1

Research Methodology
The study of conducting research is Research Methodology.
Research: The word research is composed of two syllables Re
and Search.
Re is the prefix meaning !gain or o"er again or a new# and
Search is the latter meaning to examine closely and carefully# or
to test and try#.
Together they form$ a careful$ systematic$ patient study and
in"estigation in some field of %nowledge underta%en to establish
principles & policies.
Research can also be defined as
1. Search for %nowledge
'. Systematic and scientific search for getting rele"ant answers
on any ta%en up specific topic.
(. Scientific en)uiry into a sub*ect.
+. Research is a mo"ement from the un%nown to the %nown.
,. -t is the "oyage of disco"ery
!cc to .ulmer$
Research is primarily committed to establishing systematic$
reliable and "alid %nowledge about the social world.
!cc. To /lifford 0oody$
Research comprises of
1efining and redefining problems.
'
2ormulating hypothesis 3basic idea4
/ollecting
5rgani6ing
7"aluating datas
Ma%ing decisions
Suggesting solutions
Reaching conclusions
2inally$ carefully testing the conclusions
To determine whether they fit the formulated 8ypothesis.
Research Methods: May be understood as all those methods or
techni)ues that are used by a researcher for conducting a Research
depending upon the methods.
314 Library Research: analysis of historical records and
documents.
9 Statistical compilation$ references$ abstracts$ guides
manipulation 3handle with s%ill4
3'4 Field Research: 5bser"ation$ )uestionnaires$ personal$
:roup or telephonic inter"iews$ case study.
(3) Laboratory Research:
:roup 3team4 study$ use of audio "isual tools.
Research Methodology: is the way do systematically sol"e the
research problem.
-n it we study the "arious steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem logically.
(
0hen we tal% of Research Methodology$ we not only tal% of
research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we
use in the context of our research study and explain why we are
using a particular method or we are not using a particular method or
techni)ue so that research results are capable of being e"aluated
either by the researcher or others.
Steps:
14 0hy a particular research study has been underta%en;
'4 8ow the Research problem has been defined;
(4 0hat way and why the hypothesis 3basic idea4 has been
formulated;
+4 0hy a particular techni)ue of analy6ing data is used; 3or4
8ow the data were collected;
,4 8ow the collected data were interpreted;
<4 0hat deletion was made;
=4 0hat was the conclusion;
2inally what was the solution for the Research problem;
Importance of knowing the subect ! research Methodology:
14 ! student preparing himself for a career of carrying out
research as his profession >
9 0ill be trained better to do research
9 0ill help him de"elop disciplined thin%ing
9 0ill help him obser"e the field ob*ecti"ely.
+
9 0ill enable thoroughly to understand the logic behind the
research problem.
9 0ill increase the ability to e"aluate the results.
9 2ace the e"aluated results with confidence.
9 ?seful in "arious fields such as :o"t. .usiness$
administration$ community de"elopment @ social wor%.
"o #ualify a Research or study:
To be a :ood or perfect one$
The Research adapted should process certain characteristics$
-t must as far as possible be 14 /ontrolled
'4 Rigorous
(4 Systematic
+4 Aalid
,4 Aerifiable
<4 7mpirical
=4 /ritical
$% &ontrolled: The research problem should not be affected or
influenced by external factors 3i.e. "ariables other than the
participating facts4.
'% Rigorous: The procedures followed to find answers to
)uestions should be rele"ant$ appropriate @ *ustified. .ut the degree
of rigiour may "ary from one problem to another problem.
3% (ystematic: The in"estigation should follow a certain logical
se)uence 3Bot in a hapha6ard manner4
)% *alid + *erifiable: The findings should be "alid @ can be
"erified by you or others at any time.
,
,% -mpirical: The conclusions drawn should be based on hard
e"idence$ gathered from real life experiences or obser"ations.
.% &ritical: The process of in"estigation must be foolproof and free
from drawbac%s. The process adapted and the procedures used
must be able to withstand any critical scrutiny.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from the "iew point or perspecti"es
as$
2rom the "iew point
/pplication obecti0e In#uiry
mode

14 Cure Research 14 1escripti"e 14 Duantitati"e Research
'4 !pplied Research '4 /orrelati"e '4 Dualitati"e
Research
(4 7xploratory
+4 7xplanatory
14 1ure Research: (2asic or Fundamental Research)
:athering$ %nowledge is termed as pure# or basic# research.
Eust to gather %nowledge in order to formulate or generali6e theories
or policies.
7g4 Research on mathematics.
This types of research adds %nowledge to the already existing
organi6ed body.
<
/pplied Research: To find an immediate solution for a pressing
practical problem.
7g: Social$ economical and political trends pre"ailing in a
country.
/pplied *s Fundamental 2ased on the obecti0es of Research:
$) 3escripti0e Research:
Sur"ey or fact finding en)uires of different %inds.
-t describes the actual pre"ailing state of affairs$
existing at present.
5therwise %nown as ex post facts means existing
position of facts & issues.
8ere the "ariable influencing the research has no
control or the researcher has no control o"er the
"ariables.
7g: 2re)uency of shopping$ customer preference etc.
'4 &orrelati0e Research :
:oes on to disco"er the existing relationship or
interdependence between two or more aspects &
"ariables.
5therwise %nown as comparati"e study.
-n"estigates association between "ariables.
7g: Sum of humour and *ob satisfaction$ 3related
"ariable4
Research problem is wor%ers turno"er
=
/nalytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts & information already existing
and analy6e these data to ma%e a critical e"aluation.
7g: document study & historical e"idence.
3escripti0e *s /nalytical Research:
-4planatory Research:
!ttempts to clarify or explain why and how$ any particular
research problem arises and can be sol"ed.
)% -4ploratory Research: Study underta%e to explore a new
area or an un%nown destination.
---. 2ased on the In#uiry Mode:
$) 5uantitati0e Research:
Relates to aspects that can be )uantified and expressed
in terms of )uantity.
5therwise %nown as structured Research.
-n this type of Research$ the ob*ecti"es$ design$ sample
and all the other factors influencing the research is pre
determined.
The research problem and its solution will be expressed in
terms of )uantity and hence statistical and economic analysis is
adapted in this type of Research.
5uantitati0e Research:
5therwise %nown as unstructured research.
The aspects related to )uality & %ind or texture.
7g: .eha"iour science
F
/part from the abo0e6 other types of Research are$
&onceptual Research: Research related to some abstract idea or
theory
?sed by philosophers or thin%ers for de"eloping new
concepts.
-mpirical research
3based on experiments or experience4
5therwise %nown as experimental type of Research.
The result obtained by adapting 7mpirical Research is
considered to be most powerful 3e"idence enclosed4
.ased on the time consumed to complete a particular research$
a4 one time Research: restricted to a single time period.
b4 Gongitudinal Research: /onducted o"er se"eral time period.
5ualities of a Researcher
"op $7 #ualities of a Researcher
14 /nanalytical mind: /onstant analysis on a "ariety
of factors.
'4 / people person : 2or respondents to get the best
out of inter"iews & focus groups.
(4 "he ability to stay calm: especially when you ha"e
pressing deadlines. Heep well focused and thin% logically there
will always be an end point.
+4 Intelligence : Researcher re)uires critical analysis$
but most of all common sense.
I
,4 &uriosity: 8a"e curiosity and be passionate about
de"eloping deeper to unearth more insight.
<4 5uick thinker: Things don#t always go as you plan$ so you
need to be able to thin% fast.
=4 &ommitment: Research is a tough *ob$ the hours may be
long$ the deadlines short.
F4 -4cellent written and 0erbal communication skills: So
that different audience can clearly understand the findings.
I4 (ympathetic: 8a"ing a sympathetic ear when
listening to some respondents 3cry etc4 is a good s%ill$ to
ha"e.
1J4 (ystematic: /hec%$ chec% and chec% again.
Spending a proper amount of time for chec%ing always pays.
!ccording to Micheal 2oster$
14 Truthful data & facts > desire for accuracy of obser"ation.
'4 Bo expressions li%e approximately$ almost or nearly.
(4 Should poccess alert mind. Bature is constantly changing$ be
%een and watchful to notice such changes$ no matter how
small or insignificant they may.
+4 Scientific in)uiry > desire for %nowledge > it re)uires moral
courage$ Steadfast 3constant & not changing4 endurance 3to
tolerate the difficulty$ suffer patiently4
9 0hen a research scientist feel defeated or completely lost$
he needs immense courage and the sense of con"iction
3found guilty4
(ignificance or Importance of (earch
1J
14 1oubt is better than o"er confidence for it leads to in)uiry$
in)uiry leads to in"ention. Crocess or the three stages of
research to bring out economic policies.
14 -n"estigation of pre"ailing economic structure with the
a"ailable facts.
'4 !nalyse or diagnose the data.
(4 Crediction for future de"elopments.
'4 Research encourages scientific and inducti"e thin%ing.
7g:9 Role of Research in :
$) -con omics:
Researches done on applied 3production and sales of
goods in a profitable manner4 economics is increasing in
modern days. :o"t. @ business sectors ha"e become more
complex$ they face se"eral operational problems to sol"e
this problems$ Research is carried on.
To frame :o"t. economic policies.
:o"t. budget a formulation depends on the analysis
of needs @ desires of the people$ a"ailable of
re"enues needs research.
1ecision ma%ing > re)uires proper research.
!llocation of a countries scarce resource > also
needs research.
'4 .usiness 1ecisions:
-n business sectors there are both planning and
operational problems.
