Lecture 9

Qualitative Research
Methodology
 Lecture Outline
 Overview
 Quantitative Research: A Recap
 Qualitative Research
 Distinction between Quantitative and
Qualitative research
 Strengths and Weakness of Qualitative
Research
 Steps in Qualitative Research
 Qualitative Research Methods – three
methods
 Sampling Design
◦ Probability and Non-probability
 Overview
• The selection of which research approach is
appropriate in a given study should be based
upon the problem of interest, resources
available, the skills and training of the
researcher, and the audience for the
research.

• Although some research may incorporate

both quantitative and qualitative
methodologies – there are significant
differences in the assumptions underlying
these approaches, data collection and
analysis procedures.
 Quantitative RM – Recap…
 A process of inquiry based on testing a
theory composed of variables,
measured with numbers, and analyzed
using statistical techniques.

 The goal of quantitative methods is to

determine whether the predictive
generalization of a theory hold true.
 Assumptions underlying Quantitative RM
 Reality is objective - reality is something that can
be studied objectively.

 The researcher remain distant and independent of

what is being researched.

 Research is based primarily on deductive forms of

logic, and theories and hypotheses are tested in a
cause-effect order.

 The goal is to develop generalization that

contribute to theory that enable the researcher to
predict, explain, and understand a phenomenon.
 Qualitative Research
 Process of inquiry that focus on understanding a
social or human problem from multiple
perspectives and in a natural setting.

 Researcher who use qualitative methods seek a

deeper truth.
◦ They aim to “study things in their natural setting",
attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of meanings people bring to
them.

 The goal of qualitative research is to develop an

understanding of a social or human problem.
 Assumptions underlying Qualitative RM
• Reality is subjective. Multiple realities exist in any
given situation.

• Researcher interact and minimize the distant.

• Research is based on inductive forms of logic.
• Goal - uncover and discover patterns or theories
that help explain a phenomenon of interest (new
questions arise from answer).

• E.g. case studies, grounded theory, ethnographic

studies and phenomenological studies.
 Qualitative vs quantitative research
 Quantitative and qualitative research
methods differ primarily in:
✓their analytical objectives
✓the types of questions they pose
✓the types of data collection
instruments used
✓the forms of data produced
✓the degree of flexibility built into study
design
 Quantitative
General •Seek to confirm hypotheses
Framework • Use of more rigid instruments
• Use highly structured methods
- questionnaires, surveys &
structured observation
• Macro (larger sample)
Analytical •To quantify variation
Objectives •To predict causal relationships
Question •Closed-ended
format
Data format •Numerical & statistics
Flexibility in •Study design is stable from
research beginning to end
design •Participant responses do not
influence which questions
researchers ask
•Study design is subject to
statistical assumptions &
conditions
Qualitative
•Seek to explore phenomena
• Use more flexible instruments
• Use semi-structured methods -
in-depth interviews, focus groups,
and participant observation
• Micro (small sample)
•To describe variation
•To describe & explain
relationships
•Open-ended
•Textual , images or objects
•Some aspects of the study are
flexible (e.g. no fixed interview
questions)
•Participant responses affect the
questions researchers ask
•Study design is iterative, that is,
data collection and research
questions are adjusted according
 Strength of Qualitative Research
• Data based on the participants’ own responses.
• Useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth
(individual & cross-case comparisons).
• Useful for describing complex phenomena.
• Provides understanding & description of people’s personal
experiences of phenomena.
• The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e.,
documenting sequential patterns and change)
• The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method to
inductively generate a tentative theory about a phenomenon
• Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings.
• Qualitative researchers are especially responsive to
changes that occur during the conduct of a study (especially
during extended fieldwork) and may shift the focus of their
studies as a result.
 Weakness of Qualitative Research
Knowledge produced might not generalize to
other people or other settings (i.e., findings
might be unique to respondents included in the
research study).
 It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
 It is more difficult to test hypotheses and
theories.
 It generally takes more time to collect the data
when compared to quantitative research.
 Data analysis is often time consuming.
 The results are more easily influenced by the
researcher’s personal biases.
An outline of the main steps of qualitative research
1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subject

