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Research Methodology
Unit_1
Objectives of Research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many
more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire
to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at
times compel) people to perform research operations.
Methods
➢ Are defined as the methods or techniques that are used to gather evidence and conduct research.
➢ Involves conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, etc. The main objective is to discover
solutions to research problems.
➢ Narrow scope of practice (i.e., consists of various research strategies, methods, techniques, tools,
etc.)
➢ Much wider scope of practice, which includes the research methods.
➢ Used in later stages of research.
Methodology
➢ Provides an explanation and rationale behind the methods employed in said research.
➢ Involves the acquisition of knowledge surrounding various techniques used to conduct research
such as surveys, interviews, experiments, etc.
➢ The main objective is to use the correct procedures to discover solutions to research
problems.Narrow scope of practice (i.e., consists of various research strategies, methods,
techniques, tools, etc.)
➢ Much wider scope of practice, which includes the research methods.
➢ Used in the beginning stages of research.
Types of research….
Research may be very broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for
advancement of knowledge in any subject. research attempts to find answer intellectual and practical
questions through application of systematic methods.
Types of research can be classified in many different ways. some major ways of classifying research
include the following.
• Descriptive versus Analytical Research

• Applied versus Fundamental Research
• Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
• Conceptual versus Empirical Research
Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the nature of something as it exists. In
contrast analytical research is concerned with determining validity of hypothesis based on analysis of
facts collected.
Applied research is carried out to find answers to practical problems to be solved and as an aid in
decision making in different areas including product design, process design and policy making.
Fundamental research is carried out as more to satisfy intellectual curiosity, than with the intention of
using the research findings for any immediate practical application.
Quantitative research studies such aspects of the research subject which are not quantifiable, and hence
not subject to measurement and quantitative analysis. In contrast quantitative research make substantial
use of measurements and quantitative analysis techniques.
Conceptual research is involves investigation of thoughts and ideas and developing new ideas or
interpreting the old ones based on logical reasoning. In contrast empirical research is based on firm
verifiable data collected by either observation of facts under natural condition or obtained through
experimentation.
Basic Research Process

Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a researcher.
Research process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research is the best. It is an art
rather than a science. Following are the main steps in social or business research process.
1. Selection of Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Making Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data Analysis
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Generalization and Interpretation
10. Preparation of Report
Selection of Research Problem

The selection of topic for research is a difficult job. When we select a title or research statement, then
other activities would be easy to perform. So, for the understanding thoroughly the problem it must have
to discuss with colleagues, friend, experts and teachers. The research topic or problem should be practical,
relatively important, feasible, ethically and politically acceptable.
Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey

After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly connected with the
topics. The availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For this purpose academic
journals, conference and govt. reports and library must be studied.
Making Hypothesis
The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The hypothesis
is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis narrows down the
area of a research and keep a researcher on the right path.
Preparing the Research Design

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the
researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research design may be
made, depend on the nature and purpose of the study. Daring R. Design the information about sources,
skill, time and finance is taken into consideration.
Sampling
The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or
universe. The sample may be of two types:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling
Data collection
Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must be
containing on facts which is from the following two types of researcher.
Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following.

1. Experiment
2. Questionnaire
3. Observation
4. Interview
Secondary data collection: it has the following categories:
1. Review of literature
2. Official and non-official reports
3. Library approach
Data Analysis
When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be
divided into two main categories.
Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.

Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data presentation, Data measurement
Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories.

Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions
Hypothesis Testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not?
To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis.
Generalization and Interpretation

The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of generalization or to make
& theory. Some types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher depends upon on theory which
is known as interpretation.
Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his mind the
following points:
Report Design in Primary Stages

The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and background followed by
acknowledgement. There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.
Main Text of the Report

It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and methodology of the research. It must be divided
into chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which summary of the findings should be
enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions to show the main theme of the R-study.
Closing the Report

After the preparation of report, the last step in business research process contains of bibliography,
references, appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should
more clearer.
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH TOPIC

Every research study, irrespective of its type, should meet some criterions so that it can be classified as
good research. Let us discuss some of these criterions.
1. One of the important characteristics of a good research is that the purpose of the research is clearly
defined. A research study with clearly defined purpose finds a wider acceptance and
acknowledgement within the research community.
2. Second important characteristic of a good research is that the research method should be defined in a
clear manner with sufficient detail. This will allow the repetition of the study in future for further
advancement, while maintaining the continuity of what has been done in the past.
3. The third thing to remember is that any limitations and assumptions made by the researcher during the
course of the study should be clearly highlighted in the research. This will support the findings of the
research study, in case someone tries to validate the study findings.
4. The fourth thing to remember is that, as far as possible, the research design should be planned in a
way that the results generated are as objective as possible. This will provide an easier understanding
about the findings of the research.
5. Another thing to be considered by the researcher is that there should be sufficient data to investigate
the research topic. And the researcher should carefully check the reliability and validity of the data.
6. Further, in order to deliver a good research, a researcher should confine the conclusions to those
justified by the data.
7. Lastly, a good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment of the researcher.
Formulating the research problem
Once the general topic or problem has been identified, this should then be stated as a clear research problem, that is, taken from just a
statement about a problematic situation to a clearly defined researchable problem that identifies the issues you are trying to address.
It is not always easy to formulate the research problem simply and clearly. In some areas of scientific research the investigator might spend
years exploring, thinking, and researching before they are clear about what research questions they are seeking to answer. Many topics may
prove too wide-ranging to provide a researchable problem. Choosing to study, for instance a social issue such as child poverty, does not in itself
provide a researchable problem. The problem is too wide-ranging for one researcher to address. Time and resources would make this
unfeasible and the results from such a study would consequently lack depth and focus.
Defining and formulating the research problem
An adequate statement of the research problem is one of the most important parts of the research. Different
researchers are likely to generate a variety of researchable problems from the same situation since there are many
research issues that can arise out of a general problem situation. Your research will be able to pursue only one in
depth.
For a problem statement to be effective in the planning of applied research it should have the following
characteristics (Andrew and Hildebrand 1982).
1. The problem reflects felt needs