11
a4 Croblems Research: -n"estigation of
the present structure and de"elopment of the
mar%et > relating to purchase$ production$
promotion and sales.
b4 5perational Research: Relates to application of
logical$ mathematical and analytical techni)ues >
to sol"e mar%et problems > there by minimi6e
cost and profit maximi6ation.
c4 Moti"ational Research: 8elps to determine
people beha"ior or consumer response.
!ll the abo"e three are responsible for business decision
ma%ing.
(4 Social sectors: To gain %nowledge on un%nown aspects
and do something better and more efficiently.
Social scientist gain their %nowledge for their own sa%e and for
the de"elopment of the society.
1. 2ormulating the Research problem:9
a4 The formulation of a general topic into a specific Research
problem thus constitutes the first step in a scientific in)uiry.
Two steps are in"ol"ed in formulating the Research problem$
a4 ?nderstanding the problem thoroughly.
b4 Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of "iew.
1. -dentify a broad field or sub*ect area of interest to you.
'. 1issect the broad area into small area.
(. Select what is of most interest to you.
1'
+. Raise Research )uestions.
,. 2ormulate ob*ecti"es
<. !ssess your ob*ecti"es
=. 1ouble chec%
The best way to understand the problem is to
discuss with his own colleague or guide.
7xamine all a"ailable literatures to get himself
ac)uainted 3get used to 4 with the selected problem.
Re"iew two types of literature
/onceptual literature :
/oncerning concepts @ theories
7mpirical Giterature : /oncerning studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed.
5utcome of the re"iew will be the %nowledge so as to pre
determine what data or materials are a"ailable for operational
purposes.
Bext step > the Researcher rephrases the problem into
!nalytical or operational terms.
18" "9- 1R:2L-M I;": (1-&IFI& "-RM(
This step is of greatest importance in the entire research
process.
The problem to be in"estigated must be defined
unambiguously or clearly.
Crof 0.!. Beiswanger States$
1(
The statement of the ob*ecti"e of the Research problem is of
basic importance because$
3i4 -t determines the data which are to be collected
3ii4 /haracteristics of the rele"ant data
3iii4 /hoice of techni)ues to be used in these explorations
3i"4 2rame a 2inal report
Step --
-4tensi0e Literature (ur0ey:
! brief summary of the problem should be written down.
Ma%e extensi"e literature sur"ey
Sources of sur"ey can be$ *ournals$ bio9graphics$ :o"t.
reports$ boo%s$ conference proceedings etc.
.ased on the nature of the problem.
7arlier study if any which is similar to the study in hand should
be carefully studied.
! good library will be a great help to the researcher at this
stage.
Stage ---:
3e0eloping 9ypothesis : 31e"elopment of wor%ing 8ypothesis4
State in clear terms the wor%ing hypothesis 3.asic -dea of the
Research problem4
-t is a tentati"e assumption in order to test to logical or
empirical conse)uences.
Cro"ide the focal point for research.
1+
8ypothesis should be "ery specific and "ery well limited to the
place of research in hand because it has to be tested.
8ypothesis guides the researched by limiting the area of
Research and %eep him on the right trac%.
-t sharpens his thin%ing and focuses attention on important
facets of the problem.
-t indicates the type of data re)uired for the study.
Type of methods of data analysis done.
9ow to de0elop working 9ypothesis<
14 1iscuss with collogues & experts$ about the problems$ its
origin$ its ob*ecti"es and solutions.
'4 7xamination of data& records if a"ailable.
(4 Re"iew similar studies & similar problems.
+4 To secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem > conduct personnel in"estigation or field inter"iews.
("-1 I*:
1reparing the Research 3esign:
Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conduction. -t constitutes the blue print for the collection$
measurement and analysis of data.
The function of the Research design is to pro"ide rele"ant
e"idence with minimal expenditure of effort$ time and money. -t
pro"ides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of
14 2raming the hypothesis$ '4 its operational implications and (4
finally data analysis
The Research design highlights certain decision$
1,
14 The nature of the study
'4 Curpose of the study
(4 Gocation where the study would be conducted
+4 The nature of data re)uired
,4 2rom where the data would be collected
<4 The techni)ues of data collection that would be used
=4 0hat time period the study would co"er
F4 The type of sample design that would be used
I4 The method of data analysis that would be adapted
1J4 The manner in which the report would be prepared
"ype of Research 3esign : + types
14 (ampling Research 3esign : 1eal with selection of rele"ant
items
'4 :bser0ational Research 3esign: 1eals with the
obser"ations 3field obser"ations4 that is to be made.
(4 (tatistical Research design: 1eals with the information on
the data collected @ analysed.
+4 :perational Research 3esign: 8ow the abo"e three are
carried out.
3etermining sample 3esign:
!ll the items considered in any field of in)uiry constitutes a
uni"erse or population. Study of the entire population without
lea"ing out a single item is %nown as /ensus Study
This type of census study is practically not possible.
1<
So we select few items from the entire population for our study
purpose. The items so selected constitutes what is technically
called sample.
The way of selecting such a sample is %nown as the Sample
1esign.
These samples can be either probability samples or non
probability samples.
Crobability: 7ach item in the population has on e)ual chance
of being selected for the study.
14 Simple random sampling
'4 Systematic random sampling
(4 Stratified random sampling
+4 /luster & area random sampling.
Bon Crobability sampling: !ll the items do not ha"e an e)ual
chance of being selected for the study.
The selection depends upon the con"enience @ *udgment of
the Researcher.
Mixed sampling: 0hen more than one type of sampling
techni)ue is used for a study$ it is mixed sampling.
The sample design to be used in a Research study must be
decided by the researcher considering the nature of the study.
<. &ollecting the 3ata:
=athering appropriate data> which are made use in
Research study.
1ata can be collected in se"eral ways either through 314
7xperiment 3or4 3'4 through sur"eys.
1=
-n experimental means$ when a researcher conducts a
research$ some )uantitati"e measurements are
obser"ed$ based on which$ he examines the truth of the
underlying hypothesis.
-n case of sur"eys$ data are collected by
14 .y obser"ations
'4 Through personnel inter"iew
(4 Through telephone inter"iews
+4 .y mailing of )uestionnaires
,4 Through schedules & enumerators
The Researcher should select one of these methods of
collecting the data ta%ing in account the
14 Bature of in"estigation
'4 5b*ecti"e @ scope of -n)uiry
(4 2inancial Resources
+4 Time frame
,4 1esired degree of !ccuracy.
.) -4ecution of the 1roect: (1utting a plan)
-mportant step in Research study.
See that the pro*ect is executed in a systematic manner
and in time.
7g4 -f the sur"ey done in a pro*ect is "ia Duestionnaire
the answers can be machine coded & processed
1F
-f inter"iew were conducted$ ma%e sure that the
inter"iewers is well trained > to %eep the sur"ey as much as
realistic as possible.
F. /nalysis of 3ata :
!fter the data are collected the researcher turns to the tas%
of analy6ing the data the analysis of data re)uire closely
related operations$ li%e coding$ 7diting @ Tabulation#.
The wide data collected should be condensed into small
manageable groups$ for easy analysis.
/oding: The collected data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated or counted.
7diting: ?nwanted @ irrele"ant data will be remo"ed.
Tabulation: Technical procedure where the data are put
in the form of tables.
Research 3esign:
The most important step after defining the Research problem#
is preparing the Research 1esign
Research design is the conceptual structure within which the
research is conducted.
-t constitutes the .G?7 CR-BT for collection$ measurement
and analysis of data.
Research design pro"ides an answer to the )uestion$ what the
Researcher is going to do with regards to framing hypothesis$
its operational implications and how to analyse the data;
Research 3esign: ? 3ecisions
8ighlights certain decisions$
1I
14 Bature of the study
'4 Curpose of the study
(4 Gocation where the study would be conducted
+4 Bature of 1!T! re)uired
,4 2rom where the 1!T! can be collected
<4 Time period of the study
=4 Type of sample design to be used
F4 Techni)ues of data collection
I4 Methods of 1ata !nalysis
1J4 Creparation of Report.
Research 3esign
May be sub di"ided into$
14 Sampling design: 1eals with$ the method of selecting items#
for the study.
'4 5bser"ational design: Relates to the condition under which the
obser"ations are to be made.
(4 Statistical 1esign: 1eals with the no of items selected
or the study and how the selected data will be analysed.
+4 5peration design: The techni)ue by which the
sampling$ obser"ational and statistical designs can be carried out.
Research 3esign ! Features :
14 8elps to identify the type and source of information needed for the
study.
'J
'4 Specifies the methods to be adopted in collecting @ analy6ing
data.
(4 Specifies the time schedule of the research and the monetary
budget in"ol"ed.
&oncepts Relating to Research 3esign
14 3ependent and Independent 0ariables :
*ariables : ! magnitude that "aries is %nown as "ariable
&ontinuous 0ariable : Aalues that can be expressed e"en in
decimal poins are %nown as continuous "ariables
7g: age 3+ years ( months4
8eight 3,.' cm4
0eight 3+,.( %g4
;on continuous *ariables: Aalue that can be expressed only in
integer "alues are called Bon continuous "ariables
7g: Bo. of students in a class 3 +,4
Bo. of children in a family 3(4
Statistically %nown as discrete "ariables
3ependent or -ndogenous 0ariables :
0hen the change in one "ariable depends on the change in
other "ariable$ it is %nown as dependent or 7ndogenous "ariable.
1emand 99999 Crice 3independent4
Independent or -4ogenous 0ariable
'1
The "ariable that causes the change in the dependent "ariable
is %nown as independent or exogenous "ariable.
1emand 31ependent4 9999999 Crice $-ncome
8ere demand is a dependent "ariable while price & income is
an independent "ariable.
-4traneous 0ariable :
The independent "ariable which is not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affects the dependent "ariable is %now as
7xtraneous "ariables.
