Quantitative Research

Introduction to Quantitative Research

I. Characteristics of Quantitative Research (USC Libraries, 2015)

• The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. These are usually in the
form of numbers and statistics often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual
forms.
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
• The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
• The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
S/he uses tools such as questionnaires or a computer software to collect numerical data.
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
• The project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships.

II. The importance of Quantitative Research. (“Module 9: Introduction to Research”, n.d.)

• More reliable and objective
• Can use statistics to generalize a finding
• Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables
• Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly
controlled circumstances
• Tests theories or hypotheses
• Assumes sample is representative of the population
• Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less
• Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant

References
USC Libraries. (2015, February 23). Research Guides. Retrieved May 14, 2015, from
http://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=235034&p=1561756
Module 9: Introduction to Research. (n.d.). 3. Importance of quantitative research. Retrieved May 14, 2015,
from http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Introduction%20to%20Research%20and%20Managing%
20Information%20Leicester/page_45.htm

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 Parts of a Quantitative Research
Paper

Chapter I: The Problem and its Background

Background of the Study
• It includes the purpose and reason behind the conduct of the study.
• It answers the question: “What made you conduct the study?”
• It also serves as the introduction.
Statement of the Problem
• This states the main problem that the research is trying to solve.
• It follows the formulation of the title.
• It specifically points the important questions that the study needs to answer.
• It also serves as the basis of the questionnaire.
Significance of the Study
• “Why conduct the study?”
• You have to identify who will benefit from the research and why.
• This should match with the recommendation.
Hypothesis (Science Buddies, 2002-2015)
• A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work.
The two (2) types of hypotheses are scientific and working.
 A scientific hypothesis is based on experiments and observations from the past that
cannot be explained with current theories.
 A working hypothesis is widely accepted and becomes the basis of further
experimentation.

Goal of a Hypothesis
Regardless of the type of hypothesis, the goal of a hypothesis is to help explain the focus and
direction of the experiment or research. As such, a hypothesis will:
 state the purpose of the research; and
 identify what variables are used.
Parameters of a Good Hypothesis
In order to be a good hypothesis that can be tested or studied, it:
 needs to be logical;
 must use precise language; and
 should be testable with research or experimentation
Definition of Terms
• It defines technical terms based on how they are used in the study, specifically in the title. This
aims to provide the readers or future researches with the basic terminologies that are important to
understand the paper.

Chapter II: Review of Related Literature

• It is the foundation of your research. This is where you will use your note cards.
• This will require your command of language and writing skills such as summarizing,
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 paraphrasing, and quoting.

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Chapter III: Research Methodology
• Research design
• Locale of the study
• Population or sample of the study
• Research instruments
• Control of extraneous variables

Chapter IV: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of the Study

Results of the study
• Present all the data gathered from the questionnaire by tabulating all data gathered information.
• Aside from the tables, an interpretation of each presented data should follow. This will serve
as the basis of your Summary of Findings.

Chapter V: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Summary of Findings
• It should summarize the interpretation of data.
• It should directly answer your statement of the problem.
Conclusions
• It will be based on the summary of findings.
• This is the part wherein your hypotheses and assumptions are being proven.
Recommendations
• These should be based on the findings and conclusion of the study.
• These should also include action plans after the conduct of the study.
• These may be specific, general, or both and may include suggestions for further studies.
• It should be formulated in a non-technical language.
• It should be feasible, workable, doable, flexible, and adaptable.

References
• About Education. (2015). What are examples of a hypothesis? Retrieved on March 18, 2015
from http://chemistry.about.com/od/scientificmethod/f/What-Are-Examples-Of-A-Hypothesis.htm
• Cornell University Library PSEC Documentation Committee
November 2002; Revised April 2011. Retrieved on March 18, 2015 from
https://www.library.cornell.edu/research/citation/apa
• McLeod, S. (2008). Independent, dependent and extraneous variables. Simply psychology.
Retrieved on March 18, 2015 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html

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 Kinds of Quantitative Research

1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study. It is designed to
depict the participants in an accurate way.
There are three (3) ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project. These
are:
• Observational – defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants
• Case study – defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals
• Survey – defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific
topic

2. Correlational Research
It is a procedure in which subjects score in two (2) variables which are simply measured
without manipulation of any variables to determine whether there is a relationship between
them.

3. Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental Research
It is also known as “ex-post facto” research (Latin for “after the fact”). In this type of
research, investigators attempt to determine the cause or consequences of differences that
already exist between or among groups of individuals.

4. Experimental Research
It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one
(1) or more variables and controls and measures any change in other variables.

Reference:
Francisco, P. S., Francisco, V. S., & Arlos, A. P. (2016). Practical research 2 quantitative research.
Manila: MindShapers Co., Inc.

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 Math in Research
Statistics
I. Statistics
• The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities,
especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative
sample (google.com, 2015).
• The study of data: how to collect, summarize, and present it (mathisfun.com, 2014).

II. Branches of Statistics

STATISTICS

Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics
a. Descriptive statistics is the process of collecting, presenting, and organizing data in some
manner that can easily and quickly describe the data.
Example: The National Statistics Office conducts surveys to determine the average age,
income, and other characteristics of the Filipino people.
b. Inferential statistics uses sample data to make inferences about a population.