2. The problem is non-hypothetical, ie it must be based on factual evidence
3. It should suggest meaningful and testable hypotheses - to avoid answers that are of little or no use
to the alleviation of the problem
4. The problems should be relevant and manageable
Formulating the research problem allows you to make clear, both to yourself and the reader, what the purpose of
your research is. Subsequent elaboration of method should be oriented to providing information to address that
problem. The problem statement is therefore a very important device for keeping you on track with your research.
It is also one means by which your research will be evaluated - does the research address the problem as stated.
Selecting a Research Problem

The following important factors should be kept in mind by a researcher when selecting a topic for research:
1. In most cases, subject that is overdone must not be picked, because it will certainly be a complicated
task to throw any new light in such a situation.
2. Too narrow or too un-explainable problems must be shunned.
3. The significance of the topic, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the expenses required,
the time element are few other criteria that should be considered when selecting a problem.
4. A professional needs to ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is properly equipped when it comes to his background to handle the research?
(b) Whether he has the budget to afford the research?
(c) Whether the required cooperation can be obtained from people who must take part in research as
subjects?
5. An average researcher should avoid controversial subjects.
6. The topic picked for research must be familiar and feasible so that the relevant research material or
sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is extremely challenging to provide definitive
ideas regarding how a professional should obtain ideas for his research. To do this, a researcher can
make contact with an expert or a lecturer in the University who is already involved in research. He
cans also read articles or blog posts published in current literature available on the topic and may think
the way the methods and concepts talked about therein could be applied to the solution of other
problems.
7. A preliminary study should be done before picking a research problem. This isn’t always required
when the problem demands the conduct of a research closely comparable to one that was already done.
However when the field of investigation is pretty new and doesn’t have available a set of well
developed methods, a quick feasibility study should always be carried out.
Necessity of Defining a Research Problem ?

The problem to be researched needs to be described
unambiguously as that will help you to discriminate useful data from the unrelated ones. A
proper formulation of research problem will allow the investigator to be on the track in contrast to an ill-
defined problem may possibly create difficulties.
Questions like: What data are to be gathered? What attributes of data are appropriate and need to be
analyzed? What relations should be investigated. What methods should be employed for the purpose? as
well as other questions turn up in the head of the investigator who can well plan his strategy and find
solutions to these kinds of questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Therefore,
defining the problem accurately is a necessity for any research and is a step of the highest value.
In fact, formulation of a problem is often vital than its solution. It is only on thoroughly describing the
problem that we can work out the research design and can efficiently proceed all the consequential steps
needed while doing research.
Important Points to Keep in Mind while Defining the Research Problem
1. The correct question needs to be addressed if research is to help decision makers. A right answer to the
wrong question leads either to bad advice or to no advice.
2. Usually in problem we have an inclination to rationalize and defend our actions once we have started
upon a specific research plan. The perfect time to examine and think about alternative techniques is in
the planning stage. If it is completed unnecessary expense of false start and redoing work may be
prevented.
3. An excellent beginning in problem definition is to ask what the decision maker want to know if the
requested information can be gathered without error and without expense.
4. Another excellent rule to follow is “Never settle on a specific strategy” without developing and taking
into consideration at least one alternate option”.
5. The problem definition stage of research is the determination and structuring of the decision maker’s
question. It should be the decision maker’s question and not the researcher’s question.
6. What decision do you face? Unless you have decision to make, there isn’t any research problem.
7. What are the alternatives? In case there are no options to choose, once again there is absolutely no
research problem.
8. What are the factors for selecting the best alternative? Unless you have criteria for evaluation, again
there’s no problem.
9. The researcher should stay away from the acceptance of the superficial and the obvious.
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING A PROBLEM,
The Literature Review The literature review is important because:

• It describes how the proposed research is related to prior research in statistics.
• It shows the originality and relevance of your research problem. Specifically, your research is
different from other statisticians.
• It justifies your proposed methodology.
• It demonstrates your preparedness to complete the research.
6.1 What is a literature review and why is it necessary?

