Attempt any four questions:

1. What is research and its characteristics? What is the basis of scientific method?
Answer:

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern

or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American
sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive
and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify

the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative
research, and deductive methods are more commonly associated with
quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

● Identify potential and new customers

● Understand existing customers
● Set pragmatic goals
● Develop productive market strategies
● Address business challenges
● Put together a business expansion plan
● Identify new business opportunities

Following are the characteristics of research:

1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate
data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct
while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both
inductive and deductive methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in
natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
 5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps
create more research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The
information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories
provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is
measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or
tools, and the experiment’s final result.

The scientific method in research is the process of objectively establishing

facts through testing and experimentation. The basic process involves making
an observation, forming a hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an
experiment and finally analyzing the results. The principals of the scientific
method can be applied in many areas, including scientific research, business
and technology. And basis of scientific method are listed below:

Observations and Review

The initial scientific element is to evaluate and observe possible subjects for experiment.

This can be through direct observation or by reviewing literature, and other sources,

building upon earlier research.

Hypothesis

Ideally, any research must begin with a testable hypothesis, which can be proved or

disproved.

This hypothesis should be realistic and consider the technology and methods available.

Generating a hypothesis should involve looking for the simplest possible explanation for

a natural occurrence or phenomena.

Despite the slight differences between the various research techniques, this is the most

fundamental of the scientific elements.

All scientific methods rely on a hypothesis as the main underlying principle and tool for

establishing recognized proofs.

Predictions

This stage is where a researcher attempts to predict the expected results of their

experiment.

The prediction should be an extension of the hypothesis and express a degree of opinion

about what the findings should uncover.

Ideally, the prediction should also set out ways in which the results can be analyzed and

tested statistically.

Experiment and Measurement

True science requires some type of numerical measurement, which provides quantifiable

and analyzable data.

This analysis takes into account the uncertainty and inherent errors built into any

scientific methodology.

This is the final stage because, if the experiment has been well constructed, a valid

answer will have been generated. Using the basic scientific elements ensures that usable

knowledge about a process emerges from the initial observations of phenomena.

Whether the prediction is proved or not, further experiments feed back into this process,

by refining the initial hypothesis or by generating more accurate predictions.

Variations

There are many variations on these elements, covering the broad range of science, with

this rigid structure tending to be more strongly adhered to by life and natural sciences.

Social sciences may place more emphasis upon the observation and prediction stage,

whilst physicists may observe and predict without experimental proof, relying upon pure

mathematics to provide answers.

However, all science relies upon this basic formula for theory and hypothesis to be

accepted as ultimate proof, separating science from pure philosophy.

2. Why research design is needed? Explain main three board characteristics of

research design?
Answer:

Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results

attained. It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. It is needed
due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of the many research
operations. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing
maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and time.
For building of a car, we must have a suitable blueprint made by an expert
designer. In a similar fashion, we require a suitable design or plan just before
data collection and analysis of the research project. Planning of design must be
carried out cautiously as even a small mistake might mess up the purpose of the
entire project. The design helps the investigator to organize his ideas, which
helps to recognize and fix his faults, if any.
In a good research design, all the components go together with each other in a
coherent way. The theoretical and conceptual framework must with the research
goals and purposes. In the same way, the data gathering method must fit with the
research purposes, conceptual and theoretical framework and method of data
analysis.
The importance of research design in research methodology is due to the
following:

■ It may result in the preferred kind of study with helpful conclusion.