The influence caused by the extraneous "ariable on the
dependent "alue is technically %nown as 7xperimental 7rror
! research study or a Research design should always be
framed in such a manner that the influence of 7xtraneous
"ariables# on the dependent "ariable is completely controlled
and the influence of the independent "ariable is clearly
e"ident.
&ontrol:
:ood Research design should minimi6e the effect for
7xtraneous "ariables.
&onfounded Relationship
The relationship between dependent and independent "ariable
is said to be confounded by an extraneous "ariables.
Research 9ypothesis:
0hen the formulated hypothesis is tested by adopting
scientific methods$ it is %nown as Research 8ypothesis.
-4perimental + ;on -4perimental 9ypothesis testing:
''
0hen the ob*ecti"e of the Research is to test the hypothesis$ it
is Research hypothesis.
Research in which the independent "ariable are 3handled with
s%ill4 manipulated$ it is experimental hypothesis testing.
0hen the "ariables are not manipulated$ it is non experimental
hypothesis testing.
-4perimental + &ontrol =roups:
0hen a group is exposed to usual conditions in an
experimental hypothesis$ research it is control :roups.
0hen the group is exposed to special or certain new
conditions$ it is experimental groups.
F. "reatments:
The different conditions to which the experimental @ control
groups are sub*ect to is %nown as treatments.
I% -4periment: 2ertili6ers and crops4
Crocess of "erifying the truth.
/bsolute -4periment:
1etermine the fact
&omparati0e -4periment:
1etermine the impact in comparison with another fact.
1J. -4perimental units
Cre9determined bloc% to which different treatments are
applied.
'(
7g : animal testing
"ypes of Research 3esign
There are three different types of Research design$
$) -4ploratory Research 3esign:
-s a 2ormulati"e Research design
Main purpose is the disco"ery of ideas @ insights
Should be flexible enough considering different
dimensions of the problem under study.
') 3escripti0e and 3iagnostic Research 3esign:
1escripti"e Research 1esign is concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular indi"idual or
a group.
Study concerned with narration of facts or characters
related to an indi"idual$ group or institution are
descripti"e research studies.
1iagnostic Research design determines the fre)uency
with which a "ariable occurs or its relationship with
another "ariables.
.oth the Research designs should be planned carefully.
Research design should be Rigid 3Bo flexibility4
(4 9ypothesis testing Research 3esign :
Test the hypothesis of causal relationship between two
or more "ariables.
'+
!dopt procedure that not only reduce bias but enhance
reliability > and facilitates deri"ing -nferences 3results4
about the Research problem.
Importance of Research 3esign:
2acilitates the smooth flow of the "arious stages of Research.
8elps yield maximum information with minimum effort$ time
and money.
8elps to plan in ad"ance data collecting and analysis
techni)ues.
Crepare with utmost care to a"oid errors.
!ttain reliability
&haracteristics of a =ood Research 3esign
Cosses the )ualities of being flexible$ suitable efficient @
economical.
Should minimi6e bias# and maximi6e reliability of data
collection @ !nalysis.
Bo experimental error should be allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be "iewed from different angles or
dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends on$
Bature of the Research problem
5b*ecti"es of the Research problem
S%ills & ability of the Researcher
',
Methods of gathering information
!"ailability of monetary support
Time schedule
9@1:"9-(I(
! Research hypothesis is a predicti"e statement$ which is
capable of being tested# using scientific methods$ which in"ol"es
independent and dependent "aluables. 3eg4 the female students
perform as well as the male students.
This statement is a hypothesis that can be ob*ecti"ely tested
and "erified.
-t is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine its
"alidity.
&haracteristics of 9ypothesis
14 ! hypothesis should be precise and clear. -f not clear$ the
inferences will not be reliable.
'4 -t must be capable of being put to test.
(4 -t should state the relationship between the "ariables$ in case
relational hypothesis.
+4 -t should be stated in a simple language.
,4 -t should be consistant and deri"ed from all %nown facts.
<4 8ypothesis must be amenable to testing within a reasonable
period of time
'<
=4 8ypothesis should explain what it actually to explain. 3the
solution for the Research problem4. The explanation should be
on empirical reference.
&oncepts Relating to "esting of 9ypothesis
14 Bull 8ypothesis @ !lternati"e
8ypothesis 3Statistical !nalysis4
Bull 8ypothesis: 1enoted by 8J. -f both the "ariables 3say male or
female4 or 38ead or Tail4 are e)ually good$ it is Bull 8ypothesis.
!lternati"e 8ypothesis: 1enoted by 8a or 81. -f one "ariable is
considered superior to other or "ice "ersa or if there is a difference$ it
is alternati"e hypothesis.
Mean 1opulation (u) or (p)
Total & Bo. of "ariables
;ull 9ypothesis
8o : u K 1JJ
/lternati0e 9ypothesis
8a : u K 1JJ
8a : u L 1JJ
8a : u M 1JJ
/spects to be considered while formulating ;ull 9ypothesis
14 The researcher always tries to re*ect Bull hypothesis since
!lternati"e 8ypothesis should be pro"ed.
'=
'4 Bull hypothesis when it is actually true$ when re*ected in"ol"es
great ris%$ the le"el of significance should be considered.
(4 Bull hypothesis should be "ery specific 3Bo approximation4
The le"el of significance:
-mportant concept of hypothesis testing.
-t is a certain percentage chosen with great care$ reason and
thought#
3eg4 let us consider the le"el of significance to be ,N. -t means
the Researcher ta%es a ris% of re*ecting Bull hypothesis 38o4
by ,N when 8o is actually true.
3% 3ecision Rule
The researcher should ma%e a decision$ if to accept or Re*ect
8o.
The decision rule should be decided on the number of items to
be tested and the basic of which to accept or re*ect.
+. "ype I and "ype II -rrors
3i4 Researcher may re*ect 8o$ when it is true > Type - 7rror
3which must ha"e been accepted4.
3ii4 Researcher may accept 8o$ when it is false > Type -- 7rror
3which must ha"e been re*ected4
,. :ne tailed and "wo tailed "ests:
3i4 5ne tailed test re*ects the Bull hypothesis when the sample
mean is either greater or lower than the hypothesi6ed "alue of
the population mean.
"wo tailed "est: 0hen the sample mean is both greater and
lower than the hypothesi6ed "alue of the population mean.
1rocedure for 9ypothesis "esting:
'F
1. Testing hypothesis refers whether the formulated hypothesis is
"alid or not
'. 0hether to !ccept or Re*ect Bull 8ypothesis.
3i4 Making a formal statement:
Ma%ing a formal statement of the null hypothesis and
alternati"e hypothesis.
3ii4 Selecting a significant le"el of testing
! pre9determined le"el of significance should be specified.
7ither ,N or 1N le"el can be considered for the purpose.
3iii4 1eciding the 1istribution to use:
/hoice should be made generally relates to Bormal
distribution or t9distribution.
3i"4 Selection of random sample @ computing an !ppropriate "alue
Selection of Random sample
/omputing suitable "alue
1rawing a sample for furnishing 7mpirical data.
3"4 /alculation of Crobability:
The di"erged results from the expected results$ when 8o is
true.
3"i4 /omparing the probability:
.y ma%ing a comparison with the assumed significance
le"el.
-f the "alue is less than or e)ual to 8o$ in case of one9tailed
test$ 8o is re*ected. 8ere type - error is committed.
'I
-f the "alue is greater than the mean$ 8o is accepted.
0ere type9- error is committed.
compile$ compare @ compute the data and come out with
the inference.
;ull 9ypothesis: The null hypothesis is the proposition or proposal
that implies no effect on the phenomena.
/lternati0e 9ypothesis: is the one predicti"e statement that
implies some effect on the phenomena.
&oncepts Relating to "esting of 9ypothesis:
(/M1L- (8R*-@
(ampling 3esign:
!n art of obtaining a sample from a gi"en population. The
techni)ue or procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for
the sample from the population or uni"erse.
(teps in sampling 3esign
"ype of 8ni0erse:
14 The first step in sampling design$ is to clearly define the total
number of items & cases to be studied$ which is technically
%nown as ?B-A7RS7
2inite
?ni"erse
-nfinite
Finite 8ni0erse: The number of items is certain.
7g: Bo. of students in a class.
(J
Bo. of wor%ers in a factory.
Infinite 8ni0erse: The number of items is infinite. 3Bo idea about the
number of items4
7g: /hennai population$ Bo. of stars
'4 Sampling ?nit:
! geographical area li%e a state$ district or "illage.
2amily$ religious community or a school.
-ndi"idual 3Researcher can select one or two such
units4.
(4 Source Gist: 5therwise %nown as Sampling 2rame
/onsists of names of all items of a uni"erse.
-f not a"ailable the researcher has to prepare a Source
list.
-t must be reliable$ comprehensi"e$ correct and
appropriate.
-t should be the representati"e of the population &
uni"erse.
+4 Si6e of sample:
Refers to the number of items to be chosen from the
uni"erse.
Si6e of sample must be optimum. !n optimum sample
may defined as the one that satisfies.
The re)uirements of representati"es.
2lexibility
(1
7fficiency
Reliability
/osts or budget should be considered.
Factors Influencing siAe of sample :
1arameters of Interest:
The items or parameters are selected based on the
researchers own interest.
2udgetary constraint :
/ost consideration exercises a ma*or influence.
a4 (ampling 1rocedure:
The type or techni)ue used by the researcher to select the
items.
The techni)ue should be selected so that for a gi"en sample
si6e @ budget$ the sampling error must be "ery small or
negligible.