• Your dissertation is a substantial and lengthy piece of professional work that must satisfy a
number of academic requirements. The literature review is one of these important academic
requirements.
• The literature review is a critical discussion and summary of statistical literature that is of
‘general’ and ‘specialized’ relevance to the particular area and topic of the research problem in
statistics.
• You should spend a lot of time on your literature review because if you do it well, you can use
most of it in your dissertation.
• In a weak literature review, the Ph.D. student did a poor job of reviewing the relevant
literature. It can be poor because there are too few references or the student does not
adequately summarize the important results in the cited references. Keeping organized notes
will help prevent a weak literature review.
• Every statement in a literature review must be supported either by a reference to published
statistical literature.
• In a literature review, you do not present all of the details found in the references. For
example, you can state a theorem, but you do not have to present a proof of the theorem. That
is, you can (in general) assume the results in the published statistical literature are established
facts. By providing the source of the reference, your advisor and committee can go to the
original reference for all of the details.
• In your literature search you will: – discover what statistical knowledge exists related to you
research topic – increase your statistical knowledge in your research area – find gaps (and
possibly errors) in published research – generate new original ideas – avoid duplicating results of
other statisticians – justify the relevance of your proposed research 49
• A literature review in a proposal is usually ≥ 20 pages. It should be long enough to convince
your committee that you have thoroughly explored the research topic
Primary sources
Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based.
They are from the time period involved and have not been filtered through interpretation or
evaluation.
They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format. They
present original thinking, report a discovery, or share new information.
Examples include:
• Literary creation: novels, short stories, poems, etc.
• Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under
study);
• Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
• Diaries;
• Internet communications on email, listservs;
• Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
• Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
• Letters;
• Newspaper articles written at the time;
• Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
• Patents;
• Photographs
• Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
• Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution,
government document);
• Speeches;
• Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);
• Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
• Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores,
buildings, novels, poems).
• Web site.
Secondary sources
Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources.
Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight.
They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources.
Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence.
However, what some define as a secondary source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is
everything.
Examples include:
• Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);
• Biographical works;
• Commentaries, criticisms;
• Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);
• Histories;
• Literary criticism such as Journal articles;

• Magazine and newspaper articles;
• Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
• Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
• Web site (also considered primary).
Tertiary sources
Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and
secondary sources.
• Almanacs;
• Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
• Chronologies;
• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
• Directories;
• Fact books;
• Guidebooks;
• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
• Manuals;
• Textbooks (also be secondary).
Reviews
It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary
studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and
offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the
perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the
lore of field.
In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is
cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary
literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis
of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon
the type of analysis underpinning your study.
Types of Literature Reviews
ArgumentativeReview
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded
assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body
of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science
research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the
literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce
problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see
below].
IntegrativeReview
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in
an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of
literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done
integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.
This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.
HistoricalReview
Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining
research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena
emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to
place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify
the likely directions for future research.
MethodologicalReview
A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what
they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at
different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis
techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to
practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration,
quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This
approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your
own study.
SystematicReview
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question,
which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and
to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to
deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly
defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-
and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily
applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly
being used in the social sciences.
TheoreticalReview
The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist,
the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal
that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis
can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.
Monograph
Elements of a Monograph
While there are as many ways to write a monograph as there are authors to write them, there
are nonetheless common elements in all critical monographs of which readers should be
aware. In order to engage in a critical reading of a monograph, the reader should be able to
identify and critique these elements.
Thesis
The thesis is the central "point" of the monograph, the hypothesis the author is
attempting to prove. Sometimes the author's thesis is complex, containing several
subtopics or related issues. Sometimes the thesis is straightforward and unified. The
reader should be able to restate an author's thesis in three or four sentences at most.
Argument
The argument is the system of logic employed by the author in order to prove the
monograph's thesis. This is not merely a summary of the story told by the author, but
instead recreates the logical structure that the author has put together to prove the
monograph's point.
Method
Method has to do with the rules employed by the author in organizing evidence, the
kinds of question the author asks, and the approach utilized in answering them.
Methodology consists of several elements, including sources, organization of the
study, theoretical orientations, and manners of analysis.
Sources
Are the sources used by the author typical and appropriate to the study and the topic?
Does the author use the sources in a responsible, distinctive, or even unique way?
What rules of use and analysis govern the author's utilization of the sources?
Organization of the Study
Is the study organized chronologically, thematically, chaotically? Does the way in
which the author organizes the study enhance the argument, or hinder it? Does it herd
the study toward (or away from) a particular conclusion?
Theory and Models
On what work(s) is this study modelled? Does the author draw models and/or
theoretical orientations from a specific discipline, and does its use of those models
and theories liberate or limit the study? For example, it is worthwhile to examine the
author's underlying assumptions about causation and the engines of change, and the
ways in which these assumptions affect the author's analysis of sources.
Analysis
In what forms of analysis--internal and external textual criticism, aesthetic evaluation,
methodological examination, etc.--of evidence does the author engage? Are these
forms of analysis appropriate and sufficent for the author's questions and conclusions?
Historiography
Historiography indicates the tradition in which the author writes about the past. It has
to do with the intellectual approach taken to the subject, the school of historical
thought from which the author writes, and the assumptions, values, or analytical
framework employed. For the purposes of American Studies, historiography should
be defined broadly to include any discipline's literature within the field. The reader
should look for differences between the monograph and studies which have come
before; usually, these historiographical debates with the previous literature appear in
footnotes, but sometimes they also appear within the text itself. Often, introductory
chapters or the introductory materials in specific chapters will provide an overview of
the ways in which the monograph draws upon and deviates from previous literature.
A patent is a legal monopoly granted for a limited time to the owner of an invention.
It empowers the owner of an invention to prevent others from manufacturing, using, importing
or selling the patented invention.
Patent Act, 1970 as amended in the years 1998 and 1999 along with Patent Rules, 1972
govern patents in India.
What is Patent?
Patent is a monopoly granted by statute of a country for a limited term over a new and useful
invention that involves inventive step.
Invention may be either for a product or process.
The rights enjoyed by owner of the patent are proprietary in nature and the patentee or his
agent or licensees has the exclusive right to use and have the benefits of patented invention
and prevent unauthorized use, during the period of patent protection.
Period during which the owner enjoys the benefits is called the term of the patent.
Registration is a prerequisite for patent protection and the protection granted is territorial in
nature i.e., patent granted in a country will give the owner of the patent right only within that
country.
Research Databases
Library research
Library research databases get their information from professionals or experts in the field
• Library research databases contain published works where facts are checked.
Library research databases are easy to cite in a bibliography and most create the citation for
you.
• Library research databases can help you narrow your topic or suggest related subjects.
• Library research databases are updated frequently and include the date of publicatio
DATABASES WEBSITES
•. Websites can be written by anyone regardless of expertise.
• Website content is not necessarily checked by an expert.
• Websites often don’t provide the information necessary to create a complete citation.
• Websites often aren’t organized to support student research needs. n. • Websites may not
indicate when the information was updated.
Guidelines for the Critical Literature Review
Key steps in composing a Critical Literature Review:
1. Topic identification
Given the limited length of the piece (3,000–5,000 words), you should take care to choose a
sufficiently focused topic. Start with an area of interest, and do some exploratory reading in
order to narrow it down; at this stage you can also consult potential supervisors for
preliminary advice. It is helpful to address a well-formed question, rather than a whole
subject area.
2. Literature search
Once you have found a topic, make a systematic search of the literature in order to discover
existing works on the topic. Use relevant databases, library catalogues, and reference works
for this purpose.
3. Selection of literature to discuss
Most likely you will find a great number of sources on your topic. By a cursory examination
of the sources, determine which ones promise to be the most important and interesting for
you to discuss. Use abstracts and key words for this purpose; skim-read what you can get
hold of.
4. In-depth study and critical discourse
Having selected your main 'targets', the crucial step is to study the targeted works closely and
arrive at a critical view of them. Even though you are not required to produce truly original
results or make a sustained argument of your own in this exercise, you should arrive at an
independent judgement about the quality of the literature that you are examining, based on a
thorough understanding of its content. If there is an ongoing debate in the literature, position
yourself clearly in that debate.
5. Composition
The essay you submit should contain both an accurate and sympathetic exposition of the
literature, and a critical assessment of its current state. In the critical part of the essay you
should keep in mind the question of what could be contributed by new research on the topic
(which may possibly be undertaken by yourself later): where are the gaps or weak points in
the existing literature, and how might they be remedied?
The Literature Review can serve as useful preparation for your Dissertation, although it is not
required that it should be on the same topic. In any case, this exercise is intended to give you a
sense of the scale and type of background research that is appropriate for a research paper of a
moderate length.
Steps for identifying research gaps in the literature
Your Master's thesis should make a significant, novel contribution to the field. Your thesis hypothesis
should address a research gap which you identify in the literature, a research question or problem that
has not been answered in your research area of interest. This shows that you have developed expertise in
the body of knowledge and theoretical issues in your chosen research area.
Step 1: Focus Your Research Area
Before you start trying to identify gaps in the literature, you need to figure out what your area of interest
is, and then focus and narrow that research area. If you don't narrow down your initial research area of
interest, you'll end up wanting to research everything. You'll overwhelm yourself with all the research
gaps you find because there are still a lot of unanswered research questions out there.
• Do some exploratory research on your broad research idea in your course textbook, class notes,
in meta-analysis, systematic, and literature reviews, and PsycINFO Thesaurus to identify more
specific issues and arguments in your research area and possible relationships between them.
• Read ebooks to get the "big picture" about the research area you're interested in studying. Books
and ebooks provide detailed information on your research area, put your research area in context,
provide summaries of research, and help you identify major themes and relationships for your
study.
• Ask your advisors and other faculty about possible topics or issues within your research area of
interest. That being said, you're going to spend over a year immersed in work on your thesis, so
make sure you choose issues because you find them deeply interesting, not just because your
advisor recommended them.
Step 2: Read, Read, and then Read Some More