■ It cuts down on inaccuracy.
■ Allows you get optimum efficiency and reliability.
■ Reduce wastage of time.
■ Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any
research problem.
■ Of great help for collection of research material and testing of
hypothesis.
■ It is a guide for giving research the right path.
■ Gets rid of bias and marginal errors.
■ Provides an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of
money, effort, time, and manpower.
■ Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps prevent blind
search)
■ Maximizes reliability of results.
■ Provides firm foundation to the endeavor.
■ Averts misleading conclusions & thoughtless useless exercise.
■ Provides opportunity to anticipate flaws & inadequacies (anticipates
problems).
It is considered that a good research design should reduce the biasness while
should maximize the reliability of data being collected and analysed. A good
research design should provide the opportunity as per the various aspects of
research problem. It should minimize the experimental error and should provide
maximum information. Hence, it can be concluded the selection of research
design relies upon the research problem and the nature of research. Following are
the major characteristics of a good research design :

1) Objectivity :
Objectivity refers to the ability of the research instruments to give conclusions
that are free from observer's personal biases. A good research design should be
able select those instruments only that provide objective conclusions. Usually, it
is believed that maintaining objectivity is pretty easy, but it proves to be difficult
during execution of research and data analysis.

2) Reliability :
Another essential feature of a good research design is the reliability of responses.
The instruments used in research should be able to provide similar responses to a
question asked from a respondent. If the response varies, the instrument is
considered unreliable. In other words, reliability of research design is measured
in terms of consistency in responses.

3) Validity :
An important characteristic of a good research design is its ability to answer the
questions in the way it was intended to. It should focus on the objective of the
research and make specific arrangements or plan for achieving that objective.
For example, when a research is conducted to measure the effects of
advertisements in viewers, it should be able to answer this, and not the sale of a
particular product.

4) Generalisability :
A research design is said to be generalisable if the outcome of the research is
applicable on a bigger population from which the sample is selected. A research
design can be made generalisable by properly defining the population properly,
selecting the sample carefully, analyzing the statistical data appropriately, and by
preparing it methodologically. Therefore, the more the outcomes are
generalisable, more efficient is the research design.

5) Sufficient Information :
 Any research is conducted to gain insight of the hidden facts, figures and
information. The research design should be able to provide sufficient information
to the researcher so that he can analyse the research problem in a broad
perspective. The research design should be able to identify the research problem
and research objective.

6) Other Features :
Along with the above, there are some other features also that make a research
design good. These are adaptability, flexibility. efficiency, etc. A good research
design should be able to minimize the errors and maximize the accuracy.

3. What is meaning of scaling? What are the main scale classification bases?
Answer:

Scaling is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the

numbers according to the specified rules. In other words, the process of
locating the measured objects on the continuum, a continuous sequence of
numbers to which the objects are assigned is called as scaling. Scaling is
considered as the extension of measurement. What is Measurement? The
measurement is the process of assigning numbers or symbol to the
characteristics of the object as per the specified rules. Here, the researcher
assigns numbers, not to the object, but to its characteristics such as
perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other relevant traits.
For example, consider a scale from 1 to 10 for locating consumer
characteristics (preference for the product). Each respondent is assigned a
number from 1 to 10 denoting the degree of unfavorableness for the product,
with ‘1’ indicating extremely unfavorable and ’10’ indicating extremely
favorable. Here, the measurement is the process of assigning the actual
number from 1 to 10 to each respondent while the scaling is a process of
placing respondents on a continuum with respect to their preference for the
product.

In research, usually, the numbers are assigned to the qualitative traits of the
object because the quantitative data helps in statistical analysis of the
resulting data and further facilitates the communication of measurement rules
and results.

All the scales used in scaling techniques can be explained in terms of four
basic characteristics., Viz. Description, Order, Distance, and origin. These
characteristics collectively define the Levels of Measurement of scale. The
level of measurement indicates that what properties of an object are
measured or not measured by the scale.

Classification of Scaling techniques in Research

The Classification of Scaling techniques may be broadly classified on one or more of the

following bases:

1. subject orientation;
2. response form;
3. degree of subjectivity;
4. scale properties;
5. number of dimensions and
6. scale construction techniques.

We take up each of these separately.