(ampling -rror: may be caused 3-n case of Bon probability
sampling4 due to
314 -nter"iewer .ias
3'4 Mista%es
3(4 Bon response problems
3+4 Duestionnaire design flaws
3,4 1ata processing @ analysis errors
-n case of probability sampling$ 3homogenous items 4 the
sampling error is negligible since the sample is more accurate.
('
/haracteristics of a :ood sample :
Should bind a truly representati"e sample.
Small sampling error
Should fit into the budgetary constraints.
Result should be applicable in general.
/haracteristics of sample techni)ues :
14 Much cheaper
'4 Sa"es time
(4 Much reliable
+4 Suitable for carrying out different sur"eys
,4 Scientific in Bature
!d"antages of sampling:
14 Aery accurate
'4 7conomical in Bature
(4 Aery reliable
+4 Suitable for different sur"eys
,4 Gess time consumption
<4 -n case of large uni"erse$ sampling method is the only
practical method for collecting the data.
3ifferent types of sample 3esign:
/lassified under two general categories.
14 Crobability sampling
'4 Bon > Crobability sampling.
((
Crobability sampling:
5therwise %nown as choice sampling# or random sampling#.
7"ery item has an e)ual chance of being included in the
sample.
7g: Gotteries 3or4 subscribers
0hen done property$ probability sampling ensures that the
sample has a similar composition and profile as that of the
entire population.
= different types of probability sampling$
14 Simple Random sampling
'4 Stratified Random sampling
(4 /luster sampling
+4 Systematic sampling
,4 !rea sampling
<4 Multi stage sampling
=4 Sampling with probability propotional to si6e
314 Sample Random Sampling
The sample is drawn so that each person or item has an e)ual
chance of being drawn during the selection.
7g: Gotteries 3in a ball box4
3'4 Stratified Random sampling: 3strata > layers4
9 Stratified sampling techni)ue is generally used when the
population is heterogeneous.
(+
9 The entire population is di"ided into sub population 3sub
groups4 3i.e. the sub population being homogenous4.
9 -tems are selected from each stratum.
9 This method is more reliable @ accurate.
9 7g: ,J students of a school ha"ing 1JJJ students on
a total were selected @ inter"iewed on the interest in music.
The students were grouped based on their age$ = years$ F
years$ I years$ 1J years @ 11 years.
2rom each age group$ , students were chosen and totally ,J
students were inter"iewed.
3(4 /luster sampling:
The entire population is sub di"ided into mutually exclusi"e
groups or clusters
Simple Random sampling is applied and the need clusters are
selected for the study.
-f all the elements found in the selected cluster is ta%en for the
study$ then it is one stage cluster sampling.
-f random sampling is applied in selecting elements found
within the clusters$ it is two stage cluster sampling.
3+4 Systematic sampling:
9 Selecting e"ery nth element for the study.
1
st
$ ,
th
$ 1J
th
$ 1,
th
$ 'J
th
OOOOOOOOOOOOO.
3,4 !rea sampling: when the clusters are in the form of some
geographical sub di"isions.
3<4 Multi stage sampling:
(,
9 -f the researcher selects elements or items at different stages$
it is multi stage sampling.
9 7g: Sur"ey of wor% efficiency in nationali6ed baul%s
9 Stage le"el
9 1istrict le"el
9 Towns
9 Aillages
-tems are selected at four stages & le"els.
3=4 Sampling with probability proportional to si6e:
9 The probability of inclusion into the study is directly
proportional to the si6e of the clusters.
9 This techni)ue is used when the no. of elements present in
each cluster "aries.
9 1epending on re)uirement of the researcher the cluster which
is more appropriate can be selected for the study.
--. ;on 1robability sampling:
9 7ach item does not ha"e an e)ual chance of being included in
the sample.
9 ( types of non probability samplings are$
14 /on"enience sampling
'4 Duota sampling
(4 Eudgmental sampling
14 &on0enience sampling:
9 /hoosing items at the con"enience of the Researcher.
(<
7g: Street inter"iews 3sampling of people who are at
easy access4
1rawbac%: Gac% of accuracy
'. 5uota sampling
The researcher simply assume )uotas$ with certain restrictions
imposed on how they should be selected.
7g: /aste basic
.enefits: less expensi"e$ "ery con"enient
(. Budgment sampling : 3otherwise %nown as purposi"e
sampling4
Researcher employs his own 7xpert *udgment about who to
include in the sample frame.
3isad0antages of sampling:
14 -nade)uacy of samples
'4 /hances of bias
(4 Croblems of accuracy
+4 1ifficulty of getting the representati"e sample.
,4 ?ntrained Manpower.
<4 !bsence of -nformants
=4 /hances of committing errors.
(ampling -rror: Sampling error is the de"iation of the selected
sample from the true characteristics$ traits$ beha"ior$ )ualities or
figures of the entire population.
3ata &ollection
(=
1ata /ollection is the systematic gathering of information
3data4 for a particular purpose from "arious sources. 3Aarious
sources can be )uestionnaires$ inter"iews$ obser"ations existing
records and electronic de"ices4.
Two -mportant sources of -nformation are$
3i4 Crimary 1ata
3ii4 Secondary 1ata
1rimary 3ata:
Refers to the data collected for the first time 35riginal data4
-4ample: Croceedings from conferences meetings$ Students
records.
(econdary 3ata:
Refers to the data that ha"e already been collected and used
earlier by somebody or some agency.
-4ample: 5nline database$ 8istorical boo%s etc.
-4ample: Ta%ing census 3total population4 of :o"ernment of -ndia >
Crimary 1ata.
0hen research is done by some other scientist on the basis of
this data$ it is secondary data.
Selecting ! particular source of 1ata depends on$
314 Curpose @ Scope of the study.
3'4 !"ailability of time.
3(4 !"ailability of Resources.
3+4 The degree of !ccuracy desired.
3,4 Statistical tools to be used.
3<4 Sources of -nformation 3data4.
$% 1urpose + (cope of 3ata &ollection:
Should be clearly stated at the "ery beginning of the study.
(F
! statement indicating the Research problem and the type of
information needed for the study in order to sol"e the
Research Croblem$ is needed.
-ts purpose is to establish a factual information for ma%ing
decisions.
Scope of the en)uiry means the co"erage with regard to the
type of information$ the sub*ect matter and geographical area.
(b) /0ailability of "ime:?
The in"estigation should be done within a reasonable period of
time.
Ta%ing which the information collected may become outdated.
7xample: 1emand of a new product launched is studied$ if the
result comes out after ' years$ by the time the producer may
attain great lose.
So$ ma%e sure the in"estigation is carried out within a
reasonable period of time.
(c) /0ailability of Resources:
-n"estigation or data collection greatly depends$ on resources
a"ailable li%e$
1. Bo. of s%illed personnel
2. The 2inancial Cosition.
-f the no.of s%illed personnel to carry our the en)uiry is
sufficient and the a"ailability of funds is not a problem$ the
datas can be collected from a big area co"ering a good
number of samples.
(d) "he desiredCe4pected 3egree of /ccuracy:?
(I
1eciding the degree of accuracy is a must for the in"estigator.
.ecause !bsolute !ccuracy is not possible in statistical
wor%s.
Since Statistics is based on estimates$ tools used for
measurements in not always perfect @ there may be
unintentional bias on the part of the in"estigator$ enumerator
or informant.
:enerally the degree of accuracy depends upon the
ob*ections of the en)uiry.
7xample: 1uring purchase of :old$ e"en 1&1J
th
gram in its weight is
significant.
.ut it is not the same in case of purchasing rice or wheat.
(e) (tatistical "ools to be used:
0ell defined or identifiable ob*ect or group of ob*ects that can
be measured or counted in a statistical in"estigation is called
statistical ?nit.
-n the absence of a clear and precise Statistical ?nit Serious
errors may be committed by collecting irrele"ant data. This will
ultimately lead to fallacious 30rong4 conclusions.
(f) (ources of Information:
The researcher has to decide about the source from which
the information can be obtained or collected.
1. 2irst hand data.
'. The data from other published sources. 3Cublications$
Eournal$ Maga6ines etc.4
(g) Method of 3ata &ollection:?
+J
1. Crimary 1ata.
'. Secondary 1ata.
1rimary 3ata:?
2irst hand data.
7ither /ensus# or Sample# techni)ue is to be used.
&ensus: Total no.of items ha"e to be in"estigated.
(ample: Selected representati"es from the total population ha"e to
be in"estigated.
&-;(8( (/M1L-
Total Bo. of items$ 1JJN !ccuracy
attained$ Time consuming$
7xpensi"e More Gabour.
Selected Representations$ 1JJN
!ccuracy cannot be attained$ Gess
time ta%en$ Gess expensi"e$ Gess
Gaborious.
Should be "ery cautious and careful while choosing a
particular method.
Methods of &ollecting 1rimary 3ata:
May be obtained by applying any of the following methods$
1. 1irect Cersonal -nter"iews.
'. -ndirect 5ral -nter"iews.
(. -nformation from /orrespondents.
+. Mailed )uestionnaire methods$
,. Schedule sent through 7numerators.
$% 3irect 1ersonal Inter0iews:
+1
! face to face contact is made with the informants.
-nter"iewer as%s them )uestions regarding the study and tries
to get the desired information.
The information thus collected is first hand and original.
Merits:
3i4 Response is encouraging when personally contacted.
3ii4 -nformation are more accurate 3if not found accurate$ he
can be reexamined or /ross9examined$ there by try to
obtain the information4.
3iii4 Cro"ides hope for getting supplementary information$ which
may be of greater use latter.
3i"4 ! delicate situation 3Some Cersonnel Duestions4 can
usually be handled more effecti"ely by a personnel
inter"iew than other sur"ey techni)ues.
3"4 The inter"iewer can ad*ust the language according to the
status and educational le"el of the person inter"iewed$
thereby can a"oid incon"enience and misinterpretation.