Read (a lot of) research articles: this is going to be time-demanding, but you really do need to read
through a lot of research articles in your research area to become an expert in it. That being said, what you
use from the articles that you read should relate directly back to your focused research questions and
hypothesis. Don't waste your time getting sidetracked by issues that don't relate to your research questions
and hypothesis.
• Go to Start Finding Sources, Search Databases, and Browse Journals to find journal articles
for your research area
• Pay close attention to Introductions, in which authors explain why their research is important,
and Suggestions for Future Research, in which authors point readers to areas which lack
investigation or need future examination
Follow the research trails of seminal articles and authors using Web of Science and Scopus:
• Articles
o In Scopus, click on Document Search, enter the article title, click on the article title in
the list of search hits, then click on View all ~ citing documents link in the right sidebar
for a list of articles that have cited this article
o In Web of Science, enter the article title and choose Title from the right drop down
menu, then click on the Times Cited number next to the article to see a list of articles that
have cited this article
• Authors
o In Scopus, click on Author Search, enter the last name and first initial(s) of the author,
click on the author's name in the list of search hits, then click on Cited By ~ documents
for a list of articles that have cited this author
o In Web of Science, enter the author name and choose Author from the right drop
down menu, then click on the Times Cited number next to each article to see a list of
articles that have cited this author's article
Read meta-analyses, literature reviews, and systematic reviews: these papers delve deep into the
literature, examining the trends and changes over a long period of time in your research area and
summaries of previous research findings.
• In PsycINFO, click on literature review, systematic review, and meta analysis under
the Methodologies heading in the sidebar to the right of the list of search hits
• In CINAHL, add systematic reviews to your search
• In Web Of Science, check the box beside Review under the Document Type heading in the
sidebar to the right of the list of search hits
Step 3: Map out the Literature:

