DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER

SCIENCE ALIGARH MUSLIM

UNIVERSITY
ALIAGRH, U.P.-202002

Paper-I (COURSE PHDCS-101: Research Methodology)

By
Professor Mohammad Ubaidullah Bokhari

(UNIT-I)

Sessional Marks :30

Exam Marks :70

OBJCTIVES OF THE COURSE

• To learn the art of Literature Review and to focus on a research problem using
scientific methods.
• To learn the scientific practices and academic ethics.
• To inculcate analytical thinking and data interpretation capability.
• To learn how to synthesize and communicate research findings to a wide range of
audiences.
• To learn how to write scientific research proposals and reports.
What is Research?
Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical
information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable
methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive framework; to

assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing them in appropriate manners;
and to generate questions for further inquiries.

Concepts of Research Design

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively
address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research, obtaining
evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to
test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a phenomenon. However, researchers
can often begin their investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about about what
information is required to answer the study's research questions. Without attending to these design
issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and unconvincing and, consequently, will
fail to adequate address the overall research problem.
Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any sound
design will do the following things:

1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses
and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining whether or
not the hypotheses are true or false.

Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights
that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main
characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics of research design:
Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you
expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and
consider those who agree with the derived results.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results every
time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are
those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted
sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population
with similar accuracy.
The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the above
characteristics should be balanced in a good design.
Types of Research Design
A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which
model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your study can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data
and observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods. Researchers rely on qualitative
research design methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what”
respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to
collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective to make critical
business decisions. Quantitative research design methods are necessary for the growth of any
organization. Insights drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when
making decisions related to the future of the business.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method which
is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide
insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the
need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a relationship

between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact
caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the
influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer
satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving
a problem at hand. The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the
dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two
groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around
them react to gain a better understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables.
This type of research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two different variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the
relationship between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the
underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the
factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue
· Diagnosis of the issue
· Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a
subject to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject and
details about what, how, and why of research questions.

How do you create a Research Design?

o Pinpoint your learning outcomes, objectives, etc.;

o Pick out your research questions;
o Develop a research design;
o Choose a sampling framework;
o Pick suitable methods of data collection;
o Set up appropriate measurement instruments;
o Identify proper data analysis techniques, tools, etc.;
o Contemplate dissemination and publication of your findings.

What is the difference between Research Design and Approach?

o A Research Design is the overall framework, or outline, or structure of a research proposal

whereas a Research Approach incorporates various tools, techniques, procedures or processes
utilized to collect or review data or information.
o A Research Design demonstrates how your selected research design or method is applied to
tackle a specific research question while a Research Approach utilizes different methods to
answer different research questions.

Characteristics of a good Research problem

1 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely

Unless the problem can be stated clearly and concisely it is probably a poor problem or a non-
problem. The best way to test the problem statement is to write it into a concise sentence or
paragraph and to share it with others. If the problem cannot be stated in a clear paragraph it has
difficulties and will not endure as a suitable problem. Of course, it is not easy to express complex
issues in simplistic terms and it may take many weeks and countless drafts before the statement is
satisfactory. Good critics are essential. If your spouse or mother cannot understand it, it is probably
flaky.

2 The problem generates research questions

The problem should generate a number of more specific research questions. These turn the problem
into a question format and represent various aspects or components of the problem. The research
questions make the more general statement easier to address and provide a framework for the
research. Formulating these questions can be a challenge, particularly specifying them at the right
level of abstraction.

3 It is grounded in theory
Good problems have theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks for their analysis. They relate the
specifics of what is being investigated to a more general background of theory which helps interpret
the results and link it to the field.
4 It relates to one or more academic fields of study
Good problems relate to academic fields which have adherents and boundaries. They typically have
journals to which adherents relate. Research problems which do not have clear links to one or two
such fields of study are generally in trouble. Without such a field it becomes impossible to determine
where, in the universe of knowledge, the problem lies.

5 It has a base in the research literature

Related to the former points, a well-stated problem will relate to a research literature. Tight problems
often relate to a well-defined body of literature, written by a select group of researchers and
published in a small number of journals. With some problems, it might at first be difficult to establish
the connections and literature base, but there should be a base somewhere.