3emerits:
3i4 7xpensi"e > when the no. of informants is large.
3ii4 :reater chance of personnel bias and pre*udice. 3ta%ing a
decision before finding the full facts4.
3iii4 -nter"iewer should be thoroughly trained @ experienced.
3untrained personal will spoil the wor%4
3i"4 Time consuming 3-nter"iewers can be contacted only at the
con"enience of the informants4
&onclusion:
1irect personal -nter"iews can be used in -ntensi"e 2ield
Sur"ey rather than 7xtensi"e 2ield Sur"ey.
The present day of extreme ad"ancement in communication
system$ a good number of sur"ey$ can be conducted by Bews
+'
papers @ tele"ision channels by replying through e.mails @
SMS.
They are less expensi"e @ extremely )uic%.
1efects > Bo Chone or Tele"ision$ delicate @ sensiti"e
Duestions cannot be as%ed$ "alue answers.
'% Indirect :ral Inter0iews:
The in"estigator contact a third party called 0itnesses who is
capable of supplying necessary information.
:enerally adopted when the information to be obtained is
complex or the informer is not willing to re"eal the answers.
7xample: 0hen a drug addicted person is inter"iewed$ he will not be
willing to response directly$ so the information are gathered "ia
agents 3may be relati"es4.
The accuracy of this method depends on$
3i4 The pro"en integrity of the !gency&Cerson.
3ii4 !bility of the inter"iewer to act the right information from the
witness.
3iii4 .ribery or other reasons may twist the witness to gi"e false
information there by bringing a wrong conclusion.
&onclusion:
3i4 Get more care should be ta%en in the selection of 0itness#
because it is on their "iews$ the final conclusion is reached.
3% Information From &orrespondents:
The in"estigator appoints local agents or correspondents in
different places to collect information under this method.
These correspondents collect the information and transfer or
transmit the information to the central office where the data
are processed.
-4ample: Bews paper !gencies.
+(
:enerally these !gencies are paid staff$ sometimes honorary.
/d0antages:
1. /heap
'. /an be used to get regular information at regular inter"als
3daily$ wee%ly or monthly4.
3isad0antages:
3i4 Gac%s !ccuracy.
)% Mailed 5uestionnaire Method:
! list of )uestions pertaining to the sur"ey is %nown as
Duestionnaire. -t is prepared and sent to "arious informants
by post.
The )uestionnaire contains )uestions and pro"ides space for
answers.
! re)uest is made to the informants through a co"ering letter
to fill up the )uestionnaire and sent it bac% within a specified
time.
The )uestionnaire studied can be classified as$
14 The degree to which the )uestionnaire is formali6ed or
structure.
'4 The disguise&lac% of disguise of the )uestionnaire.
(4 The communication method used.
+4 0hen no formal )uestionnaire is used$ inter"iewers adopt
other tactics li%e showing pictures on which respondents
comments.
0hen a research follows a prescribed se)uence of Duestions
it is structured study#.
0hen no prescribed se)uence of Duestion exists$ the study is
Bon9Structured.
++
0hen the )uestionnaire is constructed in such a way that the
5b*ecti"e is clear 3the )uestionnaire4 it is %nown as Bon9
disguised.
0hen the ob*ecti"e is not clear$ the )uestionnaire is a
1isguised one.
5n this basis$ + types of studies can be distinguished$
3i4 Bon9disguised Structured.
3ii4 Bon9disguised Bon9structured.
3iii4 1isguised Structured.
3i"4 1isguised Bon9Structured.
Merits: Duestionnaire Methods$
314 7asily adopted in large populations and when the informants
are wide spread o"er a large geographical area.
3'4 Relati"ely cheap @ timely.
3(4 -nformation pertaining to personnel life or family or confidential
matters will be re"ealed in written rather than personal
inter"iews or telephones.
3emerits:
314 !pplicable only among literate people.
3'4 ?ncertainty of the Respondents lac%s co9operation.
3(4 Gac%s !ccuracy because the information may not be correct.
=uideline to make this method more -ffecti0e:
3i4 Crepaid postage stamp should be affixed.
3ii4 Sample should be large.
3iii4 Duestionnaire should be interesting.
3i"4 Gegal /ompulsion should be made to pro"ide in formations.
,% (chedules sent through -numerators:?
Sending Schedules through enumerators or inter"iewers.
+,
The enumerators contacts the informants$ gets replied to the
)uestions contained in the schedule and fill them in their own
handwriting.
8ere the )uestions are as%ed face to face and the response is
papered.
Merits:
314 !pplicable among illiterates.
3'4 Aery little scope for Bon9response$ as the enumerators go
personally.
3(4 -nformation are more Reliable @ !ccurate.
3emerits:
314 7xpensi"e > Since enumerators are paid personals.
3'4 Success > depends on the efficiency of the enumerators.
3(4 -nter"iewer re)uires training and experience.
3+4 Aariations in answers must be remo"ed to a"oid "ariations.
(econdary 3ata:
!re those data which ha"e already been collected and
analy6ed by some earlier agency for its own use and later the same
data is used by a different agency.
Sources of Secondary 1ata:
314 Cublished Sources.
3'4 ?npublished Sources.
$% 1ublished (ources:
The :o"ernment$ -nter Bational and local agencies publish
statistical data.
/hief !mong them$
(i) Inter ;ational 1ublications:?
+<
-nter Bational -nstitutions @ bodies li%e -.M.E.3-nternational
Monetary 2und4$ -...R.1. 3-nternational .an% of Reconstruction and
1e"elopment4$ -./.!.2.7. 3-nternational /onference on !griculture @
2ood 7ngineering4 and ?.B.5. ?nited Bations 5rgani6ation publish
regular @ occasional reports on 7conomics @ Statistical matters.
(ii) :fficial 1ublications of &entral + (tate =o0ernments:
Se"eral departments of the /entral and State :o"ernments
publish reports on different sub*ects.
-4ample:? Cublications are$
3a4 Reser"e .an% of -ndia .ulletin.
3b4 /ensus of -ndia.
3c4 Statistical !bstract of the states.
3d4 !gricultural Statistics of -ndia.
3e4 -ndian Trade Eournal.
(iii) (emi :fficial 1ublications:
3a4 -ndian Statistical -nstitute 3-.S.-4
3b4 -ndian /ouncil of !gricultural Research 3-./.!.R.4
3c4 -ndian !gricultural Statistics Research -nstitute 3-.!.S.R.-.4
Cublish the findings of their research programs.
(i0) 1ublications of 0arious commercial and financial
institutions%
(0) Reports of 0arious committees + commissions appointed by
the =o0ernment%
3a4 Ra* /ommittee#s Report on !gricultural Taxation.
3b4 0anchoo /ommittee#s Report on Taxation @ .lac% Money.
(0i) Bournals + ;ews 1apers:?
+=
Cowerful source of secondary data.
/urrent @ important matter can be obtained.
2rom Eournals @ Bews papers li%e 7conomic Times$
/ommerce /apital$ -ndian 2inance$ etc.$
8npublished (ources:
Records maintained by :o"ernment @ Cri"ate 5ffices.
Theses of Research Scholars from uni"ersities @ institutions.
1recautions in the use of secondary 3ata:
Croper scrutiny is made before they are used by in"estigator.
.e 7xtra9/autious while using secondary data.
Should not be accepted as such because the secondary data
may process$
3.ias$ -nade)uate Si6e$ Substitution$ errors of definition or
arithmetical errors4
Factors to be &onsidered before using the secondary 3ata:
(i) (uitability of 3ata:
ma%e sure that the data a"ailable is suitable for the purpose of
en)uiry.
(ii) /de#uacy of 3ata:
Ma%e sure that the data are sufficient or ade)uate for the
present analysis.
(iii) Reliability of 3ata:
The reliability of data is must$ without which there is no
meaning in the research.
The reliability of data can be tested by finding the agency that
has collected the data$ if the agency has used proper methods
for collection the data.
-3I"I;=:
+F
5nce data ha"e been obtained from primary or secondary
sources the next step in a statistical in"estigation is to edit the data.
3to Scrutini6e4.
5b*ecti"e$ editing is to detect possible errors and irregulations.
7diting needs great care and attention.
7diting Secondary data is simple but the data collected from
sur"ey 3Crimary 1ata4 need excessi"e editing.
-diting 1rimary 3ata6
3i4 The data should be complete in e"ery respect.
3ii4 The data should be accurate.
3iii4 The data should be consistant.
3i"4 The data should be homogenous
$% -diting For &ompleteness:
The editor should see that each schedule or )uestionnaire is
complete in all respects.
!nswers to e"ery )uestions is furnished.
-f not answered$ try to meet them in person to get the answers.
-f not *ust mar% Bo !nswer.
'% -diting For /ccuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends on the correctness of in
formations.
-f the information is wrong$ the conclusion can ne"er be "alid.
7ditor should see that the in formations are accurate in all
respects.
!rithmetic errors can be detected easily @ corrected.
-f the error is due to fault information supplied$ it may be
difficult to "erify.
3% -diting For &onsistency:
+I
7ditor should see that the answer to )uestions are not
contradictory in nature.
-4ample: !re you a student; Bo which class do you study; P
The answers are contradictory and such answers should
be classified.
)% -diting For 9omogeneity:
?nderstand the )uestions in the same sense.
/hec% uniform interpretation and ma%e sure the information
supplied by the "arious informants are homogenous @
uniform.
-4ample: -ncome 3Qearly$ Monthly$ 0ee%ly$ 1aily4
&hoice 2etween 1rimary + (econdary 3ata:
! proper choice between the type of data 3Crimary or
Secondary4 needed for a particular statistical in"estigations is to be
made by considering the nature$ ob*ecti"e$ scope of the study$ time
frame @ finances and the degree of precision aimed at$ and the
status of the !gency.