3. Collection of relevant data

4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical work

5a. Tighter specification of the research question (s)

5b. Collection of further data

5c. Interpretation of data

6. Writing up findings/conclusions
What are some qualitative research
methods?

In-depth
Interviews

Participant Focus
Observation Group

Methods
In summary doing qualitative research
involves…
 inductive logic
 non probability sampling
 understanding perspectives of participants
 using open-ended questions & observation
 exploring types & meanings, structures, and
processes
 obtaining feedback from participants
 Theory building and hypotheses development
 Worth noting…….
 Quantitative and qualitative research are often cast
as opposing fields. Both can be also be combined
in a project.
 Qualitative can facilitate quantitative research
◦ (1) can provide hypotheses
◦ (2) fill in the gaps, help interpret relationships
 Quantitative can facilitate qualitative through
locating interviewees and help with generalising
findings
 Together they can give you a micro and macro
level versions and so you can examine the
relationships between the two levels. They can
complement each other.
 Sampling
What is sampling?
◦ process of selecting a few (sample) from a
bigger group (sampling population) so that
estimation or prediction is made with regard
to the prevalence of a particular unknown
piece of information concerning the big
group.
◦ sample is a subgroup of the population in
which one is interested. The population is
usually denoted by N and sample size is n.
◦ Researchers work with samples rather than
populations because it is more economical
and practical.
 Sampling Design
• The basic idea of sampling – by selecting
some of the elements in population – may
draw conclusions about the entire population.

• Samples should be purposeful – provide a

clear criterion or rationale for the selection of
participants that relates to the research
question.

• Findings are limited by the sampling process.

 Basic terms and concepts in sampling
 Population – the universe of units from which the
sample is to be selected.
 Sample – segment of the population that is selected
for investigation. Method of selection maybe based
on probability & non-probability approach.
 Sampling frame – the lists of all units in the
population from which the sample will be selected.
 Representative sample – a sample that reflects the
population accurately.
 Sampling bias – a distortion in the
representativeness of the sample that arises when
some members of the population stand little or no
chance of being selected as sample.
 Basic terms and concepts in sampling…...
 Probability sampling – a sample that has been
selected using random selection so that each in the
population has a known chance of being selected (to
minimize the sampling error).
 Non-probability sampling – a sample that has not
been selected using a random selection method –
implies that some units in the population are more
likely to be selected than others.
 Sampling error – error in findings deriving from
research due to the difference between a sample
and the population from which it is selected.
 Non response – some members of sample refuse to
cooperate or provide data/information.
 Why sampling is important?

 The population we seek to study are

frequently huge and larger the
population being studied, the greater
the risk that a sample drawn from that
population may be unrepresentative.

 Because of size, cost time or lack of

accessibility often makes it impossible
for researchers to collect data directly
from the entire group of interest.
 Greater
Greater speed of
accuracy of
results
data
collection

Availability of
Lower cost populations
elements
Why
sample?
 Sample Size
• Sample size matters in order to have
sufficient power to detect a meaningful
result at a certain level of statistical
significance.

• Generalisability is possible depending

upon the size of the sample - how
representative it is of the wider
population. The larger the sample, the
more confidence we might have in
generalising the findings.
 Sample versus Census
 Census – the enumeration of an entire
population (data collected in relation to all
units in a population, rather than in relation to
a sample)
 2 conditions appropriate for a census study:
◦ when the population is small
◦ when the elements are quite different from
each other.
 When the population is small and variable, any
sample drawn may not be representative of the
population.
 Factors to consider in sampling
Specification of
data to be
collected

Target
Sampling population
technique issues
Factors

Data
Sample collection
Size issues
The sampling design process
Define the population