6 It has potential significance/importance

This is the important ‘so what’ question: Who cares once you solve the problem? Assume that you
have solved the problem and answered the questions and then ask yourself if you are any further
ahead. At the very least, the problem must have importance to the researcher, but ideally it should
also be of consequence to others.

7 It is doable within the time frame, budget

There are logistic factors in terms of your ability actually to carry out the research. There is no point
pursuing a problem which is not feasible to research. Do not do a study of education in India unless
you have the means to go there and collect data ̶ which may require years to collect. This factor helps
explain why few theses relate to longitudinal data. The only exceptions come from research shops
where there is a long history of collecting and studying data on a defined population. Terman’s study
of genius (1954) in which a defined sample was traced over 30 years, is a good example.

8 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained

In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem. Historical persons may have died,
archival materials may be lost, or there may be restrictions on access to certain environments. As
noted, it is difficult to conduct research on a distant country unless you can go there and collect local
data. One under-used approach is to use an existing database. Some data banks have been
developed over many years and contain many opportunities for exploration of new questions and
issues.

Objectives of a research problem

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
“Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study”.
They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

Objectives should be listed under two headings:

a) Main objectives (aims);
b) Sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study.

It is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.
• The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main
framework of your study.
They should be numerically listed.
Wording should clearly, completely and specifically Communicate to your readers your intention.
Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
The objectives should start with words such as
‘To determine’,
‘To find out’,
‘To ascertain’,
‘To measure’,
‘To explore’ etc

The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive, correlational and
experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them. e.g.
Descriptive studies:
To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in Mumbai.
To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five star hotels in
Mumbai.

Correlational studies:
-To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
-To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.
Hypothesis –testing studies:
-To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug / alcohol abuse.
-To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in Mumbai hotels will
reduce staff turnover

Scope of a research problem

It discovers facts and relationship in order to make educational process more effective.
It deals with the problems of classroom
It deals with the basic problems of Social Studies and teaching learning situations.
It covers areas from formal education and conformal education as well.

Variables of a research problem

It is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from grout to group, person to person, or
even one person over time.
The purpose of all research is to describe and explain ‘variance’ in the world. Variables are the names
that are given to the variance we wish to explain.

There are two types of research variables

Dependent Variable

The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to
change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is the
presumed effect.

Independent Variable

The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers
to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the
presumed cause.

Other types of variables are as follows

Intervening: Refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the
independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the
subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe.
For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of
the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects
are the intervening variables.

Moderator: Affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying
the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are
measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language acquisition
research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language
proficiency of the subjects.

Control: Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study
must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on
the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables.

Extraneous: Are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the
dependent variable(s) but which is not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may
damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the
independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled,
extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.
Identifying key variables:
Once you have brainstormed project topics, narrowed down the list, and reviewed the research
related to that narrowed list, select a topic that seems most appealing to you. However, this project
topic is not set in stone yet. After you begin working through the project, you may realize that the
topic needs to be revised, or even entirely changed to a different topic. The next step is to identify
the key variables and the research design.

Key Variables: All research projects are based around variables. A variable is the characteristic or
attribute of an individual, group, educational system, or the environment that is of interest in a
research study. Variables can be straightforward and easy to measure, such as gender, age, or
course of study. Other variables are more complex, such as socioeconomic status, academic
achievement, or attitude toward school. Variables may also include an aspect of the educational
system, such as a specific teaching method or counselling program. Characteristics of the
environment may also be variables, such as the amount of school funding or availability of computers.
Therefore, once the general research topic has been identified, the researcher should identify the key
variables of interest.

For example, a researcher is interested in low levels of literacy. Literacy itself is still a broad topic. In
most instances, the broad topic and general variables need to be specifically identified. For example,
the researcher needs to identify specific variables that define literacy: reading fluency (the ability to
read a text out loud), reading comprehension (understanding what is read), vocabulary, interest in
reading, etc. If a researcher is interested in motivation, what specific motivation variables are of
interest: external motivation, goals, need for achievement, etc? Reading other research studies about
your chosen topic will help you better identify the specific variables of interest.