Bow$ Secondary data are generally used from fairly reliable
published data by :o"ernment$ Cri"ate organi6ations and
research agencies$ periodicals maga6ines etc.$
-n fact$ primary data are collected only if there do not exist any
secondary data.
-n some cases both Crimary @ Secondary data may be used.
58-("I:;;/IR-
Duestionnaire can be defined as a group of )uestions
designed to collect information from a specific sub*ect.
,J
3or4
Gist of )uestions sent to a number of persons for getting
answers and which obtains standardi6ed results that can be
tabulated and treated statistically.
3or4
Media of communication between the in"estigator and the
respondent.
:enerally used in social research when the population is
"aried$ large$ di"erse @ Scattered.
Should be designed with utmost care @ caution so that all the
needed information are collected without any difficulty.
1rafting a :ood )uestionnaire Re)uires > /are$ S%ill$ 0isdom$
efficiency and experience.
1oints to Remember: Dhile 3rafting / 5uestionnaire
($) (iAe of the 5uestionnaire:
3a4 Bo. of )uestions should be as small as possible depending on
the nature$ ob*ecti"es @ scope of the study.
3b4 Garge no.of )uestions may irritate the informants and may be
difficult to 7dit or Scrutini6e by the in"estigator.
3c4 !"oid irrele"ant and unimportant )uestions.
3d4 !"erage Bo. of )uestions should be 1, to ', 3at the most4.
3e4 -f it is more than ',$ di"ide it into "arious sections.
'% "he 5uestions should be &lear:
,1
Should be 7asy$ .rief$ ?nambiguous3/lear in meaning4$ Bon
offending$ courteous in tone$ corroborati"e 3Supporti"e4 in
nature @ to the point.
3% "he 5uestions should be arranged in a Logical (e#uence:
0hen arranged Gogically$ the answers can be easily tabulated
or coded > and does not lea"e any chance of omissions.
-4ample: To find if a person owns a tele"ision.
)% 5uestions should be simple to understand:
Aague @ 1ouble meaning words should be a"oided.
-4ample: Crice&/ost&Rate& /apital -ncome&Salary.
,% 5uestions should be &omprehensi0e(Includes -0erything)
and -asily /nswerable:
Duestions should be comprehensi"e 3i.e.4 it should include all
the needed in formations.
7asy to be answered. !"oid mathematical calculations li%e
Ratios$ Cercentages etc.$
.% 5uestions of 1ersonal /nd (ensiti0e ;ature (hould ;ot 2e
/sked:
!"oid personal )uestions which the respondent may feel shy
or irritated to answer.
-4ample: 1o do drin% ;
-f such )uestions are una"oidable$ a highest amount of
politeness should be used.
E% "ypes of 5uestionnaire:
(a) (hut 5uestions:
0here possible answers are suggested by the frames @ the
respondents are re)uested to the tic% one of them.
Two types of shut Duestions.
,'
(i) (imple /lternati0e 5uestions:
35therwise %nown as 1ichotomous )uestions4 /hoose from
two clear cut alternati"es Qes or Bo& Right or 0rong.
(ii) Multiple &hoice 5uestions:
0hen it is difficult to define a clear cut alternati"e$ additional
Duestions between Qes @ Bo is inserted$
-4ample: To find if a person smo%es; 1o you smo%e;
3a4 Qes$ Regularly 3 4
3b4 Bo$ Be"er 3 4
3c4 5ccasionally 3 4
3d4 Seldom 3rarely4 3 4
7asy @ /on"enient to answer.
Sa"e Time.
7asy to tabulate.
F% Leading 5uestions should be /0oided:
Gong Duestions leading to se"eral answers should be
a"oided. -t should be framed into short )uestions.
-4ample: 0hy do you use a particular type of car$ say Maruti /ar$
!"oid this continuous )uestions.
-nstead as%$
0hich car do you use ;
0hy do you prefer it ;
G% &ross &hecks:
Should be designed to pro"ide internal chec%s on the
accuracy of the in formations gi"en by the respondents.
,(
$7% 1re?"esting the 5uestionnaire:
Try out the Duestionnaire on a small scale before using in a
large scale.
The drawbac%s$ short comings and problems faced in the
small scale informants can be impro"ed or modified when
used in large scale.
$$% / &o0ering Letter:
! /o"ering Getter should be enclosed for the purpose
regarding definitions$ concepts @ purpose.
!ttach a self addressed en"elope in case of mailed
)uestionnaire.
Mentions about !wards or incenti"es for )uic% reply.
Cromise to send a sur"ey copy of the report.
99999999999999
(/M1LI;=
! carefully designed sample may actually be better than a
poorly planned and executed census.
Merits:
$% It sa0es time:
Sa"es time because fewer items are collected and processed.
'% It Reduces &ost:
Since only few items are studied$ there is reduction in cost @
reduction in man power.
3% More Reliable Results can be :btained:
,+
Sampling is more Reliable because
3i4 fewer chance of sampling error.
3ii4 7xperience$ Trained @ Technical people can be employed to
process @ analy6e the data.
)% It pro0ides more detailed in formations:?
More detailed information can be obtained by sample sur"ey.
,% :nly (ampling Method to depend upon:
0hen the population is large and finite$ the only method
applicable is sampling.
.% /dministration &on0enience:
The organi6ation and administration is easy in sample sur"ey.
E% More (cientific:
Results can be tested since more scientific.
(hortcomings (or) 3emerits
$% Illusory (False) &onclusion:
-f sampling is not carefully planned @ executed$ the
conclusions may be false.
'% (ample ;ot Representati0e:
-f the sample ta%en from the population is not the right
representati"e$ the result may be false or misleading.
3% Lack of -4perts:
,,
-f there is a lac% of experts to plan$ execute and analy6e the
samples$ the result would be unsatisfactory.
)% 1ersonal 2ias:
There may be personal bias @ pre*udice in choosing the
sampling techni)ues.
,% (iAe of (ample:
-f the si6e of the sample is not appropriate$ it leads to untrue
conclusions.
-ssentials of (ampling:
$% It must be the right representati0e:
The Sample selected should process the similar
characteristics of the original uni"erse.
'% 9omogeneity:
Selected samples should be homogenous with the samples @
the uni"erse.
3% /de#uate (amples:
! good number of items should be included for the study.
)% :ptimiAation:
! proper si6e of sample should be maintained to ha"e
optimi6ed results in terms of cost @ efficiency.
(tatistical Laws:
Induction:
,<
The logical process of drawing a general conclusion from the
study of representati"e items is called -nduction.
Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of Statistics
theory
3i4 Gaw of Statistical Regularity
3ii4 The Gaw of -nertia of Garge Bumbers.
"he Law of (tatistical:
Regularity: 3Mathematical Theory of Crobability4$ States$
! moderately large number of items chosen at random from
a "ery large group are almost sure to ha"e the characteristics of the
large group.
1roof:
1. !"erage income of 1$JJJ people is to be found out$
'. 0e ta%e a sample of 1JJ people @ find the a"erage.
(. !nother person ta%es 1JJ people @ find the a"erage.
The !"erage income found by both the persons will ha"e least
difference.
-f the a"erage income of the same 1JJJ people is found out by
census$ the result will be more or less the same.
'% Law of Inertia of Large ;umbers:
-t States$ 5ther ?sing being e)ual$ as the sample si6e
increases$ the results tend to be more accurate @ reliable.
(ampling -rror:
The de"iations or difference between the actual population
and the sample representati"e.
,=
Reasons For (ampling -rror:
1. 2aulty Selection of Sample
'. Substitution
3% Faulty 3emarcation (3emographic limit) of sampling 8nit:
-n case of !rea sampling the sampling units at the borders
should be decided if to ta%e it or re*ect it.
)% Faulty estimation techni#ues:
0rong selection of sampling techni)ues.
"ypes of (ampling -rrors:
(i) 2ias -rror:
/aused due to bias or pre*udice on the part of the informant.
(ii) 8nbias -rror:
7rror caused due to the Bormal /ourse of in"estigation.
Reducing (ampling -rror:
Sampling 7rror can be reduced by increasing the si6e of the
sample.
99999999
-H1-RIM-;"(
,F
7xperiment is the process of examining the truth of a statistical
8ypothesis related to some research problem.
7xperiments are of two types$
1. !bsolute 7xperiment.
'. /omparati"e 7xperiment.
!bsolute 7xperiment:
0hen a researcher wants to determine the impact of a
fertili6er on the yield of a crop$ it is a case of !bsolute 7xperiment.
/omparati"e 7xperiment:
0hen a researcher wants to determine the impact of one
fertili6er as compared to the impact of some other fertili6er$ it will be
called as /omparati"e 7xperiment.
Research 3esign are of three types6
1. Research design in case of descripti"e @ diagnostic studies.
'. Research design in case of exploratory Research studies.
(. Research design in case of 8ypothesis Testing Research Studies.
Research 3esign In case of 9ypothesis "esting Research
(tudies:
8ypothesis testing research studies are generally %nown as
7xperimental studies.
The researcher test the casual relationship between the
"ariables.
Crofessor 2isher is considered as the pioneer of this type of
studies. 37xperimental Studies4
8e performed this study when he was wor%ing at a !gricultural
Research Station in Gondon.
,I
8is found out that$ by di"iding plots into different bloc%s and
then by conducting experiments in each of these bloc%s$
whate"er in formations is collected and inference drawn from
them can be more reliable Crofessor 2isher laid three
principles of 7xperimental 1esigns$
1. The Crincipal of Replication
'. The Crincipal of Randomi6ation.