Keep track of what the authors told you and the questions that occur to you whenever you read
anything - an article, a book, a book chapter, a dissertation, etc. This will also help you write your thesis
introduction later on and help you avoid unconscious plagiarism.
• Use mind maps, tables, charts, pictures, post-it notes to map out the literature, whatever works for
you.
• Research each of your questions to see if there are people out there who had the same questions
and found answers to them
• Science Direct, Web of Science, and Wiley Online Library databases help you follow the
research trail by listing articles that have since cited the research article you're reading
If you find don't find any answers to one of your questions, you've probably found a research gap from
which you can develop a thesis hypothesis and experimental project. Get feedback from your advisors
before you get too carried away, though!
DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESIS.
The hypothesis is directly related to a theory but contains operationally defined variables and is in testable
form. Hypotheses allow us to determine, through research, if our theory is correct. In other words, does
prior work experience result in better grades? When doing research, we are typically looking for some
type of difference or change between two or more groups. In our study, we are testing the difference
between having work experience and not having work experience on college grades. Every study has two
hypotheses; one stated as a difference between groups and one stated as no difference between groups.
When stated as a difference between groups, our hypothesis would be, “students with prior work
experience earn higher grades than students without prior work experience.” This is called our research
or scientific hypothesis. Because most statistics test for no difference, however, we must also have a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is always written with the assumption that the groups do not differ. In
this study, our null hypothesis would state that, “students with work experience will not receive different
grades than students with no work experience.”
The null hypothesis is what we test through the use of statistics and is abbreviated H0. Since we are
testing the null, we can assume then that if the null is not true then some alternative to the null must be
true. The research hypothesis stated earlier becomes our alternative, abbreviated H1. In order to make
research as specific as possible we typically look for one of two outcomes, either the null or the
alternative hypothesis. To conclude that there is no difference between the two groups means we are
accepting our null hypothesis. If we, however, show that the null is not true then we must reject it and
therefore conclude that the alternative hypothesis must be true. While there may be a lot of gray area in
the research itself, the results must always be stated in black and white.
UNIT-2
Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying out research in
psychology. However, there are different types of observational methods and distinctions need to be made
between:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Natural Observations
3. Participant Observations
1. Controlled Observations
Here observer and observe or subject both are controlled. For systematic data collection control is
imposed on both for accuracy and precision. When observation is pre-planned and definite, then it is
termed as controlled observation. In control observation, mechanical devices are used for precision and
standardized. So, control increase accuracy, reduce bias, ensure reliability and standardization. Some of
the devices are as under.
1. Observational plan.
2. Observational schedule.
3. Mechanical appliances like, camera, maps, films, video, tape recorder etc.
4. Team of observers.
5. Socio Matric Scale.
2. Natural Observations
Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social
scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research
is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would
unduly affect the subject's behavior.
3. Participant Observations
Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically used in qualitative research. It is a
widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology,
European ethnology, sociology, communication studies, human geography and social psychology. Its aim
is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious,
occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive
involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time. The method
originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronisław Malinowski and his students
in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago
School of sociology.
Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including
physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis
on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.
The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection
Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data
collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data
collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for
their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Consequences from improperly collected data include
• inability to answer research questions accurately

• inability to repeat and validate the study
• distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
• misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
• compromising decisions for public policy
• causing harm to human participants and animal subjects
While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of
investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results are used to
support public policy recommendations.
Methods OF COLLECTING DATA IN RESEARCH
Technique Key Facts Example

• Interviews can be conducted in
person or over the telephone
• Interviews can be done formally
One-on-one conversation with parent of
(structured), semi-structured, or
at-risk youth who can help you
informally
understand the issue
Interviews • Questions should be focused, clear,
and encourage open-ended
responses Click here to see a sample key informant
• Interviews are mainly qualitative in interview.
nature
Results of a satisfaction survey or

Questionnaires and • Responses can be analyzed with opinion survey
Surveys quantitative methods by assigning
numerical values to Likert-type Click here to see an example of a survey
scales created using the CYFERnetSEARCH
• Results are generally easier (than Interactive Survey Builder feature.
qualitative techniques) to analyze
• Pretest/Posttest can be compared Click here to see a sample survey on
and analyzed middle school youth risk behavior.
• Allows for the study of the

dynamics of a situation, frequency
counts of target behaviors, or other
behaviors as indicated by needs of
the evaluation
• Good source for providing
additional information about a
particular group, can use video to Site visits to an after-school program to
Observations document the interaction between youth
provide documentation
and staff within the program
• Can produce qualitative (e.g.,
narrative data) and quantitative
data (e.g., frequency counts, mean
length of interactions, and
instructional time)
• A facilitated group interview with

individuals that have something in
common
• Gathers information about A group of parents of teenagers in an
combined perspectives and after-school program are invited to
Focus Groups opinions informally discuss programs that might
• Responses are often coded into benefit and help their children succeed
categories and analyzed
thematically
• Involves studying a single

Shadowing a family while recording
phenomenon
extensive field notes to study the
• Examines people in their natural experience and issues associated with
settings youth who have a parent or guardian
• Uses a combination of techniques that has been deployed
Ethnographies,
such as observation, interviews,
Oral History, and and surveys
Case Studies Click here for an example of an oral
• Ethnography is a more holistic
history.
approach to evaluation
• Researcher can become a
confounding variable Click here for an additional example of
an oral history.
• Consists of examining existing data

