Lecture 2

Type of research and research process

 Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows :
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
5. Some Other Types of Research: based on
either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor.
 Descriptive vs. Analytical
• In descriptive research,
– only report what is happening or what has happened

• characteristic
• no control over the variables,
• attempts to determine, describe, or identify what is,
• In analytical research,
– use the already available facts or information, and
– analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.

• characteristic
• concerns itself with cause – effect relations among variables
• explain why and how (why it is that way or how it came to be)
•  Example : Explaining why and how extraction of
essential oil from different plant.
 Applied vs. Basic
• Applied Research
– An attempt to find solution to an immediate problem
encountered by
• a firm,
• an industry,
• a business organization, or
• the Society.
» Practical application of science
» Solve practical problems

• Pure’ or ‘Basic’ or ‘Fundamental’ Research

– Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake
» Theoretical understanding
» Advancement of knowledge
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Quantitative research
– more logical and data-led approach
– what people think from a statistical and numerical point of view.
– uses methods such as questionnaires and surveys with set questions
– Answers can be measured in strengths of feeling such as ‘strongly agree’ ‘disagree’ or numbers such as
scales out of 10.

• For example, if you wanted to know how many of your customers support a proposed
change in your products or service and how strongly (on a scale) they support it.
• qualitative research
– is more focused on how people feel, what they think and why they make certain choices. 

• For example, if you are thinking of changing your branding you would carry out
qualitative research to see what emotional reactions people have to the new identity
and what they associate it with.
 Conceptual vs. Empirical

• Conceptual research
– related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
– used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or reinterpret existing ones.
– focuses on the concept or theory that explains or
describes the phenomenon being studied.
• What causes disease? How can we describe the
motions of the planets?
• empirical research
– relies on experience or observation alone,
– It is data-based research,
– coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment
 Significance of Research

• Research has its special significance in solving

various problems : Health, Energy, Water,
Technology, Food….
• Research provides the basis for nearly all
government policies in our economic system.
• Research is equally important for social
scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems
Cont. …

In addition
• To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D.
thesis, research may be a way to attain a high position
in the social structure
• To professionals in research methodology, research
may mean a source of livelihood
• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the
outlet for new ideas and insights
• To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work
• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories
 Research processes
• Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps.
 1. Formulating the Research Problem

• the first and most important step in the

research process.
• means defining the problem precisely.
–a problem defined is half solved.
 Cont’d
• Formulation of a problem involves the following steps:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the idea through discussion
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
 2. Extensive Literature Review

• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery of it

should be written down.
Reasons for Reviewing Literature
• Literature review has three functions:
• Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
• Improving the methodology
• Broadening the researcher knowledge in the
research area.
 3. Development of Working Hypothesis

• tentative assumption made

– in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
• should be very specific and limited.
 4. Preparing the Research Design
• defined as a blueprint or detailed plan
– for how a research study is to be completed,
– operationalizing variables so they can be measured,
– selecting a sample of interest to study,
– collecting data to be used as a basis for testing
hypothesis and
– analyzing the results.
• It is the complete scheme or program of the
research.
 Cont’d
• A research design should include the following:
a) The study design by itself
b) The logistical arrangements that you purpose to undertake
c) The measurement procedures
d) The sampling strategy
e) The frame of analysis
f) Time frame
 5. Determining Sampling Design
• In such cases, the researcher must decide the
way of selecting a sample or what is popularly
known as the sample design.
• a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample
from a given population.
 6. Collecting the data

• Primary data can be collected either through

experiments or through survey.
• In the case of a survey, data can be collected
by any one of the following specific ways:
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Schedule
 Cont’d
• The researcher should select one of these methods of
collecting data taking in to consideration
a) The nature of investigation (experiment, interview,
observation, questionnaire survey)
b) Objective and scope of the inquiry
c) Financial resources
d) Available time
e) The desired degree of accuracy.
 7. Execution of the project

