
/able 0.% below shows results of physiological analysis performed on the compost.
T&+e 96<6 Resu+"s $) %h/si,$,he!i,&+ Analysis carried out on the ,$!%$s"
a. $otaas, 6&'7 b. Gorld ,ank ,6&&3

Page | #2
Te!% 2\*5 %H CFN C E N E P E KE
C$!%$s" 83.0<; 0.%& B6=>G(.('3
3
B86>G<464 95644G(.8'( 469CG(.(('3
3
464BG(.((( 464>G(.(((
Mi( 88.8'( <.7((( 886>4 0(.3'( (.0&((( (.(<(((( (.(3((((
M&D 0(.6(( <.3((( 5886> 06.8'( (.'(((( (.(<(((( (.(3((((
.ecommended levels B64 88
b
B-<4
&
469-86<
&
468-86<
&
46<-56B
&
/he compost is moderately alkaline with a p= value of <.73. /he amount of nitrogen left
after composting is (.0& 4. /he remaining carbon after composting is 06.(( 4 and
the amount of potassium and phosphorus present is (.(34 and (.(<4 respectively.
/able 0.0 below represents the comparison of carbon, nitrogen and *+ : ratio before and
after composting.
T&+e 96=6 C$!%&'is$( $) ,&'$(, (i"'$0e( &(# CF N '&"i$ e)$'e &(# &)"e' ,$!%$s"i(0
%H C&'$( Ni"'$0e( CFN R&"i$
A)"e' ,$!%$s"i(0 <.73 06.((4 (.0&4 <%.3
/he p= before composting was '.<73 but after composting the p= increased to <.73.
,efore composting the amount of carbon was 00.%84 but after composting the amount of
carbon reduced to 06.((4. /he amount of nitrogen before composting was 6.6&4 but
after composting it reduced to (.0&4. Initial *+ : ratio was %3.80 but after composting it
increased to <%.3.
968 He&*/ Me"&+ A(&+/sis
/able 0.' below summarises the means of selected heavy metals analysed to determine
compost ?uality.
T&+e 96>F Se+e,"e# he&*/ !e"&+s &(&+/se# "$ #e"e'!i(e ,$!%$s" 1u&+i"/
He&*/ Me"&+s
Cu H0 P Z(
V&+ues :%%!; 8.73;(.'%3 <8.60;%.(6 0(.'7;6.80' (.3';(.868
Mi(i!u! 8.8&( <(.(6 %&.7<( (.7((
M&Di!u! %.('( <0.87 06.00( (.&((
P'$%$se# s"&(#&'#s i( #e*e+$%i(0 ,$u("'ies :%%!;
<( 6 6'( %((
a. Gorld bank, 6&&3
*opper 2*u5

gave a value of 8.73;(.'%3 with a min max range of 8.8&( %.('(.
Page | #'
Mercury 2=g5

gave a value of <8.60;%.(6 with a min max range of <(.(6 <0.87.
Cead 2#b5

gave a value of 0(.'7;6.80' with a min max range of %&.7<( 06.00(.
Pinc 2Pn5

gave a value of (.3';(.868 with a min max range of (.7(( (.&((
969 Mi,'$i$+$0i,&+ A(&+/sis
/able 0.7 below shows the results of the microbiological analysis performed on the com
post.
T&+e 96B6 Mi,'$i$+$0i,&+ &(&+/sis $) ,$!%$s" "$ #e"e'!i(e 1u&+i"/
V&+ue S"&(#&'#
F&e,&+ ,$+i)$'!s@544 !+ CFU %&'&!e"e' 8.0@6(
%
A 6(((
E ,$+i@544 !+ CFU 0.%@6(
6
A %
a. *anadian *ouncil of Ministers of the Environment,8(('
/he results of the microbial analysis indicated the levels of faecal coliforms and E.
coli as 8.0@6(
%
9 6(( ml *-H, 0.%@6(
6
9 6(( ml *-H respectively.
Page | #4
96< C$!%$s"i(0 Pe')$'!&(,e
96<65 Te!%e'&"u'e P&""e'(s
-igure 0.' below represents the temperature variation experienced during compost
ing.