III. Preliminary Steps in Statistical Study

a. Define the problem.
The researcher should know what s/he aims to discover or establish. The researcher should
state in simple language what s/he wants to investigate. It can be in a form of question.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic:
1. The research problem must be chosen by the researcher.
2. The problem must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. The problem must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. The research problem must be manageable.
5. The researcher must have the capability and ability to finance the research problem.
6. The research problem must be completed within the period set by the researcher.
7. The research problem must be within the competence of the researcher.
8. The research problem must be significant, relevant and important to the present time as
well to the future.
9. The results of the study must be practical and implementable.

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 b. Determine the subject/population of the study.
Before a researcher starts collecting the data, the population/subjects to be considered in the
study must be defined. The population to be considered should be in agreement with the
objective and is properly identified.
c. Devise the set of questions.
A researcher who may collect data by interview or by questionnaire should prepare a list of
questions to be asked. On the other hand, the questionnaire may consist of one (1) or two (2)
question sheets accompanied by a cover letter. Good questions give accurate responses.
Note: Tell your students that there are different questions to be used:
1. Two-way questions (objective)
The respondent has two (2) choices like Yes/No, True/False, or In favor/Not favor.
2. Multiple Choice (objective)
The respondent has to choose the best answer from the given choices.
3. Free Answer (subjective)
The respondent can answer the questions in his/her own words.
d. Determine the sampling design.
The extent of the population will depend on the nature of the problem. The census survey
will require all individuals in the population that are considered while the sample survey
will consider only a few representatives of the population.
e. Prepare the manual of instruction.
An exact and complete manual of the instruction contains the instructions and directions
which will be observed and followed by the researcher in getting the necessary
information as well as the respondents who will answer questions. The manual will serve
as a guide for the field researcher as well as the respondents.
f. Organize and train the field researchers.
Field researchers will include data gatherers or enumerators as well as supervisors. The
group of enumerators should work as a team. The work should be coordinated and
supervised by the area supervisor. The survey workers should have rigid training before
they are sent out to the field.

IV.Main Steps in Statistical Study

1. Collection of Data
2. Presentation of Data
3. Analysis of Data
4. Interpretation of Data

Reference
Cruz, M. G., Gorospe, N. B., Mercado, J., Mercado, J., Leopando, G. A., & Lepando, I. V., (n.d.)

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 Quantitative Data Collection

I. SAMPLING (“Population and Sampling”, n.d.)

This is the process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements in
conducting a study.

Probability Sampling (Neuman, 2011)

• “gold standard” for representative sample
• try to create an accurate representative sample that has mathematically predictable errors
• this sampling approach is complex with several subtypes

Non-Probability Sampling
• a simpler way to produce a representative sample
• less accurate substitute when we want a representative sample

II. POPULATION (“Populations and Sampling”, n.d.)

This is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some common characteristic
defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher.

Target Population (“Explorable Think Outside The Box”, 2008-2015)

The target population, also known as the theoretical population, refers to the ENTIRE group
of individuals or objects to which researchers are interested in generalizing the conclusions.
The target population usually has varying characteristics.

Accessible Population
The accessible population, also known as the study population, is the population in which the
researchers can apply their conclusions. This population is a subset of the target population. It
is from the accessible population that researchers draw their samples.

References:
 Explorable think outside the box. 2008-2015. Two types of population in research. Retrieved
May 20, 2015 from https://explorable.com/research-population
 Neuman, W. L. (2011). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches
(7th ed.). Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc., Allyn & Bacon.
 Populations and Sampling. (n.d.). Retrieved May 13, 2015 from
http://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html

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 Quantitative Data Analysis

I. Quantitative Data
1. Nominal data – It has no logical order. It is only a matter of distinguishing by name.
Numbers used do not denote quantity.
2. Ordinal data – It has a logical order. The difference in values is not constant. It provides a
“rank” in data.
3. Interval data – It provides information about the order and also provides an interval. By the
interval, we mean to say that there is an equal distance between each data. It has
standardized differences between values. It does not have a natural zero.
4. Ratio or “scale” – The data is continuous, ordered, and has standardized differences
between values and it has a natural zero.

II. Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis

1. Preparing the data
2. Data tabulation
3. Analyzing the data
3.1 Descriptive Statistical Techniques
a. Frequency Distribution – It is a table that contains the data and their frequency or
how often they occur in a study.
b. Measure of Central Tendency – It indicates the different positions or values of the
items. It attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the central position
within that set of data.
 Mean – average of all of the items or score
 Median – the score in the middle of the set items that cuts or divides the
set into two (2) groups
 Mode –the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated
appearance in the set
c. Standard Deviation – It tells how spread numbers are and shows the extent of the
difference of the data from the mean.
𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)2
Formula: 𝑠 = � 𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)2
𝑛−1 or 𝑠 = � 𝑛

d. Variance – It is the square of the standard deviation.

𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)2
Formula: 𝑠 =
2
𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)2
𝑛−1 or 𝑠2 = 𝑛

e. Covariance
𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)(𝑦−𝑦�)
Formula: 𝛴𝛴(𝑥−𝑥̅)(𝑦−𝑦�)
𝑛−1 or 𝑛

Reference
 Francisco, P. S., Francisco, V. S., & Arlos, A. P. (2016). Practical research 2 quantitative
research. Manila: MindShapers Co., Inc.