• The researcher should see, during this phase

that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
 8. Analysis of Data
• The analysis of data requires a number of
closely related operations such as:
a) Establishment of categories,
b) Coding,
c) Tabulation and
d) Drawing statistical inferences.
 9. Hypothesis Testing

• After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to

test the hypothesis, if any, he/she had formulated earlier.
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary?
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test may be
applied.
 10. Generalization and Interpretation

• If a hypotheses is tested and accepted, it may be possible for

the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a
theory.
• If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, s/he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
 11. Preparation of the Research Report

• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the

report of what has been done by him
following the appropriate formats and
appropriate language.
Formulating Research Problem, Reviewing
Literature and Formulating Hypothesis
 1. Formulating Research Problem

• Meaning of the research problem

• A research problem refers to some difficulty which
a researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
 Cont’d
• Often we say that a research problem does
exist if the following conditions are met:
1. There must be an individual or a group which
has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be
attained. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
 Cont’d
3. There must be an alternative means( or the
course of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of
a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which
the difficulty pertains.
 Selecting the problem
• The identification of a research problem is an
important phase of the entire research process.
• Therefore, a considerable care must be taken while
selecting a research problem.
• It requires a great deal of time, energy, and logical
thinking.
 Cont’d
• There are some important sources which are
helpful to a researcher for selecting a problem.
These include the following:
1. Professional Experience
• The day-to-day observation of the incidences in the
working places and out of the working places.
 Cont’d
2. Contact and Discussion with People
• Contacts and discussions with research
oriented people in conferences, seminars
(specialized subject) or public lectures serve as
important sources of problem.
3. Inference from Theory
• A research problem can be derived from a
critical look into various theories.
 Cont’d
4. Professional Literature
• Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of books and
articles (reference piece), periodicals(published regularly),
research abstracts…
5. Technological and social Change
• Changes in technology or social environment such as
changes in attitudes, preferences, policies of a nation…
 Considerations in selecting a research problem

• When selecting a research problem/topic

there is a number of considerations to keep
in mind.
– These considerations are:
A. Interest
B. Magnitude-(scope)
C. Measurement of concepts-Do not use concepts in
your research problem that you are not sure how to
measure.
 Cont’d
D. Level of expertise-Make sure you have an
adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing.
E. Relevance
F. Availability of data
G. Ethical issues
Formulating (Definition and Statement) of the problem

• To define a problem means to put a

fence(boundary) round it, to separate it by
careful distinctions from like questions found in
related situations of need.
• Defining a problem involves the task of laying
down boundaries within which a researcher
shall study the problem.
 Cont’d
• Formulation of a problem involves the following
steps/techniques involved in defining a problem:
 Statement of the problem in a general way pilot
survey.
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing the idea through discussion
 Rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
 Cont’d
• In addition to what has been stated above, the following points
must also be noted while defining a research problem:
1. Technical terms and words or phrases should be clearly
defined.
2. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated.
3. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation
(i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be
provided.
 Cont’d
4. The suitability of the time period and the
sources of the data available must also be
considered .
5. The scope of the investigation or the limits
within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly.
Importance of formulating a research problem

a) It determines the research destine. It

indicates a way for the researcher. Without it
a clear and economical plan is impossible.
b) Research problem is like the foundation of a
building. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study: if it is well
formulated, one can expect a good study to
follow.
Cont’d
c) The way you formulate your research problem determines
almost every step that follows:
• the type of study design that can be used;
• the type of sampling strategy that can be employed;
• the research instrument that can be used; and
• the type of analysis that can be undertaken.
d) The quality of the research report (output of the research
undertakings) is dependent on the quality of the problem
formulation.
 2. Literature review

• Reasons for reviewing the literature

• A key aspect of almost all research projects is
to carry out a literature review. The process of
reviewing the related literature comprise,
among other things, active reading, careful
record keeping, selective note- taking, and
critical evaluation of the information.
The sections that follow are aimed at explaining these
concepts in greater details.

