by

Adekunle Fakunle (PhD)

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge
in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent
that it leads to new and creative outcomes

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon.

To research is to purposely and methodically search for new knowledge and practical
solutions in the form of answers to questions formulated beforehand.

Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new
interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore
TYPE OF RESEARCH

Usually Research consists of:

 Asking a question that nobody has

asked before
 Doing the necessary work to find
the answer; and
 Communicating the knowledge you
have acquired to a larger audience.
Phases of Research

The research process can generally be classified into 4 phases:

Conceptual/thinking/planning phase
Empirical/doing phase
Interpretative/analytic phase
Communication/dissemination phase
 RESEARCH PROCESS
Formulating the research problem

Extensive literature survey

Developing hypothesis

Preparing the research design

Determining sample design

Collecting data

Execution of the project

Analysis of data

Hypothesis testing

Generalization and interpretation,

Preparation of the report presentation of the results. In other words, it involves the formal write-up of conclusions.
Formulation of a research problem
• Formulation of a research problem means to state the
problem in a way that is researchable.
• It means to shape the research topic in a manner that it
becomes ready for scientific investigation. A research problem
is simply the research topic.
• Formulating your research problem enables you to make a
purpose of your study clear to yourself and target readers.
Focus your paper on providing relevant data to address it.
• A problem statement is an effective and essential tool to keep
you on track with research and evaluate it.
Extensive literature survey
• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down. • At this juncture the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
• A literature review is a "comprehensive study and
interpretation of literature that addresses a specific topic
• A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any
other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research,
or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research
problem being investigated.
Developing hypothesis

• Hypotheses are often specific predictions about what will happen in a

particular study.
• They are developed by considering existing evidence and using
reasoning to infer what will happen in the specific context of interest.
• To write a strong hypothesis, keep these important tips in mind:
• Don't just choose a topic randomly. Find something that interests you.
• Keep it clear and to the point.
• Use your research to guide you.
• Always clearly define your variables.
• Write it as an if-then statement. If this, then that is the expected
outcome.
Preparing the research design

• It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by

the independent variable on the dependent variable.
• For example, one monitors the influence of an independent
variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as
customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.
• Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods
and procedures used to collect and analyze data on
variables specified in a particular research problem.
• Research study designs are of many types, each with its
advantages and limitations.
Research Design
Collecting data
• Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

• The main purpose of data collection is to gather information in a

measured and systematic manner to ensure accuracy and
facilitate data analysis. Since the data collected is meant to
provide content for data analysis, the information gathered must
be of the highest quality for it to be of value
 Study population

• Study population: The population of interest is the study’s target

population that it intends to study or treat. In clinical research
studies, it is often not appropriate or feasible to recruit the entire
population of interest.

• Instead, investigators will recruit a sample from the population

of interest to include in their study. In such cases, the objective
of the research study is to generalize the study findings from the
sample to the population of interest
 Study setting
Research setting is the physical, social, or experimental context
within which research is conducted

In a research, understanding the setting accurately is crucial since

the results and their interpretation may depend heavily on it.

It is an important component of a research study. The nature,

context, environment, and logistics of the study setting may
influence how the research study is carried out
 Sampling
It is the process of selecting a statistically representative sample
of individuals from the population of interest.

Sampling is an important tool for research studies because the

population of interest usually consists of too many individuals for
any research project to include as participants.

A good sample is a statistical representation of the population of

interest and is large enough to answer the research question
Methods of sampling
 The sample size
It is a basic statistical principle with which we define the sample size before we start a
clinical study so as to avoid bias in interpreting results.
If we include very few subjects in a study, the results cannot be generalized to the
population as this sample will not represent the size of the target population.

Further, the study then may not be able to detect the difference between test groups,
making the study unethical.

Generally, the sample size for any study depends on the:

• Acceptable level of significance
• Power of the study
• Expected effect size
• Underlying event rate in the population
• Standard deviation in the population.
 Inclusion/exclusion criteria

• In research, specific group of relatively homogeneous patient

population needs to be selected.
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria define who can be included or
excluded from the study sample.
• The inclusion criteria identify the study population in a consistent,
reliable, uniform and objective manner.
• The exclusion criteria include factors or characteristics that make the
recruited population ineligible for the study.
• These factors may be confounders for the outcome parameter. For
example, patients with liver disease would be excluded if coagulation
parameters would impact the outcome. The exclusion criteria are
inclusive of inclusion criteria.
 Study tools
• The study tools should be validated before its use and appropriate use
by the research staff is mandatory to avoid any bias. These tools should
be simple and easily understandable to everyone involved in the study
• Types of study tools
• Questionnaire:
• Check list
• Distribution
• Interview
• Observation
• Records
• Experimental Approach
• Survey Approach.
 Psychometric Properties

• These properties are typical characteristics of tests that identify

and define critical aspects of an instrument, such as its
suitability or reliability for use in a specific circumstance.

• In simple words, psychometric properties reveal information

about a test’s adequacy, relevance, and usefulness (or its
validity).

• The properties include: Validity and reliability test

 The validity of psychometric tests
• It is defined as the degree to which the test measures what it claims to
measure. Validity is determined by the various data points and insights the
research reveals to focus on the relationship between the test and the
personality traits it measures.  
• Content Validity: Is the content appropriate and characterizes all aspects of
the construct.
• Construct Validity: How well the test measures a particular construct that it is
designed to measure.
• Face Validity: Does the test appear to measure what it intends to measure,
even on the surface?
• Criterion Validity: Do the results of the test correspond to a benchmark test?
 Psychometric reliability
• It is the extent to which test scores are accurate and without any measurement error.
• A psychometric test is considered reliable only if it produces similar results under
invariable conditions.
• The four types of psychometric reliability are:
• Parallel Forms Reliability: The two different tests use the same content but separate
procedures or equipment, and yield the same result for each test-taker.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: Items within the test are examined to see if they
appear to measure what the test measures. Internal reliability between test items is
referred to as internal consistency.
• Inter-Rater Reliability: When two raters score the psychometric test in the same
manner, inter-scorer consistency is high.
• Test-Retest Reliability: This is when the same test is conducted over time, and the
test-taker displays consistency in scores over multiple administrations of the same
test.
Data Analysis
• Data analysis is the process of collecting, modeling, and
analyzing data to extract insights that support decision-making.

• There are several methods and techniques to perform analysis

depending on the industry and the aim of the analysis

• All these various methods for data analysis are largely based on
two core areas: quantitative methods and qualitative methods in
research.
 Ethical consideration
• Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide
your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must
always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from
people.

• The goals of human research often include understanding real-life

phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors,
and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and
how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.
 Ethical consideration
• It is imperative that ethical issues are considered during the
formulation of the evaluation plan. Ethical considerations during
evaluation include:

• Informed consent
• Voluntary participation
• Do no harm
• Confidentiality
• Anonymity
• Only assess relevant components.
THANK YOU