Identifying the key variables is important for the following reasons:

The key variables provide focus when writing the Introduction section.
The key variables are the major terms to use when searching for research articles for the
Literature Review.
The key variables are the terms to be operationally defined if an Operational Definition of Terms
section is necessary.
The key variables provide focus to the Methods section.
Constructing hypotheses
“Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches-assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”. (Eric Rogers,
1966)
“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”. (Kerlinger,
1956)
“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent
and dependent variable”. (Creswell, 1994)
“A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome
of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome”. (Sarantakos, 1993: 1991)

Nature:
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should be specified
before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting the results. This allows to: Identify the
research objectives Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research Identify its relationship
to both the problem statement and the literature review. A problem cannot be scientifically solved
unless it is reduced to hypothesis form. It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent
with existing knowledge and conducive to further enquiry.
It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable
Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions
It is neither too specific nor to general
It is a prediction of consequences
It is considered valuable even if proven false

Types:
There are two types of hypotheses: NULL HYPOTHESES (HO or HN) and ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES
(H1 or HA)

The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is believed to
be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument, but has not been proved. There is a
serious outcome if incorrect decision is made.

The alternate hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish.

▪ opposite of null hypothesis.
▪ only reached if Ho is rejected.
▪ frequently “alternative” is actual desired conclusion of the
Example: clinical trial of a new drug
The null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug.
Ho: There is no difference between the two drugs on average.
The alternate hypothesis might be:
The new drug has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the current drug.
H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.
Or the alternate hypothesis might be:
The new drug is better, on average, than the current drug.
H1: the new drug is better than the current drug, on average.
Problem statements become research hypotheses when constructs are operational:

Errors: Two types of mistakes are possible while testing the hypotheses:

Type I Error: A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (Ho) is wrongly rejected. For example,
A type I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different effects when in fact
there was no difference between them.

Type II Error: A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis Ho, is not rejected when it is in fact
false. For example, a type II error would occur if it were concluded that the two drugs produced the
same effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they
produced different ones.

Errors in selecting a research problem

Designing a research project takes time, skill and knowledge. If you don’t go into the process with a
clear goal and methods, you’ll likely come out with skewed data or an inaccurate picture of what you
were trying to accomplish. With Qualtrics survey software, we make the survey creation process
easier, but still you may feel overwhelmed with the scope of your research project.

While it’s important to use proper methodology in the research process, it’s equally important to avoid
making critical mistakes that could produce inaccurate results. In this article, we’ll list 5 common
errors in the research process and tell you how to avoid making them, so you can get the best data
possible.

Some errors are made simply by asking questions the wrong way. Improve your survey reliability with
our free handbook of question design.

1. Population Specification
Population specification errors occur when the researcher does not understand who they should
survey. This can be tricky because there are multiple people who might consume the product, but
only one who purchases it, or they may miss a segment looking to purchase in the future.
Example: Packaged goods manufacturers often conduct surveys of housewives, because they are
easier to contact, and it is assumed they decide what is to be purchased and also do the actual
purchasing. In this situation there often is population specification error. The husband may purchase
a significant share of the packaged goods, and have significant direct and indirect influence over what
is bought. For this reason, excluding husbands from samples may yield results targeted to the wrong
audience.

How to avoid this: Understand who purchases your product and why they buy it. It’s important to
survey the one making the buying decision so you know how to better reach them.

