Research Designs

J.Hamill@lmu.ac.uk
Colinwatsonleeds.co.uk

Research Design
Is a structure that provides the framework for the collection and analysis of data. The design influences your choice of research methods. Research Methods is a technique for collecting data.

Knowing your approach

has implications for your strategies
Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626

What kind of evidence is acceptable/ appropriate.

How such evidence is collected.

How the evidence is interpreted.

4.2 The need for a clear research strategy

FIRST, be clear about your research questions and objectives. A strategy is a general plan of how you will go about answering your research question(s). It will contain clear objectives derived from the question. You must specify the data sources. Consider the constraints e.g access, time, location, money, ethical issues.

Research Design

Be clear about your research question(s) and objectives. You will need to provide valid reasons for all your choices. The justification must be based on your research questions and objectives. Think carefully about every stage!

Types of research design

experiment survey case study comparative grounded theory ethnography action research cross-sectional and longitudinal Note: They are not mutually exclusive
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Experimental Design
Rare in Social Studies, has been used in social psychology. Method of the natural sciences = positivist

Experiment
Sir Isaac Newton

Involves: the definition of a theoretical hypothesis; the selection of samples of individuals from known populations; allocations of samples to different experimental conditions; introduction of a planned change on one or more of the variables; measurement on a small number of the variables; control of other variables.

Survey
Cross sectional design. Data collected by questionnaire or structured interview from a sample of respondents Looking for patterns of association / correlation.

Surveys
Allied to the deductive approach; Are economical but you need time to design and pilot the questionnaire; Often involve qaires but can also involve structured observation.

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Research questions appropriate for a survey

1. Behaviour. 2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions. 3. Characteristics.

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Research questions appropriate for a survey

4. Expectations.

5. Self-classification.
6. Knowledge.

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Main advantages of survey

ability to collect large amounts of data; the relatively cheap cost at which these data may be collected; perceived as authoritative by some;

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The more structured the techniques...

A) The more respondents can be involved B) The easier coding and pre-coding becomes

C) The easier quantification, comparison and measurement becomes

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The more structured the techniques...

D) The easier it becomes to analyse statistically
E) The greater reliability likely reliability is about accuracy, consistency, precision and lack of error- the ability to produce results which are dependable, repeatable.

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But, the more structured the techniques...

A) The less possibility for understanding respondents meanings and motives
B) The greater the possibility of validity problems arising e.g. do all respondents interpret qs the same way?

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But, the more structured the techniques...

C) The more the richness of qualitative accounts is lost D) The less it tells us about the subjective world of the respondentshence the need for a phenomenological /naturalistic inquiry.

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Case Study
Detailed / Intensive analysis of a single case. School, Community, Family, Organisation. Can be both quantitative and qualitative. If qualitative likely to use inductive approach.

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Case Study
Issue of Generalisability, how can a single case be representative. Case study offers intensive examination of a single case, key issue is not Generalisability but development of ideas / theory = inductive.

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Comparative Research

Comparison, learn more about social phenomena = welfare state, impact of legislation if we compare to a different setting

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Grounded theory
Data collection starts without any formal theoretical framework.
Theory is developed from data by a series of observations, which leads to the generation of predictions that are tested in further observations, which may confirm or otherwise the predictions. Barney Glaser GTI

Theory is grounded in continual reference to the data. .

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Ethnography
Firmly rooted in the inductive approach.

Developed out of field work in anthropology.

Purpose : to interpret the world the way the locals interpret it. Is time consuming./ problems of access. Linked to participant observation.
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Ethnography
Listens to and engages in conversations Interviews informants Collects documents Develop understanding of culture and peoples behaviour within the context of

that culture.

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Action Research
Action researcher and client = school, hospital, prison collaborate in the definition of a problem and development of a solution. Emphasis is on problem solving / practical solutions which are validated through practise

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Cross Sectional Design

Usually associated with social survey. Research data is collected at a single point of time. Select a number of cases for study and thus allow for an explanation of variation.

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Cross-Sectional Design
Interested in looking at relationships between variables = draw causal inferences. Can be both qualitative and quantitative

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Longitudinal Designs
Involves time / costs. Occurs over a period of time thus more able to draw causal inferences. Panel Study is based on a random sample.

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Longitudinal Design
Cohort study, a sample of people who share a certain characteristic = age, unemployment. Problems of this approach are

Sample attrition Panel conditioning affects how respondents behave.

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4.3 Multi-method approaches

Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched
e.g. Qualitative and quantitative, Primary and secondary data. e.g. Interviews can be part of exploratory work Which method??? No easy answers. Bear in mind your research objectives first.
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4.3 Multi-method approaches

Triangulation: refers to the use of different methods within one study in order to ensure that the data are telling you what they think they are telling you. e.g semi-structured interviews alongside qares to ensure greater confidence in your conclusions.

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Four Criteria for Evaluation of Social Research

Reliability Replication Validity Generalisability (External Validity)

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Interpreting Data

Reliability: were your work to be repeated by another researcher, would the same result be produced?

If so then your research may be judged as reliable

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Replication

Close to reliability, someone may wish to replicate your research.

Thus need to spell out in detail definitions, steps you undertook in doing the research.

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Validity
Do your methods actually measure the issues you have been researching. This relates to the integrity of your conclusions

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Generalisability
Also known as external validity.

Are your findings generalisable to other contexts, e.g. other organisations?

Particularly applies to single case studies. Be clear about your claims - if you do not claim that it is possible to generalise to other settings then say so.

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Summary

The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research. Again, you should not think of these as discrete entities. There may be a combination of some of these in the same research project.

Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.

Multi-method approaches to research mean that different Purposes may be served and that triangulation of results is facilitated.

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Summary

You should take care to ensure that your results are valid and reliable.

You should always think carefully about the ethical issues implied by the choice of your research strategy.

Good luck!
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