(. The Crincipal of Gocal /ontrol.
"he 1rincipal of Replication :
The 7xperiment should be repeated more than once.
The treatment is applied to many experimental units.
The information collected and the inference drawn from these
experimental units will be more reliable and statistically
accruable.
!im: To examine the effect of two "arieties of paddy.
-4ample: ! paddy field is di"ided into ' parts. :row one "ariety in
one part and the other "ariety in the other. Then we compare the
yield of the two parts.
1raw conclusion on that basis.
;o 1rinciple of Replication is
2ield
Cart - Cart -
Treatment /ompare the yield of the two
parts.
5ne "ariety !nother
rrrrrr
rrrrrr
rrrrrr
rrrrrr
rrrrrr
rrrrrr
<J
of Caddy Aariety of Caddy.
Dhen 1rinciple of Replication is used:
2irst di"ide the field into se"eral parts.
:row one "ariety in half of the parts and the other "ariety in
the remaining parts.
/ollect the information of the two "arieties and draw the
conclusion by comparing both.
The Results so obtained will be more reliable and accurate
compared to the results drawn without using the principle of
Replication.
The 7xperiment can be repeated se"eral times.
2ield
Treated

/onclusion drawn.
Carts
'% "he 1rinciple of RandomiAation:
Crinciple of Randomi6ation Cro"ides us a protection against
the effects of 7xtraneous Aariables.
The "ariations or effects caused by these extraneous "ariables
can be combined under the heading /hance.
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
rr rr R r r
<1
-4ample: 0hen the researcher grows one "ariety of paddy in the
first half of the field and the other "ariety in the next half of the field$
there may be a possibility or chance that the soil fertility of the first
half of the field may be different in comparison to the next half.
-n this case$ he may go on to culti"ate the two "arieties of
paddy in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling techni)ue.
3i.e.4 8e may apply Randomi6ation principle and protect himself
from the effects of the 7xtraneous 2actors.
.y using Randomi6ation Crinciple a better estimate can be
drawn.


0hen treated
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
rr rr r r r
<'
/onclusion drawn is
more
accurate.
3/an protect 7ffects of 7xtraneous Aariables4
3% "he 1rinciple of Local &ontrol:
The extraneous "ariable which is a %nown source of "ariability
can be made to "ary extensi"ely or deliberately o"er a wide
range.
Bow the "ariability it causes can be measured and eliminated.
-n short$ through the principle of Gocal /ontrol$ we can
eliminate the "ariability due to extraneous factors from the
experimental error.
The extraneous "ariable is brought to a control.
Iinds of -4perimental 3esign:
7xperimental 1esign refers to the framewor% of the structure
of an experiment.
/lassified into ' .road /ategories$
1. -nformal 7xperimental designs.
'. 2ormal 7xperimental designs$
<(
Informal -4perimental 3esigns:
1esigned based only on the difference between the
magnitudes or performance.
Three Types$
1. .efore and after without control design.
'. !fter 5nly with /ontrol design.
(. .efore and after with control design.
2efore and after without control design:
/onsider a test group$
(tep%$: The dependent "ariable is measured before introduction of
the treatment.
(tep%': The treatment is introduced.
(tep%3: The dependent "ariable is measured after the treatment has
been introduced.
(tep%): -nference:
"he effect of the "reatment : The le"el o the phenomenon after the
treatment.
The le"el of the phenomenon before the treatment.
Test !rea Ge"el of Chenomenon Treatment Ge"el of
Chenomenon
-ntroduced
.efore Treatment 3P4 !fter Treatment 3Q4
R 7ffect of the Treatment K 3Q4 > 3P4
<+
3emerit:
0ith the passage of time$ se"eral extraneous "ariable may be
there in the treatment effect.
(') /fter only with control 3esign:
(tep%$: Two !reas are selected$ the control !rea @ the test area.
(tep%': The treatment is introduced in the test area alone.
(tep%3: The dependent "ariable in both the areas are measured$ at
the same time.
(tep%): Treatment 7ffect is calculated by subtracting the "alue of the
dependent "ariable in the control area from its "alue in the test area.
"reatment: $
-ffect K Aalue of dependent "ariable in the
control !rea > Aalue of 1ependent Aariable in the test area.
Test !rea Treatment -ntroduced Ge"el of
Chenomenon 3Q4
<,
/ontrol !rea Bo Ge"el of
Chenomenon 3S4
Treatment
(3) 2efore /nd /fter with &ontrol 3esign:
(tep%$: -n this design$ two areas are selected and the dependent
"ariables in both the areas are measured for an identical time period
before treatment.
(tep%': Treatment is introduced only in the test area.
(tep 3 : The dependent "aluable is measured on both the areas
3control
area @ test area4 for an identical time period.
(etp) : The effect of the treatment is determined by subtracting the
change in the dependent "aluable in the control area with the charge
in the dependent "aluable of the test area.
<<
"reatment :?
7ffect K 33Q4 > 3P44 > 33S493!44
Merits: !"oids 7xtraneous "ariables resulting from passage of time and
non
comparability of control and test areas.
II Formal -4perimental 3esign:
5ffer relati"ely more control and use specific statistical procedures
for analysis types$
14 /omplete Randomi6ed design 3:enerally called /.R. 1esign4
'4 Randomi6ed .loc% 1esign 3R... 1esign4
(4 Gatin S)uare 1esign 3G.S. 1esign4
+4 2actorial 1esigns .
314 /ompletely Randomi6ed 1esign :9
-n"ol"es two principals$ the principle of replication and the principle
of Randomi6ed of the experimental designs.
The items are randomly assigned do experimental treatments.
This design is simpler and easier.
7xample: -t the research has ' items of 'J parts and if he wishes to
test to under treatment .$ this completely randomi6ed design gi"es
e"ery possible group of 1J items selected from a set of 'J$ an e)ual
chance of being assigned to treatment ! @ treatment ..
5ne way analysis of "ariance 3one way !B5A!4 is used to analy6e
such a design.
<=
'% RandomiAes 2lock 3esign:?
The sub*ects or items are first di"ided into groups$ %nown as
J2locks>
See that$ the items in each group or blac% is homogenous.
Randomly select items from each gi"en bloc% and assign treatment.
7xtraneous "ariables can be fixed and can be measured.
The main feature of this study is$ each treatment appears the same
no of times in each bloc%.
This design is analy6ed two way analyses of "ariance 3two way
!B5A!4 techni)ue.
3% Latin (#uare 3esign:?
?sed in !gricultural Research.
<F
G.S 1esign is used when two or more extraneous "ariables is
found.
-4ample: -ffect of fertiliAer on the field of wheat is do be determined%
8ere along with the effect of fertili6er$ the fertility of the soil must
be considered.
-f the facility of the soil is not considered along with the fertili6er
the result obtained may be dependable.
Similarly the impact of the "arious seeds used many also "ary the
yield.
To o"er come this difficulty G.S design is used.
7ach fertili6er 3P1$ P'$ P($ P+$ P,4 will appear , items but will be
used only once in each row and in each coloumn.
-4ample: Bo treatment occurs more than once.
- -- --- -A A
P1 ! . / 1 7
P' . / 1 7 !
P( / 1 7 ! .
P+ 1 7 ! . /
P, 7 ! . / 1
&onclusion :
The field is di"ided into se"eral bloc%s 3-$ --$ ---$ -A @ A4 and there are
"ariety of fertili6er 3P1$ P'$ P($ P+$ P,4.
.ut each fertili6er is used in each bloc% only once.
a two way /;:*/ techni)ue.
<I
)% Factorial 3esign :
!re used in experiments where the effect of the depended "ariable$
when affected by more than one "ariable is to be determined.
?sed in social @ economic studies where usually large no of factors
affect a particular problem.
2actorial design are of two types:
- . Simple 2actorial design
--. /omplex 2actorial designs.
(imple Factorial 3esign :
0hen the effect of the dependent "ariable is affect by only two
factors$ it is simple factorial designs.
5therwise %nown as T05 factors 2actorial 1esign.
&omple4 Factorial 3esign :
This design is used when more than two factors at a time affects the
dependent "ariable.
5r the design considers three or more independent "ariable.
The greater the no of independent "ariable$ the higher the order of
interaction$ analysis possible.
/d0antage :
!ccuracy
/an determine the effects of more "ariable in a single experiment.
=J
:2(-R*/"I:;
5bser"ation is defined as a planned method of watching that
in"ol"es constraints 3steps4 to impro"e accuracy.
&haracteristics of :bser0ation :
i. 5bser"ation are direct
ii. ta%es place in natural situations
iii. Gess Structured.
i". Ma%es only )uantitati"e study.
/pplicable in :
1. Gife styles
'. 7ncounters & Settlement.
(. Relationships
+. :roups & 5rgani6ation.
/cc% to 2lock + &amion :
1. 5bser"ed in natural surroundings
=1
'. ?nderstands e"ents affecting social relations.
(. -dentifies regulati"es in social life.
+. 8ypothesis free en)uiry.
,. !"oids manipulations of independent "ariable.
<. Recording is not selecti"e.
3ifferentiate -4perimental "echni#ue + :bser0ation "echni#ue :
-4perimental "echni#ue :bser0ation "echni#ue
Bo such controls
Bot !lways
/onducted in smaller units
Bo so. Study is towards sharpening
the *udgment.
Bo so.
2ew /ontrols.
5bser"ation is natural conducted in
large unit. 2ewer sub*ects are
watched for long period .Study is
directed towards sensiti6ing the
obser"er & e"ents.
.eha"ior obser"ed is more different.
("/"I("I&/L /;/L@(I(
='
1robability: -S a measure of the expectation that an certain e"ent will
occur.