2. Sampling and Sample Frame Errors

Survey sampling and sample frame errors occur when the wrong subpopulation is used to select a
sample, or because of variation in the number or representativeness of the sample that responds, but
the resulting sample is not representative of the population concern.
Unfortunately, some element of sampling error is unavoidable, but sometimes, it can be predicted.
For instance, in the 1936 presidential election between Roosevelt and Landon, the sample frame was
from car registrations and telephone directories. The researchers failed to realize that the majority of
people that owned cars and telephones were Republicans, and wrongly predicted a Republican
victory.
Example: Suppose that we collected a random sample of 500 people from the general U.S. adult
population to gauge their entertainment preferences. Then, upon analysis, found it to be composed
of 70% females. This sample would not be representative of the general adult population and would
influence the data. The entertainment preferences of females would hold more weight, preventing
accurate extrapolation to the US general adult population. Sampling error is affected by the
homogeneity of the population being studied and sampled from and by the size of the sample.
How to avoid this: While this cannot be completely avoided, you should have multiple people
reviewing your sample to account for an accurate representation of your target population. You can
also increase the size of your sample so you get more survey participants.
3. Selection
Selection error is the sampling error for a sample selected by a non-probability method. When
respondents choose to self-participate in a study and only those interested respond, you can end up
with selection error because there may already be an inherent bias. This can also occur when
respondents who are not relevant to the study participate, or when there’s a bias in the way
participants are put into groups.
Example: Interviewers conducting a mall intercept study have a natural tendency to select those
respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable whenever there is latitude to do so. Such
samples often comprise friends and associates who bear some degree of resemblance in
characteristics to those of the desired population.
How to avoid this: Selection error can be controlled by going extra lengths to get participation. A
typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact requesting cooperation, actual surveying,
and post-survey follow-up. If a response is not received, a second survey request follows, and
perhaps interviews using alternate modes such as telephone or person-to-person.

4. Non-responsive
Non response error can exist when an obtained sample differs from the original selected sample.
This may occur because either the potential respondent was not contacted or they refused to
respond. The key factor is the absence of data rather than inaccurate data.
Example: In telephone surveys, some respondents are inaccessible because they are not at home for
the initial call or call-backs. Others have moved or are away from home for the period of the survey.
Not-at-home respondents are typically younger with no small children, and have a much higher
proportion of working wives than households with someone at home. People who have moved or are
away for the survey period have a higher geographic mobility than the average of the population.
Thus, most surveys can anticipate errors from non-contact of respondents. Online surveys seek to
avoid this error through e-mail distribution, thus eliminating not-at-home respondents.
How to avoid this: When collecting responses, ensure your original respondents are participating, and
use follow-up surveys and alternates modes of reaching them if they don’t initially respond. You can
also use different channels to reach your audience like in person, web surveys, or SMS.

5. Measurement
Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and represents the difference
between the information generated and the information wanted by the researcher. Generally, there is
always some small level of measurement error due to uncontrollable factors.
Example: A retail store would like to assess customer feedback from at-the-counter purchases. The
survey is developed but fails to target those who purchase in the store. Instead, the results are
skewed by customers who bought items online.
How to avoid this: Double check all measurements for accuracy and ensure your observers and
measurement takes are well trained and understand the parameters of the experiment.
While not all of these errors can be completely avoidable, recognizing them is half the battle. Next
time you’re starting a research project, use this blog as a checklist to ensure you’re doing everything
you can to avoid these common mistakes.
Also, before you begin your next research project, read 5 Ways to Formulate the Research
Problem. This is vital to any research project because you can’t begin creating surveys unless you
understand the research problem. Once you’re ready to begin creating your survey, use a free
Qualtrics account to get started and download the eBook below for an in-depth guide to creating your
survey questions.

Literature review
A literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular issue,
area of research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation
of these works. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored
while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits into
the larger field of study
Importance of Literature review
A literature review may consist of simple a summary of key sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual
categories. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-
organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to
investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent
or relevant, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem
has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the research
problem being studied,
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration,
• Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research,
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies,
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort,
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research, and
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature.

Identifying the research problem

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way
and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a
particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up.
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help
from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often,
the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down
and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with which the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with
the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar
to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and
other materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his
own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of
formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research
process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help
discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must; however, be taken to verify the
objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger
correctly states that the statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the
data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are
to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final
report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of
formulating the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where
a number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each
one phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and
resources.