Fi0u'e 96<6 /emperature profile during composting
/he first temperature recorded was %'S* then it declined to 8&S* then increased to
%'S* again then the temperature declined to 83.3S* before increasing up to 0(.6S*
in the first five days of composting, and then it plunged to 8&.%S*. -rom day & tem
peratures increased steadily to %7S* over the next two days followed by a reduction
to 8<.6'S*. !ver the next couple of days the temperature increased to %%.&S* and
fell to a record low of 8'S* after ' days. /he temperature began stabili>ing from the
86
th
day and ended at 88.3'S* on the %'
th
day.
Page | #5
-igure 0.7 below shows the gradual reduction in volume experienced during com
posting.
Fi0u'e 96=6 Bolume of windrow per week
Bolume reduced progressively, starting at 6(( 4 in the first week then reduced to
7<.834 then to '(.%64 followed by %'.684 then 88.3%4 and finally stabili>ed at
66.%<4 in the sixth week.
Page | ##
CHAPTER FIVE
<64 Dis,ussi$(
<65 W&s"e Ch&'&,"e'is&"i$(
<6565 O'0&(i, W&s"e :)$$# -&s"e;
!rganic waste was the largest fraction of the sampled household waste generated daily
23(45, this is consistent with the trend that countries located in the Gest African .egion
generate organic 2food waste5 more than the other wastes types 2Silva, et al., 8((75.
!rganic waste makes up the largest fraction of the sampled household waste because still
widespread in many developing countries is the buying of unprocessed food to be pre
pared and cooked at home, thus generating a significant amount of putrescible waste. In
contrast, people in developed countries often buy processed, readytoeat food, leading to
a lower representation of food waste in =SG but a higher percentage of packaging mater
ials such as paper, plastics, metals and glass 2,ernache#Lre> et al., 8((65.
!rganic waste is mainly composed of kitchen waste materials such as vegetables, fruits,
food leftovers, etc. /he high proportion of food and plant waste is due to the fact that
$hanaMs economy largely depends on agricultural products for export and domestic con
sumption 2Anomanyo, 8((05.
<6563 P+&s"i, H P&%e'
#lastics waste 26745 was the second largest waste form generated after organic waste1
this is not consistent with the trend in countries within the Gest African .egion. Accord
ing to Silva Alves, et al. 28((75 in Gest Africa plastic waste usually comes third to or
ganic waste.
Page | #&
#aper makes up 74 of the household garbage generated1 this is not consistent with the
trend that the Gest African .egion generates a higher percentage of paper waste 2Silva
Alves et al., 8((75.
Also it can be noted that the percentage of paper in the waste 2745 is relatively low com
pared with plastic waste 26745, this is due to the fact that plastics rather than paper is
widely used in packaging. It is less likely that residential solid waste contains significant
proportions of office9commercial waste that consists almost entirely of paper and card
board 2Iang et al., 8(('5.
#aper waste included all paper products 2printed or plain paper, newspapers and note
books5, all types of corrugated and noncorrugated carton boxes and packages, etc.
#lastic waste was composed mainly of packaging, plastic products, hard and flexible
plastic household items, #E/ bottles.
<6568 Me"&+
Metals formed %4 of household garbage generated1 this is in agreement with the work
done by Silva Alves, et al. 8((7 which indicated that the Gest African .egion has metal
being the least of the MSG generated.
Most of the waste consisted of tincans used to package processed foods which were not
much because in developing countries the buying of unprocessed food to be prepared at
home is a common practice as pointed out by ,ernache#Lre> et al 28((65.
Page | #-
<6569 G+&ss
/he glass waste mainly consisted of beer bottles, li?uor bottles, medicine, and other
beverage and Fuice bottles. Although broken glass bottles were also observed, most of the
glass bottles were not broken.
Even though households were specifically asked not to refuse to give any recyclable
waste materials at home during the survey period1 few unbroken bottles were observed in
the samples suggesting that recyclables were in fact removed from the sample waste
stream for reuse or for sale. /his may account for the amount of glass waste.
/he articles of glass collected over the 0 weeks were not many but it weighed more be
cause the density of glass is high and according to the laws of physics the density of a
material is directly proportional to its mass hence the reason for the weight of glass col
lected during the survey.