Determine the
sampling frame
Select sampling
technique & size

Determine the
sampling process

Execute the sampling

process
 Types of sampling designs
Simple random sampling
Probability
The likelihood of any one of the Systematic sampling
member of the population being
Stratified sampling
selected is known.
Cluster sampling

Convenience sampling
Non-probability
The likelihood of any one of the Snowball sampling
member of the population being
selected is not known. Quota sampling
 Probability sampling designs
Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling

◦ selecting the sample at ◦ selecting at regular intervals from

random from the the sampling frame.
sampling frame ◦ Number each cases in
sampling frame with a unique
 Number each cases number.
in sampling frame ◦ Every kth element in the
with a unique population is sampled
number. beginning with random start
 Select cases using ◦ (k = total population / size of
random numbers desired sample)
until reaching ◦ Select the first case using
random number. Select
targeted sample subsequent cases
size. systematically.
 Simple Random Sampling

Randomly pick a value from {1, 2, 3}. For example, if 2 is chosen, then we
will pick {2, 5, 8, 11, 14}, the x's. The set {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} is an example of a
primary unit.

Systematic Random Sampling

 Probability sampling designs…..
Stratified Sampling
◼ Modification of random
sampling in which the
population is divided into
two or more relevant &
significant strata.
◼ E.g. university student divided by
class level, field of study, gender,
etc
◼ Choose the stratification
variables.
◼ Divide sampling frame.
◼ Number each of the cases within
each stratum with number.
◼ Select sample (random or
systematic)
Cluster Sampling
◼ Similar to stratified sampling
but the groups or cluster are
based on naturally
occurring grouping such as
type of manufacturing firm
or geographical area.
◼ Choose cluster grouping.
◼ Number each of the cluster
with unique number.
◼ Select the sample
Stratified sampling Multistage cluster sampling
 Non-probability sampling designs
 Convenience sampling
◦ Least reliable design
◦ Select cases which are cheapest and
easiest to obtain.
◦ May still be useful procedure in early
stages of exploratory research.

 Purposive Sampling
◦ Select cases that will answer the
research questions
 Judgment sampling
 Quota sampling
 Judgment sampling
 When researcher selects sample
members to conform some criterion.

 Appropriate to be used in the early

stages of an exploratory study.

 E.g. in a study of labor problems – talk

to only with those who have
experienced on-the-job discrimination.
 Quota sampling
 Normally used for interview survey.
 The decision on how many people to be
included as participants is decided while
designing the study.
 Characteristics (control dimension) might
include age, place of residence, gender,
class, profession, marital status, etc.
 Focus only on people who knows very well
about the research topic.
◦ Divide the population into specific groups :
gender, age, income level, etc.
◦ Calculate the quota for each group.
◦ Collect data from selected cases in each
quota.
 Snowballing
 Also known as chain referral sampling.

 Normally used when it is difficult to identify

members of the desired population. Make
contact with one or two cases in the
population & identify further cases.

 Snowball sampling is often used to find and

recruit “hidden populations,” that is, groups not
easily accessible to researchers through other
sampling strategies.
Calculation of actual sample size (N)
 N = n X 100
re%
N = Actual sample size required
n = the minimum sample size
re = the estimated response rate

Neuman (2000) suggests response rates of

10 – 50% for postal survey, 90% for face-
to-face interviews.
 Analyzing qualitative data
 Qualitative data consists of words and
observations, not numbers. Analysis
and interpretation are required to bring
order and understanding.

 The basic approach for analyzing and

interpreting qualitative data referred to
as content analysis.
 Analyzing qualitative data
The analysis process:
 Get to know the data – read & re-read the text.
 Focus of the analysis
◦ depends on the purpose of the evaluation and how the
results will be used.
◦ Focus based on question, topic, time period, event, case,
individual or group.
 Categorize the information – identify themes or
patterns such as ideas, concepts, behaviour,
interactions, incidents, terminology used.
 Identify patterns & connections within & between
categories.
 Interpretation – Nvivo – software for qualitative
analysis
 Quantitative
versus
Qualitative
Qualitative
Research Sampling

Summary