● Subject orientation: Under it a scale may be designed to measure

characteristics of the respondent who completes it or to judge the stimulus
object which is presented to the respondent. In respect of the former, we
presume that the stimuli presented are sufficiently homogeneous so that the
between stimuli variation is small as compared to the variation among
respondents. In the latter approach, we ask the respondent to judge some
specific object in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume that the
between-respondent variation will be small as compared to the variation
among the different stimuli presented to respondents for judging.
● Response form: Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and
comparative.
● Categorical scales are also known as rating scales. These scales are used
when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to other
objects. Under comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales, the
respondent is asked to compare two or more objects. In this sense the
 respondent may state that one object is superior to the other or that three
models of pen rank in order 1, 2 and 3. The essence of ranking is, in fact, a
relative comparison of a certain property of two or more objects.
● Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on whether
we measure subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference
judgements. In the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which
person he favours or which solution he would like to see employed, whereas in
the latter case he is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in
some aspect or which solution will take fewer resources without reflecting any
personal preference.
● Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Nominal scales merely classify
without indicating order, distance or unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate
magnitude relationships of ‘more than’ or ‘less than’, but indicate no distance or
unique origin. Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no
unique origin. Ratio scales possess all these features.
● Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as
‘unidimensional’ and ‘multidimensional’ scales. Under the former we measure
only one attribute of the respondent or object, whereas multidimensional
scaling recognizes that an object might be described better by using the
concept of an attribute space of ‘n’ dimensions, rather than a single-dimension
continuum.
● Scale construction techniques: Following are the five main techniques by which
scales can be developed.
○ Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad
hoc basis. This is the most widely used approach. It is presumed that
such scales measure the concepts for which they have been designed,
although there is little evidence to support such an assumption.
○ Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen
for inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to
the topic area and unambiguous in implication.
○ Item analysis approach: Under it a number of individual items are
developed into a test which is given to a group of respondents. After
administering the test, the total scores are calculated for every one.
Individual items are then analysed to determine which items
discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and
those with low scores.
○ Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some
ranking of items with ascending and descending discriminating power.
 For instance, in such a scale the endorsement of an item representing
an extreme position should also result in the endorsement of all items
indicating a less extreme position.
○ Factor scales may be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of
items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the
relationship between items. This relationship is typically measured
through factor analysis method.

4. What is validity? What are the main types of validity in quantitative research?
Answer:
Research validity in surveys relates to the extent at which the survey measures right

elements that need to be measured. In simple terms, validity refers to how well an

instrument as measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability alone is not enough, measures need to be reliable, as well as, valid. For

example, if a weight measuring scale is wrong by 4kg (it deducts 4 kg of the actual

weight), it can be specified as reliable, because the scale display

In short, Validity tells us how accurately a method measures something. If a method

measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-world

values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:

● Construct validity:

Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches the

construct you want to measure. If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression,

you need to know: does the questionnaire really measure the construct of depression?

Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or some other

construct?

To achieve construct validity, you have to ensure that your indicators and

measurements are carefully developed based on relevant existing knowledge. The

questionnaire must include only relevant questions that measure known indicators of

depression.

The other types of validity described below can all be considered as forms of evidence

for construct validity.

● Content validity:

Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct.

To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must

cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing

from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is threatened

and the research is likely suffering from omitted variable bias.

● Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?

● Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the

surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and

subjective assessment.

● Criterion validity: A criterion variable is an established and effective measurement

that is widely considered valid, sometimes referred to as a “gold standard”

measurement. Criterion variables can be very difficult to find.

● To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of

your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high
 correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends

to measure.

In quantitative research, we have to consider the reliability and validity of your methods

and measurements.

5. Write on main tips for writing a review of literature.

Answer:
A literature review forms a section or part of a dissertation or scholarly article, but it can
also be considered a standalone piece of work. But why do we need to write a literature
review? The aim of a writing a good literature review is to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context. Schwarz
and his colleagues listed the main objectives of the literature review as follows:1

● Summarize prior research

● Explain the results of prior research
● Critically examine past research
● Clarify alternative views of past research

When wondering how to write a literature review, the first point to remember is not to
include studies that are not directly relevant to your study, as it will distract and frustrate
the reader. It makes them lose sight of the purpose of your study. Also, you cannot
create a strong literature review by simply listing who has studied the topic and what
each scholar concluded. The following guide can help you write a good review
regardless of the research type.3

1. Get your topic and research question correct: A unique, thought-provoking topic is
what makes a good literature review stand out. Select interesting and useful topics that
are hotspots in your field of study, but make sure that the research question is
manageable. Understand the key terms related to your area of study. Discuss the topics
with your supervisors or peers to understand landmark/seminal literature works.