<63 C$!%$s"i(0
<6365 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ A(&+/sis $) Fee# S"$,.
/he p= was moderately acidic because of lactic acid production as the food wastes un
derwent fermentation during the one week in storage, because according to Iang et al
28(('5 food wastes are typically wet and contain high levels of fermentable carbo
hydrate.
/he moisture content and carbon was high for both samples because food wastes are usu
ally wet and contain high levels of carbohydrate 2Iang et al., 8(('5. /he amount of nitro
gen containing wastes is small as their diet is dominated by carbohydrates such as
Page | #/
plantain, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potatoes, mai>e and rice, this therefore accounts for
why the *9: ratio is high.
<6363 Ph/si,$,he!i,&+ A(&+/sis $) C$!%$s"
%H
/he sample is moderately alkaline as compared to the initial reading which indicated a
moderately acidic sample, p= drops during initial stages of composting as a result of the
activity of acidforming bacteria which break down complex carbohydrate material 2poly
saccharides and cellulose5 to organic acid fermentation intermediates under anaerobic
conditions 2=ansen et al., 6&&'5.
/he microorganisms that produce the acids also can utili>e them as food after higher oxy
gen concentrations are established. /his typically occurs within a few days after the most
readily biodegradable substances have been destroyed. /he net effect is that the p= be
gins to rise after a few days. /he rise continues until a level of 3.' to &.( is reached, and
the mass becomes alkaline 2=ansen et al., 6&&'5.
T$"&+ Ni"'$0e(
:itrogen is reduced as a result of its conversion to ammonia during the composting pro
cess. )ue to the nature of the process, aerobic composting usually leads to the loss of at
least some nitrogen. /he loss is associated with high temperatures, low moisture content
and eventual alkaline conditions that are attained during the process 2=ansen et al.,
6&&'5. /hese above discussed conditions could have resulted in the decrease in the
amount of nitrogen in the compost.
Page | &2
C&'$(
/he amount of carbon left in the compost sample is smaller than the amount of car
bon in the waste sample before composting started, because the carbon serves both
as a source of energy and as an element in the cell protoplasm, much more carbon
than nitrogen is needed.
$enerally, organisms respire about twothirds of the carbon they consume as *!
8
,
while the other third is combined with nitrogen in the living cells 2Gashington
State HniversityGhatcom *ounty Extension, 8(('5.
Ph$s%h$'us &(# P$"&ssiu!
/he levels of phosphorus and potassium in the compost sample was low because accord
ing to literature plant residue which is generally known to have low levels of plant nutri
ents which includes phosphorus and potassium is what was used as the feed stock for the
compost 2)arlington, 8((65.
He&*/ Me"&+ A(&+/sis
/he levels of *u, #b, Pn were satisfactory because they fell below the recommended
amounts that is deemed safe for use whiles =g level was way above acceptable levels.
/hese levels in heavy metals must have been a result of the source of the food stuffs from
which the waste was produced 2,odSch, 6&&<5 2Eournal of PheFiang Hniversity Science
,, 8((35.
Mi,'$i$+$0i,&+ A(&+/sis
/he results of the microbial analysis was not satisfactory because the test for E. coli
and faecal coliform were below the recommended values for which compost is
deemed fit for use as a soil conditioner which is in line with the standards that the
Page | &1
*alifornia )epartment of .esources .ecycling and .ecovery 2*al .ecycle5, 8((0
stated.
<6368 C$!%$s"i(0 Pe')$'!&(,e
Te!%e'&"u'e P&""e'(s #u'i(0 C$!%$s"i(0
/he temperature increase that occurred during composting process resulted from the
breakdown of organic material by bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and proto>oa. =ansen
et al., 26&&'5 mentioned that the microorganisms decompose 2oxidi>e5 organic matter,
heat is generated and the temperature of the compost rises as a result.
/emperatures sometimes dropped intermittently during the period of composting until
maturation initiated at day 87, this could have been as a result of low moisture content of
the compost medium which could have occurred during decomposition which in turn re
duced microbial activity 2=ansen et al., 6&&'5.