To understand the primary reasons
in the form of databases, meeting
students miss school, records on student
minutes, reports, attendance logs,
absences are collected and analyzed
Documents and financial records, newsletters, etc.
Records • This can be an inexpensive way to
gather information but may be an Click here for an example of a
incomplete data source searchable database of aggregate data
on youth risk behavior.
31.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

For data collection we make use of certain tools and follow specific techniques. The tools that help in data
collection are as under:
• Observing the phenomenon and recording the details,
• Inquiring about the facts through questionnaires/schedules
• Making measurements.
• Conducting tests.
• Recording the events.
Now let us study some of these tools and techniques of data collection.
A. Questionnaires:
The questionnaires or interview schedules are the set of questions framed forthe specific purpose of data
collection through field work. The questionnaire serves two purposes. First, it translates the objectives of
the field work intospecific questions which help in the collection of necessary data. The datacollected
through the responses of the questions forms the basis of understanding the problem or explore the idea set
by the objective. In orderto achieve these objectives, each question must communicate to the respondent
the idea or group of ideas required by the objective and obtain a response which can be analysed to fulfill
the objectives. The question must perform these functions with minimum distortion of the response it deals.
In asking a question to the respondents, we assume that he possesses adequate knowledge, opinion or
attitude. Each question should, therefore, be constructed so as to elicit a response which accurately and
completely reflects each respondent’s position. The second purpose of questionnaire is to assist interviewer
in motivating the respondent to communicate the required information. There are many factors which
determine the respondent’s willingness to engage in an interview. The questionnaire itself does much to
determine the nature of interviewer-respondent relationship. Thus, the quantity and quality of data collected
depends largely on the nature of questionnaire.
(a) Contents of Questionnaire:
The following two types of information should from the contents of questionnaire:
(i) Identity or location specific contents
(ii) Respondent centred contents
(b) Form of Questionnaire:
The form of questionnaire depends upon some of the factors such as willingness of the respondents,
usefulness of the information and its level, language, sequence of questions, single idea etc.
(c) The Interview
The process of conducting interviews starts soon after the formulation of questionnaire is complete. The
investigator should have a letter of introduction to explain about himself in the field. The letter of
introduction must have a note that the information so collected is going to be used for the purposes of
presentations and educational use only. The information will remain
anonymous completely. While conducting interviews, we should help in removing the difficulties of the
respondents without giving any clue as to the answer required. As far as possible we are not supposed to
make any responses Or show any expressions to the answers. Finally we should pay regards and express
thanks to the respondents for their co-operation.
B. The Schedules
The schedules are the timed plan for a survey. It reflects time specific recording
of the phenomena like traffic survey, consumer behaviour survey, precipitation
pattern etc. The investigator must record the occurrence of a phenomenon over a specific time interval.
The time is an important reference of analysis. It could be in convenient units of hours, minutes or
seconds depending upon the frequency of occurrences. Similarly, a phenomenon is more often associated
with several elements. Hence, the record book need to have further
sub divisions both on X as well as on Y axis.
1. What phenomenon to be selected and recorded in order to obtain the required information?
2. Under what conditions are observations to be made? How is the observational situation structured?
3. Can a score be assigned to the observation and what are the characteristics of that score?
4. How stable are the observations? Can the same results be obtained underthe same conditions?
5. Whether the phenomenon observed has functional unity with same process?
C. Rating Scales
By the term rating scale, we mean a scale with a set of points, which describe varying degrees of
dimension being observed. Rating scales are most often used in either of two ways,
1) to record the pattern at frequent intervals, or
2)to rate the entire event after it has ended. Thus, rating scales,
which contain a variety of items at each point on the scale, are more efficient since they can provide more
data per observer, more dimensions per unit of area and time. Investigator observes a number of acts
throughout the situation, integrates them in his mind, and makes a judgment as to which point on a
number of scales best described his interpretation of the varied behavior. The following examples offer an
idea of rating scales.
D. Field Sketches
Making of field sketches on the spot is an essential component of field survey M in geography. These are
simple, rough drawings or design done rapidly to depict the ground truth on a piece of paper.
Geographical facts like structure or form of physical landscape, location and site, mobility, intensity of
interactions, patterns of level use, distance and directions and interdependence of certain natural or
cultural objects can be depicted symbolically in the form
of field sketches.
E. Photographs
Camera is one of the important equipments that is needed during the course of a field work and data
collection. It is needed for taking photographs of typical features. Photographs present the view of a
landscape in its totality, activity in operation and events in their occurrences. Photographs provide
comprehensive data bases for analysis and interpretation. Certain aspects
that need more time to record such as conditions in a slum locality, variety of landscapes, plant species,
office and factory systems can be photographed and the output can be used for the explanations and
analysis. Photographs are used to supplement the results.
The formulations of questionnaires serve two purposes:
(i) first translate the objectives of the field-work into specific questions which help in
collection of data and
(ii) the second purpose is to assist the interviewer in motivating the respondents to communicate the
required information.
􀁺 Various factors which affect the form of questionnaires are
(i) willingnessof the respondent,
(ii) the frame of reference,
(iii) usefulness of the information,
(iv) possibility of misunderstanding,
(v) type of questions,
(vi) the information level
(viii) social acceptance
(viii) single idea and
(ix) sequence of question.
􀁺 Various precautions need to be observed while administering the questionnaire. These precautions
are
(i) The collection of information need to be done in an atmosphere of permissiveness,
(ii) the respondent should not be kept in dark about the purpose,
(iii) explain the anonymous or confidential nature of interview,
(iv) socially unacceptable questions need to be avoided, and
(v) the intention of the interview need to be given convincing explanations.