Various steps for formulating a research problem are:

Step 1-Identification of subject area: A researcher must select a subject area where he feels interest
and comfortable to proceed.
Step 2-Problem definition and identification: A problem should be identified relevant to the chosen
field and should be defined properly.
Step 3-Literature review: the scope in the chosen field might be huge and expanding, so a
researcher should be aware of the existing knowledge in the area, for this extensive review of the
previous literature is required.
Step 4-Selection of research design, subject and data collection techniques: Select and plan the
overall structure of the research procedure, collection and analysis of the data using various data
collection techniques
Step 5-Data gathering: Data gathering can be done in many ways depending upon the subject area
chosen. These different ways falls broadly under quantitative and qualitative data collection approach.
Step 6-Data processing and analysis: The collected data need to be analyzed and computed to
provide new inferences and interpretations. For quantitative approach, statistical methods are used
and for the quantitative one, information is coded, justified and presented with valid reasoning.
Step 7-Implication and conclusions: The novelty of the work and contribution of new knowledge are
seen here.
Step 8-Publish and communicate results: Communicate with other fellow researchers and
practitioners. The results should be published in journals and conference proceedings as these are
platforms for interested parties to communicate.

Research proposal
Research proposal is a specific kind of document written for a specific purpose. Research involves a
series of actions and therefore it presents all actions in a systematic and scientific way. In this way,
Research proposal is a blueprint of the study which simply outlines the steps that researcher will
undertake during the conduct of his/her study. Proposal is a tentative plan so the researcher has
every right to modify his proposal on the basis of his reading, discussion and experiences gathered in
the process of research.

There are no hard and fast rules governing the structure or components of a proposal. It mostly
depends on the nature of a research or format approved by a particular university or sponsoring
agency. Generally, in a typical format main components of a research proposal are as given below:
1. Title page
2. Topic of a research
3. Introduction
4. Rationale and research question
5. Literature Review
6. Aim and Objectives
7. Methodology
8. Ethical Consideration
9. Budget
10. Timeline
11. Conclusion
12. References/ bibliography

Title page: A title page should contain the name of the proposed research, candidate, supervisor (if
known) and the department or school to which it will be submitted.
Research Title: The proposed research title should be clear, precise and should summarise the
details which are given in the proposed research.
Introduction: A proposal starts with the introduction of research problem and some background
information that supports or validates the existence of stated problem and need for the proposed
research.
Rationale or research questions: This section gives reasons for why this research is significant. It
also put forward some questions which will be addressed in the proposed research. An alternative of
research questions is hypothesis, which the student will prove or reject through his/her research.
Literature Review: A literature review summarises the nature of studies which have been already
done in the field of proposed research. It will bring out the gaps and arguments in the existing
research that support the need of the proposed research, and how the proposed research will fill
those gaps.
Aims and Objective: Aim and objectives will highlight what will be the outcome of the proposed
research.
Methodology: Methodology section gives the details of how the student will carry out the proposed
research. Here, student needs to provide information on data required, process of data collection,
various possible data sources, data analysis, methods and techniques to be applied and research
presentation.
Ethical Considerations: If the research involves questionnaire or interviews with human beings,
then international universities require an ethical approval prior to the beginning of the research. This
is done to save the personal freedom and for the safety of the participants. In the research proposal
student needs to mention that ethical approval will be taken prior to the beginning of the field
research involving human beings.
Budget: A few research proposals also require budget information. Budget information include the
amount of total expected cost both direct and indirect, cost of any equipment required, cost of field
study, accommodation and conference participation etc. If any other organisation is sponsoring the
project then that information should also come in this section.
Timeline: Usually most PhDs take three or more years, but this section contains detailed time table
for the project, such as, time spent on literature review, primary and secondary data collection, data
analysis, writing and presentation.
Conclusion: Some research proposals also contain a section titled as conclusions which restate the
significance of the proposed research in the theoretical and practical world.
References: A list of reference is an integral part of the research report. It may be headed as
‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’. In writing references / bibliography researcher must follow the
guidelines given by American Psychological Association (APA).