• The need for reading

Any research activity requires the researcher(s)to
be involved in a significant amount of reading.
In this regard, Blaxter Hugut and Tight (1996:93)
has suggested twenty reasons for reading for
your research:
• Because it gives you ideas
• Because it will help you improve your
writing style
• Because you need to understand what
other researchers have done in your area
• To broaden your perspectives and set your
work in context
• Because direct personal experience can
never be enough.
• Because your supervisor or manager expects
you to do so
• So that you can cite names when come to
write up your research
• Because is interesting.
• To legitimate your arguments.
• Because it may cause you to change your
mind.
• Because writers (including you) need readers.
• So that you can better understand the
disciplinary traditions within which you are
working.
• So that you can become better at reading.
• So that you can impress your readers with
you knowledge of literature.
• So that you can effectively criticize what
others have done
• Because it helps you in the process of
clarifying and framing your research
• Others
Reading for research could take place in three stages
of the research project

• At the beginning of your research to:

 check what other research has been done,
 focus your ideas, and
 explore the context for your project;
• During your research to:
 keep you interested and up to date with
developments,
 help you better understand the methods you
are using and the field you are researching,
and
 serve as a source of data;
• After Your research to:
 see what impact your own work has had, and
 help you develop ideas for further research
projects
 Basic reading strategies

• This part of the text provides some basic

guidance on four related questions:
 Where to read;
 What to read;
 Whom to read; and
 How to find what you need to read
 Where to read.
 libraries of different type ( eg, public libraries,
university libraries, etc)
 bookshops,
 Internet centre’s
 your employer,
 colleagues.
 supervisors,
 friends,
 students
 What to read
 Books
 Journals
 Reports
 Popular media
 Computer-based materials:
 Memos, minutes, internal reports:
 Letters, diaries:
 Whom to read
 You may be faced with a great deal of
materials
 This may put you in dilemma of where to start.
 you should be able to get plenty of guidance
on whom to read, at least to start with, from
your supervisor, manager, colleagues or
fellow researchers.
 How to find what you need to read

• Blaxter and his associates (1996:99) suggest

an eight-stage approach to help you find
what you need to read:
 Take advice from available sources: your
supervisor, manager, fellow researchers or
students.
 by asking a librarian, browsing around or
using a catalogue
 Once you have identified relevant shelf locations,
look at other books there, which are relevant
to your topic
 Once you have identified relevant journals, look
through recent issues to find the most up-to-date
writing on your topic.
 Identify key texts by noting those that are referred
to again and again. Seek out the latest editions.
 As you develop a feeling for the literature relevant
to your field, try and ensure that you have some
understanding of, and have done some reading
within,
 Read core meaning from your original sources by
following up interesting references
 Use the time and resources you have available to
do as much related reading as possible.
 The Presentation of the Bibliography

• Different publishers adopt different styles of

citing information from the source (e.g.
books, journals, reports ,etc.).
• The citations are listed as either bibliography
or references, which are then arranged
alphabetically by author's names and then,
where necessary, by date and letter.
 Citing books

• The citation of books follows the use of either

underlining or italics. The presentation should be:
Author's family name, comma, initials of first
name(s), year of publication in brackets, title of the
book in upper and lower case underlined or in italics,
comma, edition ( if applicable followed by comma),
publisher, comma, place of publication, full stop.
• Trudgill, P (1974a) The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich,
Cambridge University press, Cambridge
 Citing articles journals
• As lightly different format is used when citing contributions to
journals: author's family name, comma, initials of first name (s),
comma, year of publication in brackets, title of contribution in
upper and lower case and in quotation marks, comma, Journal
name, volume number in bold (heavy) type, issue number in
brackets, comma, the page numbers of the article prefaced by pp,
full stop.
• Seyoum Teferra (1992) " Brain Drain Among Academicians in Two
Higher Education Institutions in Ethioia ", The Ethiopian Journal of
Education, 8(2),pp 27-46.
 Thesis.
• Occasionally you may wish to quote from a thesis
and should follow this format: author's surname,
comma, initial(s), year of award in brackets, title
in upper and lower case underlined or in intalics,
comma, degree awarded followed by Thesis,
comma and the name of the awarding
institution.
• Selmes,IP (1985) Approaches to Learning at Secondary School: their
identification and facilitation, PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh.
 Note- Taking ( Reviewing the Literature)