2. Decide the scope of your review: This depends on the nature of your study. Decide
on the number of articles you want to read, the recentness of these articles, and how
comprehensive these are.
3. Go for reliable data sources: An important step in writing a good literature review is
collecting data. Your data sources should include scholarly articles, books, conventions,
conferences, dissertations, and theses. An easy place to look is the discipline-wise
research guides created by librarians. Other tools that minimize your literature search
time include R Discovery, SciSpace Discover, Sysrev, and Colandr.

4. Track your searches: Use RefWorks, Mendeley, or Zotero to provide templates and
help track your research citations. Read the abstract to determine articles of interest.
Use maps and charts to identify connecting research and outline important categories.
More relevant studies can be identified from bibliographies or references of these
research studies.

5. Keep notes: This is useful to writing a good literature review as it helps you
remember the important concepts discussed in the literature. It will also help you track
your thought processes during the early stages of research.

6. Structure your literature review: Before thinking what to write in a good literature
review, think about its structure. Like a research article, the template of a good literature
review should have an introduction, the main body, and a conclusion.

● The introduction section will define your topic, establish reasons for reviewing the
selected literature sources, and decide the review’s scope.
● The main body begins with a wider general view of the topic being considered
and ends with a specific focus of your study.
● The conclusion section evaluates the current state of existing research, identifies
gaps in the existing literature to link your research, and outlines areas for future
study. Your research question, hypothesis, or problem statement will also go
here.

7. Length of the literature review: It varies depending on the purpose and audience. The
best literature review length for journal articles is at least 2 pages or a few pages,
depending on the length of your article. For example, for a 5,000-word journal article,
the literature review can be between 1,200-2,000 words

6. Write on the methods of collection of quantitative data.

Answer:
Quantitative data collection refers to the collection of numerical data that
can be analyzed using statistical methods. This type of data collection is
 often used in surveys, experiments, and other research methods. It
measure variables and establish relationships between variables. The
data collected through quantitative methods is typically in the form of
numbers, such as response frequencies, means, and standard
deviations, and can be analyzed using statistical software.
A data that can be counted or expressed in numerical’s constitute the
quantitative data. It is commonly used to study the events or levels of
concurrence. And is collected through a structured questionnaire asking
questions starting with “how much” or “how many.” As the quantitative data is
numerical, it represents both definitive and objective data. Furthermore,
quantitative information is much sorted for statistical and mathematical
analysis, making it possible to illustrate it in the form of charts and graphs.

Discrete and continuous are the two major categories of quantitative data
where discreet data have finite numbers and the constant data values falling
on a continuum possessing the possibility to have fractions or decimals. If
research is conducted to find out the number of vehicles owned by the
American household, then we get a whole number, which is an excellent
example of discrete data. When research is limited to the study of physical
measurements of the population like height, weight, age, or distance, then the
result is an excellent example of continuous data.

Any traditional or online data collection method that helps in gathering

numerical data is a proven method of collecting quantitative data.

probability Sampling

A definitive method of sampling carried out by utilizing some form of random

selection and enabling researchers to make a probability statement based on
data collected at random from the targeted demographic. One of the best
things about probability sampling is it allows researchers to collect the data
from representatives of the population they are interested in studying.
Besides, the data is collected randomly from the selected sample rules out the
possibility of sampling bias.
There are four significant types of probability sampling:

● Simple random sampling: More often, the targeted demographic is

chosen for inclusion in the sample.
● Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a technique in which a
population is divided into smaller groups or clusters, and a random
sample of these clusters is selected. This method is used when it is
impractical or expensive to obtain a random sample from the entire
population.
● Systematic sampling: Any of the targeted demographic would be
included in the sample, but only the first unit for inclusion in the
sample is selected randomly, rest are selected in the ordered fashion
as if one out of every ten people on the list.
● Stratified sampling: It allows selecting each unit from a particular
group of the targeted audience while creating a sample. It is useful
when the researchers are selective about including a specific set of
people in the sample, i.e., only males or females, managers or
executives, people working within a particular industry.