Crobability "alue ranges from J91.
"he Main terms pertaining to probability theory:?
$%Random -4periment: !n experiment which can be repeated under the
same conditions and the outcome cannot be prod iced is %nown as
Random 7xperiment.
-4ample:? 0hen a coin is tossed6 we cannot predict whether head or tail
is going to occur.
'%(ample (pace:? ! set of possible outcomes of a random experiment is
%now as sample space.
-4ample: 0hen a coin is tossed twice the possible outcomes are 88$ 8T$
T8 @ TT$ -T is represented$
( K (996 9"6 "96 "")
3%/n -0ent: !ny possible outcome of an experiment is %now as an e"ent.
7xample: 0hen a coin is tossed twice$ 88 is an e"ent.
!n e"ent can be classified as$
a% (imple -0ent: 0hich has only one sample point
-4ample: 88$ TT.
b% &ompound -0ent: 0hich has more than one sample point.
=(
-4ample : T8.
d% &omplimentary -0ent : ! and !# are complementary e"ents$ if !#
consists of all the sample point which is not included in !# than the sum of
the probability of the sample space is e)ual to 1.8ence C3!#49C3!#4 C3!#4
TC3!#4 K 1 C3!#4 K 1 > C3!#4.
7xample: 0hen a dice is thrown$ the probability of odd Bumbers turn up
are complimentary to e"en number turn up.
! K 1$($,
!1 K '$+$<
e% Mutually -4clusi0e -0ent: / and . two mutually exclusi"e e"ent$ if !
pre"ents the occurrence of ..
7xample: 0hen a coin is tossed once the occurrence of 8ead pre"ents
the occurrence of Tail.
-f ! and . are mutually exclusi"e e"ents than the probability of occurrence
of ! or . is the sum of their indi"iduals probability.
C3!?.4 K C3!4 T C3.4.
-f ! and . is *oint sets$ than the addition theorem of probability can be
stated as.
C3!?.4 K C3!4 T C3.4 > C3!.4
=+
f% Independent -0ent: ! and . are in dependant e"ent$ if the occurrence
of ! does not influence the occurrence of . these two e"ents are called
independents e"ents.
-4ample: 0hen a coin is tossed twice the occurrence of head in the first
toss dose not influence the toss in the second coin.
Croduct of ! and . is the product of their indi"iduals probability C3!.4 K
C3!4 P C3.4.
Crobability 1istribution: -2 P# is total no of success discrete Random
"ariables which ta%es the "alue of P1$P'$ P(........... Pn$ C1$C'$Cn then
follows the probability distribution.
1roperties of probability 3istribution C ' Main properties:
1. C3P14 is greater than or e)ual Sero and less than or e)ual & one
37xpressed in fractions4.
'. The sum of all be probability distribution will be e)ual to one.
-4ample: 0hen a coin is tossed Twice the probability distribution is$
P3 probability of obtaining hed4 K J$1$' C3P14 K U$ V$ U K U.
-4pectation of 1robability: Get P# be the discrete Random Aariable$
which ta%es the "alue P1$ P'$ P(..........Pn
Respecti"e probability is C1$ C'$ C( ............ Cn
7xpectation of Crobability distribution: C1P1 T C'P'............CnPn.
Crobability 1istribution K 3J x 1&+4 T 31 x 1&'4 T 3' x U4 K 1.
=,
.inomial 1istribution: ! .inomial experiment is a statistical experiment. -t
has the following properties$
3i4 The experiment consists of LnM repeated trials.
3ii4 7ach trail can result in *ust two possible outcomes. 0e call one of
this outcomes as J(uccess> and the other JFailure> .
3iii4 The probability of success is denoted by L1M$ in e"ery trail and the
probability of failure is denoted by l > p or )#.
3i"4 The trials are independent.
3"4 The outcome on one trail dose not affect the outcome of other
trials.
;otations: P > The number of successes that result from the .inomial
7xperiment.
n 9 The no of trail in the binomial experiment.
C > The probability of success on an indi"idual trial.
/ 9 Bo of coefficient .
.inomial 2ormula : Suppose a .inomial experiment consists of n# 9999999
and result in P# successes @ if the probability of success on an indi"iduals
trial is C$ then the .inomial probability is 2 (46 n6 p) K n&4 H 14 H ($ ! 1)
+
/oefficient of .inomial 1istribution: The binomial coefficients are the
coefficients in the expansion of two terms 3x T 14n.
The coefficient of xr in 3xT14n is denoted by n/r or 3n&r4.
7xample: The coefficient of 3xT14' K 3xT14 3xT14
=<
K 1x' T x TxT1
K 1x' T 'x T1
The /onfidents are K 1T'T1
The coefficient of 3xT14( K 3xT14 3xT14 3xT14
K 3x'T'xT14 3xT14
K x( T x' T'x' T'x TxT1
K x( T (x' T(x T1
The /oefficient is K 1. ( .( 1
The Cascal triangle lists out all the .inomial /oefficient.
1
1 1
1 ' 1 3xT14'
1 ( ( 1 3xT14(
1 + < + 1 3xT14+
1 , 1J 1J , 1 3xT14 ,
1 < 1, 'J 1, < 1 3xT14<
1 = '1 (, (, '1 = 1 3xT14=
7xample: ! coin is tossed 2our Times what is the probability of obtaining
two or more heads; .
Step >- : 0hen a coin is tossed 5ne time$ the probability of 8ead# of tail is
e)ual$
==
3ie4 C K ) K1&'.
Step > -- : The "arious possibilities of 8ead and tail e"ents will be$
3pT)4+ K 1p+ T +p() T<p() T <p')' T +p)( T1)+
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
1p+ K 31&'4 where C K 1&'4 3) K 1&'.4
K V x V x V x 1&'
K 1&1<
+p() K +x31&'4( x V K + x V x V x V x V
<p')' K < x31&' x V x V x1&' K (&F
Therefore$ the probability of obtaining ' or more heads is$
(&F T U T 1&1< K 11&1<
'. C5SS-5B 1-STR-.?T-5B:
0hen C# is "ery small 3Success rate is extremely small4 and n# is
"ery large 3total no of trail items of e"ents is large4 then C5-SS5B
distribution is used.
C > 5 3Successes approach 6ero4 3np K m is finite4
=F
The experimental result in outcomes that can be classified as
Successes or failure4.
P > The !ctual Bumber of successes that occurs in a specific region.
C 3x$ u4 K 3eu4 3ux4
999999999999999999999999
x1
This is Coisson formula here we conduct a Coisson experiment in
which the a"erage number of successes within a gi"en region is ?#. Then
the Coisson probability is as abo"e .
0here x is the !ctual number of successes.
e# is e)ual to '.=1F'F.
u# is the mean of the distribution.
The a"erage number of successes 3u4 that occurs in a specified
region is %nown.
The probability of success is proportional to the si6e of the region.
The probability of successes occurring in an extremely small region
"irtually 6ero.
;otations:
e# K ! constant e)ual to approximately '.=1F'F.
u K The mean 3a"erage4 no of success that occurs in a specific region.
=I
7xample: The a"erage no of homes sold by ! really company is ' 8omes
per day. 0hat is the probability that exactly ( homes will be sold
tomorrow;.
u K ' 3!"erage of ' homes sold per day4
x K ( 3( homes will be sold tomorrow4
e K '.=1F'F 3/onstant4
1oisson Formula:
C 3x$ u4 K 3eu4 3ux4
999999999999999999999999
x
C3($ '4 K 3'.='F'FW4 3'X4
9999999999999999999999999999999
1 x ' x (
K 3J.1(,(+4 3F4&<
K J.1FJ
;ormal 3istribution and its properties:
Bormal distribution refers do a family of continuous probability
distribution described by the normal e)uation.
FJ
;ormal -#uation:
The "alue of the random "ariable Q# is 9 3x >u4 W&'W
1
Q K Y x / 3/oefficient4
Z'
0here P# is a normal Random "ariable.
u# is the mean
# is the standard de"iation
[ is constant 3(.1+1,I4
e# is constant 3'.=1F'F4
(tandard 3e0iation:
Represented by # it means how much "ariance 3difference4 or
dispersion exist from the a"erage.
7xample: K Aariance 3Root of its "ariance let us consider a population
has eight "alues$ '$+$+$+$,$,$=$I.
Mean: 'T+T+T+T,T,T=TI
9999999999999999999999999
F
K +J&F K , 14 difference between the mean @ the mean @ the "aliance
"alue is ta%en.
Standard 1e"iation ', s)uare the "alue.
F1
3' 9 ,4 W K 39(4 W K I 3 + > ,4 W K 3914 W K1 3, > ,4 W K JW K J
3+ > ,4 W K 91W K 1 3 + > ,4 W K 3914 W K1 3= > ,4 W K 'W K +
3, > ,4 W K 3J4 W K J
Rate of Z IT1T1T1TJTJT+T1< (F
9999999999999999999999999999 K Y K +&9
F F
-4ample: !n a"erage light bulb manufactured by !cme /orporation lasts
(JJdays with a standard de"iation of ,J days. !ssuming that the bull life is
normally distributed what is the probability that an !cme light bulb will last
at most (<, days;
!nswer: The "alue of the normal Random "aluable 3P4 K (<, days.
The mean 3u4 K (JJ days standard de"iation K ,J days.
Bormal 1istribution Q K 1 x e3xu4 W
Z'
1
K Y
,JZ' x (.1+1,I x '.=1F'F > 3(<, > (JJ4 W&' x ,J

1
K Y
,J x <J1( x '.=1F'F&1JJ K 1&(J<., x '=1 K FF+&&
Q K .FF or FFN
8ence there is an FFN chance that the bulb will last most (<, days.
F'