The process of note- taking can be done either

in the form of paraphrasing or directly quoting
the author's ideas.
 Paraphrasing

• restating or rewarding a passage from a text,

giving the same meaning in another form" ( Hult,
1996, P.43).
• The main objective of paraphrasing is to present
an author's ideas in your own words.
 Referring to others in the text

• In Harvard system, at every point in the text at

which reference is made to other writers, the name
of the writer and the year of publication should
be included. It is also advisable to include page
number.
• If the surname of the author is part of the
sentence, then the year of the publication will
appear in brackets. Bloom ( 1963, p 16)
• If there are three or less authors then their family
names should be given; if there are more than
three authors the first author's family name
should be given, followed by et al., e.g:
• Taylor, Barbara and Jones ( 1991, p33) suggest that…
• In a recent study (Barbara and Jones, 1993, p 10) it is suggested…
• The most recent work (Barbara et al. 1995,p 16)
• If the same author has published two or
more works in the same year then each work
should be referred to individually by the year
followed by lower case letters (a, b, c, etc).
(These different references should be
included in the bibliography).
• For example:
• Barbara (1996a, pp 35-7) shows how …
 Incorporating Direct Quotes

• When your quotations are four lines in length or

less, surround them with quotation marks and
incorporate them into your text.
• When your quotations are longer than four lines,
set them off from the rest of the text by indenting
half inch from the left and double-spacing above
and below them.
• You do not need to use quotation marks with such
block quotes.
• When citing two or more paragraphs, use
block quotation format, even if the passage
from the paragraph is less than four lines.
• Indent the first line of each quoted paragraph
an extra quarter inch.
 Adding or omitting words in quotations

• If you add word or words in a quotation, you

should put brackets around the word to
indicate that they are not the part of the
original text.
• "Evidence reveals that boys are higher on
conduct disorder [behavior directed toward
the environment] than girls."
• Use ellipses (three spaced dots) to indicate that
material has been omitted from the quote.
• It is not necessary to use ellipses for material
omitted before the quote begins.
• (" Fifteen to twenty percent of anorexia victims
die of direct starvation or related illnesses…
[which] their weak, immunises bodies cannot
combat.")
 Organizing Your Literature Review

• Once you have finished collecting and reviewing

the literature, you are then required to organize the
information in a way that suits to your interest.
 Develop an outline or topic headings on which
discussions of a review of the related literature
follows.
 Categorize the evidences of your review in light of
your outline.
 Use your hypotheses to help serve as a framework to organize the
review.
 Whenever necessary, try to ask your supervisor, manager,
colleagues or fellow students for advice as to what is expected and
as to how you can proceed organizing.
 Start writing up in coherent manner by giving particular attention to
appropriate citation of references.
 Present a brief summary of your review at the end of this section.
 Determining the variables
• A variable is a characteristic of a person,
object, or phenomenon that can take on
different values.
• A simple example of a variable is a person's
age. The variable can take on different values,
• such as, 20 years old, 30 years old, and so on.
 Cont…

• Other examples of variables are:

a) weight in kilograms
b) height in centimeters
c) monthly income in Birr
d) marital status (single, married, divorced and widowed)
e) job satisfaction index (1 to 5)
f) occupation (civil servant, farmer, student, et.)
 Cont…
• The first three variables (a to c) are numerical
variables because they are expressed in
numbers (metric data).
• Since the values of the remaining three
variables (d to g) are expressed in categories,
we call them categorical variables.