Communication Research Methods

What is Science?

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It
is also the body of knowledge accumulated through discoveries about everything in the
universe.

What is Scientific Method?

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical
evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then statement)

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designed to support or contradict a scientific theory.

What are the steps involved in a Scientific Method?

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1. Make an observation (Theory Construction)

Every researcher starts at the very beginning. Before diving in and exploring something, one
must first determine what one will study. By making observations, researchers can establish an
area of interest. And once this topic of study has been chosen, a researcher should review
existing literature to gain insight into what has already been tested and determine what
questions remain unanswered.
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2. Ask a Question

Once a researcher has made observations and conducted background research, the next step
is to ask a scientific question. A scientific question must be defined, testable, and measurable.

To answer an experimental question, a researcher needs to identify two variables: the

independent variable and the dependent variable. The independent variable is the variable that
is manipulated (the cause) and the dependent variable is the variable that is being measured
(the effect).

For example: For the research question, “What is the effect of brand placement in movies on the
buying behavior of consumers?”,

Independent variable: Brand placement in movies

Dependent variable: Effect on buying behavior

3. Form a Hypothesis (Make predictions)

A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. A
hypothesis is an attempt to answer your research question based on prior observation and
background research. Theories tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead,
researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory. It's important that the
hypothesis can be tested against reality and that it can also be proven wrong. Although one
could state and write a scientific hypothesis in many ways, hypotheses are usually built like
"if...then..." statements.

4. Run an experiment (Gather Data)

The next step in the scientific method is to test your hypothesis and collect data. A researcher
will design an experiment to test the hypothesis and gather data that will either support or refute
the hypothesis. The exact research methods used to examine a hypothesis depend on what is
being studied. A psychologist might utilize two primary forms of research, experimental research

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and descriptive research.

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5. Analyse the data & draw conclusions

Once a researcher has designed and done the investigation and collected sufficient data, it is
time to inspect this gathered information and judge what has been found. Using analyses and
statistics, researchers can summarize the data, interpret the results, and draw conclusions
based on this evidence.

6. Share your findings (So that other researchers can make their own hypotheses)
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One of the final stages of the research cycle involves the publication of the research. Once the
report is written, the researcher(s) may submit the work for publication in an appropriate journal.

What are the 8 steps involved in Research Process?

1. Identifying the Research Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of
the research process, from setting objectives to selecting the research methodology.

2. Reviewing Literature

As part of the research process, it is important to look at the relevant literature. It lets the
researcher figure out what his problem is in terms of the specific parts of his general area of
interest that haven't been studied yet. This kind of review exposes him to a wider range of
knowledge and gives him the tools he needs to follow the research process more effectively. By
doing a good review of the literature, the researcher can see if the results of his study and those
of other studies are similar.
 3. Setting research questions, objectives and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.

A research objective will say exactly what needs to be researched, what kind of information
needs to be gathered, and what is the scope of the study. A research objective is best shown by
a well-thought-out research hypothesis that can be tested.

A hypothesis is a statement or idea that hasn't been proven yet but can be disproved or
supported by facts. Hypothetical statements suggest a possible answer to a research question.

4. Choosing the Study Design

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The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions. It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting,

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processing, and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a
researcher can use to conduct their study;

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survey,
experiment,
secondary data study, and
observational study.

5. Deciding on the Sample Design

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Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling
is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a
sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and the
estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics. The types of
sampling designs are:

● probability sampling, and

● non-probability sampling.

6. Collecting data from the research sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the
objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel.

Quantitative data can be gathered by structured interviews, surveys, questionnaires etc.

Qualitative data can be collected by in-depth interviews, focus group discussions etc.

7. Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Editing and coding the data is usually the first step in data processing. Data are edited to make
sure that all of the answers are the same and to find any missing ones.

The techniques used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical techniques to very
complex multivariate analyses depending on the study’s objectives, the research design
employed, and the nature of the data collected. As in the case of data collection methods, an
analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be suitable for another.

8. Writing Research Report or Developing Proposal

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A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or
commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a

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service to a potential client or sponsor. The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence
presented in the research process.

What is a Research Design?

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher
to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for
the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
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There are three main types of designs for research:

● Data collection
● Measurement
● Data Analysis

Why a research design should be methodological?

So that the researcher can understand how much error can be tolerated & to control the time
spent on analyzing the data.

What are the 4 phases of Research Design?

1. Sampling Design

Deals with the method of selecting the subjects that are to be studied in your research.

2. Observational Design
Relates to the condition under which the observations are to be made

3. Statistical Design

Deals with the specific techniques by which the procedure is specified in the sampling and
observational design can be carried out.

4. Experimental Design

Deals with how the control group and the experimental group will be set up as well as the
dependent and independent variables that need to be identified to establish a causal
relationship.

NOTE: All these 4 phases overlap each other & Review of Literature plays an important role in

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these phases.

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What are the 4 research purposes?

1. Exploratory / Formulative Study

It helps to gain familiarity with the new phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it, often in
order to formulate a more precise research problem or to develop hypotheses. The most
important thing here is the discovery of insights & ideas and the research design is flexible.

2. Descriptive Study
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In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case
under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing,
and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how
of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research.

3. Diagnostic Study

In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific
topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that create
troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

● Inception of the issue

● Diagnosis of the issue
● Solution for the issue

4. Experimental Study
Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It
is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the
dependent variable.

What is a concept?

The first step in the measurement process is to define the concepts we are studying.
Researchers generate concepts by generalizing them from particular facts. Concepts are based
on our experiences. Concepts can be based on real phenomena and are generalized ideas of
something of meaning. Examples of concepts include common demographic measures:
Income, Age, Education Level, and Number of SIblings.

We can measure concepts through direct and indirect observations:

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● Direct Observation: We can measure someone's weight or height. And, we can record
the color of their hair or eyes.

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● Indirect Observation: We can use a questionnaire in which respondents provide answers
to our questions about gender, income, age, attitudes, and behaviors.

What is a construct?

Constructs are measured with multiple variables. Constructs exist at a higher level of abstraction
than concepts. Justice, Beauty, Happiness, and Health are all constructs. Constructs are
considered latent variables because they cannot be directly observable or measured. Typical
constructs in marketing research include Brand Loyalty, Purchase Intent, and Customer
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Satisfaction. Constructs are the basis of working hypotheses.

For example, Brand loyalty is a construct that marketing researchers study often. Brand loyalty
can be measured using a variety of measures, such as:

● Number of items purchased in the past

● Monetary value of past purchases

What are variables?

Variables are measurements that are free to vary. Variable can be divided into Independent
Variables or Dependent Variables. A dependent variable changes in response to changes in the
independent variable or variables.

Further variables are divided into 2 more types known as Discrete and Continuous variables.

A discrete variable is a variable that takes on distinct, countable values. In theory, you should
always be able to count the values of a discrete variable.
Examples of discrete variables include:
 ● Years of schooling
● Number of goals made in a soccer match

A continuous variable is a variable that can take on any value within a range. A continuous
variable takes on an infinite number of possible values within a given range.
Examples of continuous variables include:

● The time it takes sprinters to run 100 meters

● The temperature of a person

Operational Definition

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An operational definition is the statement of procedures the researcher is going to use in order
to measure a specific variable. It defines or gives meaning to a variable by spelling out what the

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investigator must do to measure it.

Two types are:

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Measured OD: Operations by which investigators may measure a concept.
Experimental OD: Steps taken by a researcher to produce certain experimental
conditions.
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Read from notes ( Research design of different studies, exogenous & endogenous variables,
levels of measurement, Reliability & validity)