F. Methods of Administering the Questionnaires and Survey Schedules
The questionnaires are the set of questions framed for specific purpose offield work. Before designing the
questions the purpose of specific problemis divided into various steps and phases. After this logical
sequence ofquestions is to be developed so that desired response can be obtained.
1. Mean
The arithmetic mean, more commonly known as “the average,” is the sum of a list of numbers divided by the number
of items on the list. The mean is useful in determining the overall trend of a data set or providing a rapid snapshot of
your data. Another advantage of the mean is that it’s very easy and quick to calculate.
2. Standard Deviation
The standard deviation, often represented with the Greek letter sigma, is the measure of a spread of data around the
mean. A high standard deviation signifies that data is spread more widely from the mean, where a low standard
deviation signals that more data align with the mean. In a portfolio of data analysis methods, the standard deviation is
useful for quickly determining dispersion of data points.
3. Regression
Regression models the relationships between dependent and explanatory variables, which are usually charted on a
scatterplot. The regression line also designates whether those relationships are strong or weak. Regression is
commonly taught in high school or college statistics courses with applications for science or business in determining
trends over time.
4. Sample Size Determination
When measuring a large data set or population, like a workforce, you don’t always need to collect information from
every member of that population – a sample does the job just as well. The trick is to determine the right size for a
sample to be accurate. Using proportion and standard deviation methods, you are able to accurately determine the
right sample size you need to make your data collection statistically significant.
5. Hypothesis Testing
Also commonly called t testing, hypothesis testing assesses if a certain premise is actually true for your data set or
population. In data analysis and statistics, you consider the result of a hypothesis test statistically significant if the
results couldn’t have happened by random chance. Hypothesis tests are used in everything from science and
research to business and economic
UNIT III – SOFT COMPUTING
COMPUTER IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary
to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research process:
(1) FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM;
(2) EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY;
(3) DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS;
(4) PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN;
(5) DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN;
(6) COLLECTING THE DATA;
(7) EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT;
(8) ANALYSIS OF DATA;
(9) HYPOTHESIS TESTING;
(10) GENERALISATIONS AND INTERPRETATION,
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
[1] There are five major phases of the research process [4].
They are:
1. Conceptual phase
2. Design and planning phase
3. Data collection phase
4. Data Analysis phase and
5. Research Publication phase
1. Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase :
The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, extensive literature survey,
theoretical frame work and developing the hypothesis. Use of computers in extensive literature review:
computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and bibliographic reference stored
in the electronic database of the International Journal of Research in Science And Technology world
wide webs. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to the retrieved whenever needed.
This has the advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other
newsletters at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase :
This phase consists of research design preparation and determining sample design. Design and
planning phase also consists of population, research variables, sampling plan, reviewing
research plan and pilot study. Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software’s
are available to calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. The standard deviation
of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.
Role of Computers in Data collection phase:
This Empirical phase consists of collecting and preparing the data for analysis: In research
studies, the preparation and inputting data is the most labor-intensive and time consuming
aspect of the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or record for
suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction with the
statistician and the programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel
spreadsheet or any statistical software data file. These data can be directly opened with
statistical software’s for analysis. Data collection and Storage: The data obtained from the
subjects are stored in computes are word files or excel spread sheets or any statistical software
data file. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout of
the tables if needed, which is impossible or time consuming incase of writing in papers. Thus,
computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including follow up actions etc.
computers also allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as well
as greater ease during the analysis of these data. Examples of editors are WordPad, SPSS data
editor, word processors, others like ultraedit etc. Data exposition: Most researchers are anxious
about seeing the data: what they look like; how they are distributed etc. you can also examine
different dimension of variables or plot them in various charts using a statistical application.
4. Role of Computers in Data Analysis: This phase consist of the analysis of data, hypothesis
testing and generalisations and interpretation. Data analysis phase mainly consist of statistical
analysis of the data and interpretation of results. Data analysis: many software’s are now
available to perform the mathematical part of the research process i.e. the calculations using
various statistical methods. Softwares like SPSS and spreadsheets are the widely used. They can
be like calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and calculating the
power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate
statistical analysis. Computers are useful not only for statistical analysis, but also to monitor the
accuracy and completeness of the data as they are collected. These software’s also display the
results in graphical char or graph form.
5. Role of Computer in Research Publication :This phase consists of preparation of the report or
presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached. This is the research
publication phase. The research article, research paper, research thesis or research dissertation
is typed in word processing software and converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored
and/or published in the world wide web. Online sites are available through we can convert our
word file into any format like html, pdf etc. Various online applications are also available for this
purpose. Even we can prepare our document using online word processing software and can
store/edit/access it from anywhere using internet.
ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