Interviews

Interviewing people is a standard method used for data collection. However,

the interviews conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured,
wherein the researchers ask only a standard set of online questionnaires and
nothing more than that.

There are three major types of interviews conducted for data collection

● Telephone interviews: For years, telephone interviews ruled the

charts of data collection methods. Nowadays, there is a significant
rise in conducting video interviews using the internet, Skype, or
similar online video calling platforms.
● Face-to-face interviews: It is a proven technique to collect data
directly from the participants. It helps in acquiring quality data as it
provides a scope to ask detailed questions and probing further to
collect rich and informative data. Literacy requirements of the
 participant are irrelevant as F2F surveys offer ample opportunities to
collect non-verbal data through observation or to explore complex
and unknown issues. Although it can be an expensive and
time-consuming method, the response rates for F2F interviews are
often higher.
● Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): It is nothing but
a similar setup of the face-to-face interview where the interviewer
carries a desktop or laptop along with him at the time of interview to
upload the data obtained from the interview directly into the database.
CAPI saves a lot of time in updating and processing the data and also
makes the entire process paperless as the interviewer does not carry
a bunch of papers and questionnaires.

Surveys/Questionnaires

Surveys or questionnaires created using online survey software are playing a

pivotal role in online data collection be is quantitative or qualitative research.
The surveys are designed in a manner to legitimize the behavior and trust of
the respondents. More often, checklists and rating scale type of questions
make the bulk of quantitative surveys as it helps in simplifying and quantifying
the attitude or behavior of the respondents.

There are two significant types of survey questionnaires used to collect online
data for quantitative market research.

● Web-based questionnaire: This is one of the ruling and most trusted

methods for internet-based research or online research. In a
web-based questionnaire, the receive an email containing the survey
link, clicking on which takes the respondent to a secure online survey
tool from where he/she can take the survey or fill in the survey
questionnaire. Being a cost-efficient, quicker, and having a wider
reach, web-based surveys are more preferred by the researchers.
The primary benefit of a web-based questionnaire is flexibility.
Respondents are free to take the survey in their free time using either
a desktop, laptop, tablet, or mobile.
 ● Mail Questionnaire: In a mail questionnaire, the survey is mailed out
to a host of the sample population, enabling the researcher to
connect with a wide range of audiences. The mail questionnaire
typically consists of a packet containing a cover sheet that introduces
the audience about the type of research and reason why it is being
conducted along with a prepaid return to collect data online.Although
the mail questionnaire has a higher churn rate compared to other
quantitative data collection methods, adding certain perks such as
reminders and incentives to complete the survey help in drastically
improving the churn rate. One of the major benefits of the mail
questionnaire is all the responses are anonymous, and respondents
are allowed to take as much time as they want to complete the survey
and be completely honest about the answer without the fear of
prejudice.

Observations

As the name suggests, it is a pretty simple and straightforward method of

collecting quantitative data. In this method, researchers collect quantitative
data through systematic observations by using techniques like counting the
number of people present at the specific event at a particular time and a
particular venue or number of people attending the event in a designated
place. More often, for quantitative data collection, the researchers have a
naturalistic observation approach. It needs keen observation skills and senses
for getting the numerical data about the “what” and not about “why” and ”how.”

Naturalistic observation is used to collect both types of data; qualitative and

quantitative. However, structured observation is more used to collect
quantitative rather than qualitative data collection.

● Structured observation: In this type of observation method, the

researcher has to make careful observations of one or more specific
behaviors in a more comprehensive or structured setting compared to
naturalistic or participant observation. In a structured observation, the
researchers, rather than observing everything, focus only on very
specific behaviors of interest. It allows them to quantify the behaviors
they are observing. When the qualitative observations require a
judgment on the part of the observers – it is often described as
coding, which requires a clearly defining a set of target behaviors.