Writing a research proposal

Writing a research proposal require research interest, lot of reading and patience.
It is often advised to be in a regular communication with potential supervisor who may help in
making research proposal by giving value advice.
Ask others to read your proposal and revise before sending it.
Look out for English and grammar mistakes

Institutional Proposals are to include the following elements:

1. A Statement of Institutional Context that briefly describes the institution’s background, its current
context, a brief and basic presentation of its major strengths and challenges, and a synopsis of
responses to issues raised by the Commission action letter and, where relevant, issues identified by
the Substantive Change or Interim Report Committees. This Statement should also connect the
context for the accreditation review to the institution’s vision and strategic plan.
2. The institution is expected to identify specific outcomes that it seeks to achieve through the
accreditation review process and particular processes, policies, or procedures (e.g. planning, program
review, establishing academic standards, faculty development, etc.) that it intends to improve
through the process.
3. A description of how representatives of the institution’s constituencies were involved in the
development and internal approval of the Proposal It is expected that key institutional leadership,
especially the faculty leadership have been involved in the design of the proposal, the format of
review, the selection of special themes, the method of inquiry, and the most significant indicators that
will be developed as evidence.

4. A description of how the Preparatory and Educational Effectiveness Reviews will be staged and
timed to address institutional goals and to demonstrate the institution’s fulfilment of the two Core
Commitments.
5. For the Educational Effectiveness Review, a brief description of the format to be used by the
institution to engage issues of Educational Effectiveness, the special emphases being proposed in
light of the format selected, the methods to be used to engage these issues, and the ways in which
the institution will address issues of student learning. The institution will develop and/or apply to
support its Educational Effectiveness Review.
6. A prescribed set of Basic Descriptive Data presented in standard form that address a range of
common institutional characteristics including enrolments, listings of the institution’s academic
programs, numbers of faculty and staff employed, and available fiscal, physical, and information
resources.
7. A list of all degree programs should be included.
8. An Institutional Stipulation Statement signed by the Chief Executive Officer that establishes:
a. That the institution is using the review process to demonstrate its fulfilment of the two
Core Commitments, that it will engage in the process with seriousness, that data presented
are accurate and fairly present the institution.
b. That the institution has published and publicly available policies in force as identified by
the Commission. Such policies will be available for review on request throughout the
period of accreditation.
c. That the institution will submit all regularly required data, and any data specifically
requested by the Commission during the period of Accreditation (or Candidacy).

Presentation and evaluation of proposals

Purpose:
The purpose of the presentation is to receive guidance from the committee regarding the scope,
focus, feasibility, methods, and structure of the proposed dissertation. An approved proposal serves
as a research contract between the dissertation committee and doctoral candidate.

format :
The student should plan a brief (15-20 minute) presentation and the student must allow 40 minutes
in which the committee will evaluate the proposed topic, offer suggestions, and ask questions. Faculty
outside of the committee and guests may attend. Following the discussion, the advisor will ask the
student and guests to leave the room while the committee confers and decides if the proposal
passes, passes with minor modifications, or fails, requiring major revisions and/or restructuring. The
advisor will call the candidate back into the meeting to present the decision. The candidate may ask
the committee questions at this time. If the candidate's proposal passes, the committee will sign a
copy of the title page that provides spaces for signatures and the date. If the proposal is not passed,
the candidate will be guided by the advisor to redevelop the proposal.

General information:
A verbal presentation differs from the written material in its level of detail, organization, and
presentation. It is helpful to the audience if you use visual presentational tools such as slides,
overheads, or computer presentational software such as PowerPoint. It is best NOT to read your
paper.

Presentation content:
1. Begin by introducing what you will cover in your presentation. In one or two sentences describe
the purpose of your research, its significance, and how you plan to conduct the research.
2. Concentrate on three points--purpose (what), significance (why), and methodology (how).
Remember to keep within the 15-20 minute time limit!
3. Keep reminding the audience what the problem statement is by relating each major section of the
presentation to the problem statement.

Preparing an effective oral presentation:

1. Determine the purpose of your presentation and identify your own objectives.
2. Know your audience and what it knows.
3. Define your topic.
4. Arrange your material in a way that makes sense for your objectives.
5. Compose your presentation.
6. Create visual aids.
7. Practice your presentation (don’t forget to time it!)
8. Make necessary adjustments.
9. Analyze the room where you’ll be giving your presentation (set-up, sight lines, equipment, etc.).
10. Practice again.

Oral presentation:
• Preparing your oral presentation
• Organizing the content
• Delivering your presentation
• Using visual aids