Ch&(0es i( V$+u!e $) C$!%$s" He&%
/he steady reduction in the volume of the food waste was as a result of the reduction of
the carbon in the food waste into *!
8
into the atmosphere as a byproduct of the process
of decomposition by the responsible microorganisms. /he volume became constant after
decomposition was complete because all available carbon had been exhausted.
Page | &2
CHAPTER SII
=64 C$(,+usi$( &(# Re,$!!e(#&"i$(s
=65 C$(,+usi$(
/he obFective to characterise the solid waste of Aburi as well as composting the
organic fraction of the waste was accomplished.
1. !rganic waste is the most abundant waste type and metal waste is the least in
terms of the ?uantity of waste generated.
2. *ompost matures within %' days of composting the feed stock. /he study showed
that the compost was of low ?uality because of a high *9: ratio and high levels of
mercury, low levels of potassium and phosphorus, and high levels of faecal coli
form and E. coli after composting.
=63 Re,$!!e(#&"i$(s
Page | &'
.esearch findings and pertinent conclusions has led to the following recommendations.
1. /he segregation of the waste types at source using bin bags of different col
ours was a success hence it is recommend for waste to be segregated at
source.
2. *ocomposting research studies should be done in Aburi to compensate for
the high *9 : ratio.
'. /he municipal Assembly should consider the waste management plan in their
effort to manage waste in the district.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Page | &4
AdXr, =., Mellenbergh, $., K =and, ). 28((<5. Advising on research methods+ A
consultantTs companion. =ui>en, /he :etherlands+ Eohannes van Jessel #ublish
ing.
Anomanyo, E. ). 28((05. Integration of municipal solid waste management in
Accra 2$hana5+ bioreactor treatment technology as an integral part of the manage
ment process. Cund Hniversity.
Asubonteng, *. J. 28(6(5. )emographics of Aburi. 2personal communication5
,asnayake, ,. 28((65. Municipal solid waste 2MSG5 for organic. Annual Session
of the :ational Agricultural Society of Sri Canka on ^!rganic Agriculture+ /rends
and *hallenges and A$M.
,ernache#Lre>, $., S_nche>*ol`n, S., $armendia, A. M., )_vilaBillarreal, A.,
K S_nche>Sala>ar, M. E. 28((65. Solid waste characterisation study in the
$uadalaFara Metropolitan Pone, Mexico. Gaste Management K .esearch,
06%080.
,ernal, M., *egarra, E., Sanche>Monedero, M., K #aredes, *. 28((&5. *ompost
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,iddlestone, A., $ray, J., K )ay, *. 26&<35. In *. -oster, K ). Gaste, In Envir
onmental ,iotechnology 2p. 6%75. *hichester, HJ.
,light, $., -ourie, A., Shamrock, E., Mbande, *., K Morris, E. 26&&&5. /he Effects
of *limate and Gaste *omposition on Ceachate and $as Quality+ a *ase Study in
South Africa. Gaste Management and .esearch, 63, 68060(.
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,runner, #., K Ernst, G. 26&<75. Alternative Methods for the Analysis of MSG.
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,runner, #., K Schackermayer, E. 26&&05. *ommonwealth E#A 6&&8, :ational
Gaste Minimisation and .ecycling Strategy, *E#A, *anberra.
,undes,odenschut>verordnung. 26&&<5. 2-ederal Soil #rotection .ule5 in
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*ontributors, Gikipedia. 28(685
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*ontributors, Gikipedia. 28(685
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*hapman, ). 28(('5. )ead ,ird *omposting+ -inal .eport for *ontract HS)A
0% 8)<6 V 6 '76.
)arlington, G. 28((65. Soil and #lant Caboratory Inc., from Soil and #lant Cabor
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8.pdf, .etrieved !ctober 87, 8(6(.
Eldridge, .. 26&&'5. )evelopment of a *omposting .ecipe for Swine. Soil *on
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)epartment of Agriculture.
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-obil, E. 28((65. -actors to be considered in the )esign of an Integrated Municipal
Solid Gaste Management in the Accra Metropolis. M #hil /hesis, Hniversity !f
$hana.
$otass, =.,. 26&'75. *omposting VSanitary disposal and reclamation of organic
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<, 8(6(
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-ebruary 67, 8(68.
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ber 8(, 8(6(.
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September <, 8(6(.
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0, 8(66.
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Page | &/
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-ebruary 63, 8(68.
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APPENDICES
APPENDII A
W&s"e M&(&0e!e(" P+&( )$' Au'i
EDis"i(0 S$+i# W&s"e M&(&0e!e(" C$(#i"i$(s
Page | -2
:o detailed data on waste types has been collected before September 8(6(, to facilitate
the design of a solid waste management plan for Aburi.
Some work has been done recently involving residential solid waste stream. /he total
?uantity of solid waste generated in the township is not known, neither is the rate at
which the waste is generated, collected or disposed off. Information available currently is
on residential solid waste generated which is mainly made up of organic 2food waste5,
plastic K rubber, metals K cans, paper K cardboard and glass waste.
Available information shows that organic waste tops the list of most generated solid
waste followed by packaging material such as plastic waste, paper waste, glass waste and
finally metal waste 2-igure 0.35. /he #er capita generation of the various waste materials
is as indicated in the 2/able 0.35. -uture proFections show exponential increase in popula
tion and its corresponding increase in solid waste 2-igure 0.<5.
T&+e 46C6 #er capita generation of the various waste materials
Material $roup Mean kg9day per person Mean kg9day per township
!rganic 2-ood Gaste5 (.(36<3 6%83.&08
#lastic Krubber (.(6787 %((.0%7
Metals K cans (.((%'' 7'.'&%%'
#aper K cardboard (.((788 660.&87&
$lass (.(('''
6(8.'030
Page | -1
Fi0u'e 46>6 Aburi .esidential MSG *omposition
Fi0u'e 46B. -uture proFections
/he Municipal Assembly takes no active part in the collection and disposal of refuse, as a
result residential solid wastes are managed by individual residents in their homes, there is
Page | -2
no segregation of solid waste at source and they dispose of the waste they generate in
their own convenient ways.
Most of the solid waste ends up at public dump sites, where the solid waste is dumped
and burned in the open because there is no container to accumulate for final disposal.
Some residents Fust dispose of their waste anywhere they deem convenient without con
sidering the health and environmental implications of their actions.
Fu"u'e C$(#i"i$(s &(# P'$+e! De)i(i"i$(s
)ump sites are maintained by workers of the municipal assembly even though they were
not commissioned by the Assembly1 to be frank these sites are poorly positioned. !ne of
the current dump sites pollutes a well which serves as a source of drinking water for the
town with its runoff every time it rains.
,ecause of the improper handling and disposal of waste there is the potential for disease
outbreaks, further degradation of soil, water and air ?uality. /he town will lose its aes
thetic appeal which will be attributed to garbage dumps which will form part of the land
scape and the stench it will create. /his will very much hurt the tourism and hospitality
industry for which the town is noted.
O7e,"i*es
Acceptable methods for storage, segregation of recyclable waste
Acceptable methods for primary collection of wastes
Acceptable waste processing practices
Acceptable methods of waste disposal
#rovision of sufficient financial support for solid waste management
Re,$!!e(#&"i$(s )$' S$+u"i$(s
Page | -'
/his section offers suggestions which the assembly should consider in order to help solve
its solid waste management problems.
S/s"e! I!%'$*e!e("
C$++e,"i$( $) G&'&0e
*ommunal collection of waste is a viable option that should be considered since the
township is poorly developed, in this system householder or entrepreneurial contractors
are re?uired to place the waste in strategically positioned containers for collection and
disposal by large motori>ed refuse vehicles.
/he waste should be sorted out at into #lastic K rubber, #aper K *ardboard, $lass, and
Metal using a colour coded system where a rubber sac of a particular colour carries a
specific waste type. !nly disposal bins should be provided for the storage of organic
2food waste5. /he collection of waste should be thrice a week with a day set aside for
collection of only packaging materials, since organic 2food waste5 is the bulk of solid
waste generated.
/hese disposal points could be specifically designed masonry structures with embank
ments, or readymade containers strategically placed. Should the option of fixed struc
tures be selected, these would need to be cleared either by manual labour or mechanical
means and the waste transferred to suitable vehicles for transport to the disposal site.
/he ideal transportation option for the waste is a tip truck considering the amount of
waste generated weekly in Aburi and the fact that they have low maintenance costs as
compared to the rearend loader which would have been preferred. Gith the tiptruck,
the weight of the refuse is used for compaction and normally has a capacity up to 6( m
%
.
Page | -4
/wo different tip trucks are recommended for garbage collection operations in the
township as shown in /able 0.<.
T&+e 46546 Suggested waste collection method
TRUCK WASTE MATERIAL
TRUCK 5 !rganic waste2food waste5
TRUCK 3 #lastic K rubber, #aper K *ardboard, $lass, Metal
T'&(s)e' S"&"i$(
A transfer station will have to be constructed to receive all waste types1 in this particular
case the transfer station will be the final disposal site. -rom this site recyclable waste
such as plastics K rubber, paper K cardboard and glass that have already been sorted out
at the household level will be collected and shipped to the various processing locations
that will be made available by the municipal assembly.
Sh$'" Te'! W&s"e M&(&0e!e("
As at now there is no appropriate garbage disposal site, all four sites currently in use have
been created by the inhabitants of Aburi over time to meet their needs as a result of popu
lation increase.
/hese waste dump sites have to be shut down as soon as possible because of their prox
imity to the human settlement and the fact that runoff from one of these sites contamin
ates a well source of drinking water for the town when it rains.
As it stands the town has no land set aside for solid waste management as such, appropri
ate steps must be taken to ac?uire a suitable tract of land where the solid waste of the
Page | -5
town can be managed. /he most fitting waste management scheme to implement is the
%. 2.educe, .euse and .ecycle5 approach.
/his approach can be applied to food waste, plastic waste, metal waste, paper waste and
glass waste.
F$$# W&s"e :O'0&(i,;
/his forms the largest percentage of the residential solid waste in this town. /his kind of
waste should be recycled through open windrow composting as incineration and land
filling are more expensive options of waste management. As per the results of my study
of composting under the local conditions employing the windrow method, food waste
with carbon nitrogen ratio of 6+ 00 and moisture content of 77.% 4 produces compost of
moderate ?uality over a period of 86 days. /he mature compost can then be processed
2drying, screening, and granulating or pelleti>ing5 before using it as a mulch or soil con
ditioner.
P+&s"i, W&s"e
/his being the second largest waste produced should be reused and those that are not re
used recycled. #lastic containers that once held a product can be used to store other ma
terials or package other products for sale1 plastic bags used to carry bought items can be
stored and reused several times.
.ecently some manufacturers of plastic products in /ema have begun buying used water
sachet bags and black plastic carrier bags for recycling, with this new development water
sachet bags and black plastic carrier bags which forms a representative section of plastic
waste can be separated from the residential waste at source and stored till significant
amounts are reached then they can be sold at these recycling plants.
Page | -#
Even if the cost of transportation is Fust balanced by the revenue generated it would be
worth it since it will save the environment. #lastic waste material that does not get re
cycled should be stored at designated disposal sites awaiting long term disposal methods
such as incineration and then after landfilling of the residue.
P&%e' W&s"e
#aper and cardboard boxes used as packaging material can be stored and used as pack
aging for other materials. :ewspapers and used sheets of paper can be used for art and
craft activities to generate revenue and also used as packing material for protecting fra
gile items during transportation to reduce breakage. :onreusable paper can be burnt at
the dump sites.
G+&ss W&s"e
$lass packaging containers can be reused as storage vessels to preserve food items. It can
be recycled into glass beads which are locally produced and used as Fewellery. It can also
be used in building construction where broken glass is incorporated into terra>>o designs.
Me"&+ W&s"e
#ackaging material of this nature should be reused in packaging if possible. /here are
other types of ferrous scrap metal that can be collected and exchanged for cash. As for
Page | -&
those without any current use they can be stored until a more suitable use is found for
them.
Me#iu! "$ L$(0 Te'! W&s"e M&(&0e!e("
An engineered Candfill must be constructed to take care of nonrecyclable and non
reusable municipal solid waste.
Fi(&(,i&+ Su%%$'"
/he financing of a plan like this is not likely to be cheap1 funds could be generated from
fines in addition to the monies made available by the )istrict Assembly. .esidents can
contribute by paying a fee for waste disposal, be it to the assembly or a private entrepren
eur.
/he town could also generate funds by signing a contract with ,lowplast $hana limited
to supply them on a weekly basis with used sachet rubber bags and bagging bags. !ne
kilo of waste will earn them 6((( $hana cedis upon delivery to the company dump site.
,ylaws could also be passed to penali>e littering in order to make people aware of their
responsibility in maintaining their townMs cleanliness, a fine of $= (.'( could be im
posed for every offence of littering and the amount doubled for every subse?uent offence.
APPENDII B
R&"e $) *$+u!e 'e#u,"i$( $) ,$!%$s" he&%
Page | --
Wee. Hei0h":!; Ci',u!)e'e(,e:!; R&#ius:!; Volume(m
3
)
Geek 6 (.'%' %.7'37 (.'<86 465BCB
Geek 8 (.0% %.(7<0 (.0<<0 4654>9
Geek % (.%7' %.(7'3 (.0<3& 464C4C
Geek 0
(.%3
8.303 (.0%38
464>95
Geek ' (.%0 8.300 (.0%73 464=>C
Geek 7 (.%0 8.30& (.0%3' 464=B5
APPENDII C
D&i+/ "e!%e'&"u'e %'$)i+e $) ,$!%$s" he&% ,$!%&'e# -i"h #&i+/ &!ie(" "e!%e'&"-
u'e #u'i(0 ,$!%$s"i(06
Ti!e Wi(#'$-
Te!%
D&i+/
Te!%
Wee. D&/ D&"e =&! =%! JC JC
W
E
E
K

5
6 6<96(96( 8865 8>65 35.1 80.8'
8 6&96(96( 8<65 336C 29.0 8'.&
% 8(96(96( 8B64 8364 35.0 88.8
0 8696(96( 3B69 3=6C 27.65 88.3'
' 8896(96( 9965 8=65 40.1 80.3'
7 8%96(96( 936C 336> 32.8 87.7
3 8096(96( 8865 3C63 31.15 80.3'
W
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3
< 8'96(96( 8=68 3368 29.3 8'.%'
& 8796(96( 8<6< 8565 33.3 8'.(
6( 8396(96( 8B65 8463 34.15 8'.&
66 8<96(96( 8B69 3>6C 33.15 8'.3'
68 8&96(96( 896B 8>63 36.0 87.%
6% %(96(96( 896C 856> 33.3 8'.3'
60 %696(96( 8368 3964 28.15 8'.<
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6' 696696( 856< 8<69 33.45 8'.'
67 896696( 8869 8968 33.85 80.'
63 %96696( 836> 836C 32.8 8'.7'
6< 096696( 8<6= 3>69 31.5 87.(
6& '96696( 3B64 3=6= 27.3 87.(
8( 796696( 396< 3<6= 25.05 80.3'
86 396696( 3964 3<6B 24.9 8'.%'
W
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K

9
88 <96696( 396= 3=65 25.35 80.8'
8% &96696( 3<6B 3=63 26.0 8'.3
80 6(96696( 3=68 3>6C 27.1 87.0'
8' 6696696( 3>6= 3C6< 28.55 87.'
Page | -/
87 6896696( 3>68 3=69 26.85 87.'
83 6%96696( 396C 3<6= 25.25 8'.8'
8< 6096696( 3=69 3>64 26.7 8'.'
W
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8& 6'96696( 3=64 3=63 26.1 87.(
%( 6796696( 3=68 3=6C 26.6 87.0
%6 6396696( 3=65 3=64 26.05 87.3'
%8 6<96696( 3969 3=65 25.25 8'.(
%% 6&96696( 3=69 3=68 26.35 87.0
%0 8(96696( 396B 3=65 25.45 87.'
%' 8696696( 356= 386C 22.75 88.0
W
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=
%7 8896696( 3569 3968 22.85 8'.8'
%3 8%96696( 386B 3965 23.95 8'.<
%< 8096696( 3964 3964 24.0 87.(
%& 8'96696( 3968 396C 24.6 87.''
0( 8796696( 3968 3<68 24.8 87.'
06 8396696( 396= 336C 23.75 87.'
08
8<96696( 3869 386< 23.45
8'.7'
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0% 8&96696( 3863 396C 24.05 87.%
00 %(96696( 386> 3<69 24.55 8'.'
0' 696896( 386C 3<64 24.45 87.%
07 896896( 386B 3964 23.9 87.('
03 %96896( 3865 336B 22.95 87.'
0< 096896( 386= 3969 24.0 87.&
0& '96896( 336C 386B 23.35 87.3
W
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K

B
'( 796896( 356B 336> 22.25 87.(
'6 396896( 356> 386= 22.65 8'.6
'8 <96896( 3368 336B 22.55 8'.3'
'% &96896( 356< 3969 22.95 8'.<
APPENDII D
Resi#e("i&+ s$+i# -&s"e ,$!%$si"i$( / !&"e'i&+ 0'$u%
Page | /2
Me&(
S"&(#&'#
De*i&"i$(
Li!i"s
M&"e'i&+ G'$u%
Wee. kg kg
Minim-
um
Maxim-
um
!rganic
2-ood Gaste5
Geek 6 0.(0 7.80 (.(( 87.'(
Geek 8 %.8&3 '.7&7 (.((( 6<.<((
Geek % %.88& '.7'' (.((( 6<.&((
Geek 0 %.<< '.&< (.(( 8'.7(
#lastic K .ubber
Geek 6 6.630 6.<'6 (.((( &.3((
Geek 8 (.787 (.&<7 (.((( 0.3((
Geek % (.7<0 6.%&7 (.((( '.&((
Geek 0 (.3<' 6.768 (.((( <.0((
Metal K *ans
Geek 6 (.06' 6.(8' (.((( '.<((
Geek 8 (.(&36 (.86<6 (.(((( (.<(((
Geek % (.66(% (.870< (.(((( 6.0(((
Geek 0 (.(&87 (.63'& (.(((( (.<(((
#aper K *ardboard
Geek 6 (.'6( (.307 (.((( %.8((
Geek 8 (.6<<8 (.'%70 (.(((( 8.<(((
Geek % (.877 (.7(6 (.((( 8.7((
Geek 0 (.8<'% (.'37& (.(((( 8.0(((
$lass
Geek 6 (.'(( 6.87& (.((( 7.0((
Geek 8 (.63&0 (.'%<6 (.(((( 8.0(((
Geek % (.067 6.888 (.((( 7.7((
Geek 0 (.(8(7 (.(&60 (.(((( (.'(((
APPENDII E
Pe' ,&%i"& -&s"e 0e(e'&"i$( $) "he se+e,"e# -&s"e "/%es
Page | /1
M&"e'i&+ G'$u% Me&( %e's$(
-5
.0@#&/ Me&( T$-(shi%
-5
.0@#&/
!rganic 2-ood Gaste5 (.(36<3 6%83.&08
#lastic Krubber (.(6787 %((.0%7
Metals K cans (.((%'' 7'.'&%%'
#aper K cardboard (.((788 660.&87&
$lass (.((''' 6(8.'030
APPENDII F
?u&("i"ies $) -&s"e "$ e 0e(e'&"e# i( "he sh$'", !e#iu! &(# +$(0 "e'!
M&"e'i&+ G'$u% Sh$'"-"e'!
:</'s6;
Me#iu!-"e'!
:5</'s6;
L$(0-"e'!
:3< /'s6;
!rganic 2-ood Gaste5 608%.'8&(& 67%'.<%%(3 6<3&.<%638
#lastic Krubber %88.(76<8 %3(.(&%<7 08'.8&7'7
Metals K cans 3(.%60<' <(.<(6'' &8.<'%<
#aper K cardboard 68%.6&&'0 606.'3%08 678.7&(%8
$lass 6(&.&8<<' 687.%8%'' 60'.67'<
Page | /2
Page | /'
Pe's$(s %e'
Home
ORGANIC PLASTIC METAL PAPER GLASS
1 2 ' 4 1 2 ' 4 1 2 ' 4 1 2 ' 4 1 2 ' 4
2
7.
2
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.
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APPENDII G
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