There are various computer applications used in scientific research. Some of the most
important applications used in scientific research are
data storage,
data analysis,
scientific simulations,
instrumentation control and knowledge sharing.
Data Storage Experimentation is the basis of scientific research.
Every experiment in any of the natural sciences generates a lot of data that needs to be stored
and analyzed to derive important conclusions, to validate or disprove hypotheses. Computers
attached with experimental apparatuses, directly record data as it's generated and subject it to
analysis through specially designed software. Data storage is possible in SPSS data file, lotus
spreadsheet, excel spreadsheet, ASCII/DOS text file etc.
Data Analysis Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible using specially designed
algorithms that are implemented by computers. This makes the extremely time-consuming job
of data analysis to be a matter of a few minutes. In genetic engineering, computers have made
the sequencing of the entire human genome possible. Data from different sources can be stored
and accessed via computer networks set up in research labs, which makes collaboration simpler.
Scientific Simulations One of the prime uses of computers in pure science and engineering
projects is the running of simulations. A simulation is a mathematical modeling of a problem and
a virtual study of its possible solutions. Problems which do not yield themselves to
experimentation can be studied through simulations carried out on computers. For example,
astrophysicists carry out structure formation simulations, which are aimed at studying how
large-scale structures like galaxies are formed. Space missions to the Moon, satellite launches
and interplanetary missions are first simulated on computers to determine the best path that
can be taken by the launch vehicle and spacecraft to reach its destination safely.
Instrumentation Control Most advanced scientific instruments come with their own on-board
computer, which can be programmed to execute various functions. For example, the Hubble
Space Craft has its own onboard computer system which is remotely programmed to probe the
deep space. Instrumentation control is one of the most important applications of computers.
Knowledge Sharing Through Internet Lastly, in the form of Internet, computers have provided
an entirely new way to share knowledge. Today, anyone can access the latest research papers
that are made available for free on websites. Sharing of knowledge and collaboration through
the Internet, has made international cooperation on scientific projects possible. Through various
kinds of analytical software programs, computers are contributing to scientific research in every
discipline, ranging from biology to astrophysics, discovering new patterns and providing novel
insights. When the work in neural network based artificial intelligence advances and computers
are granted with the ability to learn and think for themselves, future advances in technology and
research will be even more rapid.
TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS USED IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Statistical Analysis Tool:
SPSS SPSS is the most popular tool for statisticians. SPSS stands for Statistical Package for Social
Sciences. The latest version of SPSS is IBM SPSS STATISTICS 20 (purchased by IBM after version
19). It provides all analysis facilities like following and many more. Provides Data view &
variable view
Measures of central tendency & dispersion
Statistical inference
Correlation & Regression analysis
Analysis of variance
Non parametric test
Hypothesis tests: T-test, chi-square, z-test, ANOVA, Bipartite variable….
Multivariate data analysis
Frequency distribution
Data exposition by using various graphs like line, scatter, bar, ogive, histogram, pie chart….
Data Analysis Tool: SPREADSHEET PACKAGES A spreadsheet is a computer application that
simulates a paper worksheet. It displays multiple cells that together make up a grid consisting of
rows and columns, each cell containing either alphanumeric text or numeric values. Microsoft
Excel is popular spreadsheet software. Others spreadsheet packages are Lotus 1-2-3 Quattro
Pro, Javeline Plus, Multiplan, VisiCalc, Supercalc, Plan Perfect etc.
OTHER STATISTICAL TOOLS SAS, S-Plus, LISREL, Eviews etc.
WORD PROCESSOR PACKAGES
A word processor (more formally known as document preparation system) is a computer
application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly
printing) of any sort of printable material. The word processing packages are Microsoft Word,
Wordstar, Word perfect, Softward, Akshar (Gujarati), Amipro etc.
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE A presentation program is a computer software package used to
display information, normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major
functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and
manipulating graphic images and a slideshow system to display the content. The presentation
packages are Microsoft Powerpoint, Lotus Freelance Graphics, Corel Presentations, Apple
keynote etc.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT PACKAGES (DBMS)
Database is an organized collection of information. A DBMS is a software designed to manage a
database. Various Desktop Databases are Microsoft Access, Paradox, Dbase or DbaseIII+,
FoxBase, Foxpro/ Visual Foxpro, FileMaker Pro Commercial Database Servers that supports
multiuser are Oracle, Ms-SQL Server, Sybase, Ingres, Informix, DB2 UDB (IBM), Unify, Integral,
etc. Open source Database packages are MySQL, PostgreSQL, Firebird etc.
BROWSERS
A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text,
images, videos, music, games and other information typically located on a Web page at a
website on the World Wide Web or a local area network. Examples are Microsoft Internet
explorer, Mozilla firefox, Opera, Netscape navigator, Chrome (google browser), Safari
Use of statistical software SPSS & GRETL
SPSS?
The following brief definition is taken from the SPSS Base User's Guide.
"SPSS is a comprehensive system for analyzing data. SPSS can take data from almost any type of file and
use them to generate tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics,
and complex statistical analysis."
See www.spss.com for more information.
SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package for the Social Science. SPSS is one of the most popular
statistical packages which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis with simple
instructions. It is designed for both interactive and non-interactive (batch) uses.
GRETL
GRETL is an open-source statistical package, mainly for econometrics. The name is an acronym for Gnu Regression,
Econometrics and Time-series Library. It has a graphical user interface (GUI) and can be used together with
TRAMO/SEATS, R, Stata, Python, Octave, Ox and Julia.
SPSS Program Functionality:

Breadth of functionality: Good
SPSS has scores of statistical and mathematical functions, scores statistical procedures, and a very
flexible data handling capability. It can read data in almost any format (e.g., numeric, alphanumeric,
binary, dollar, date, time formats), and version 6 onwards can read files created using spread sheet/data
base software. It also has excellent data manipulation utilities.
The following is a brief overview of some of the functionalities of SPSS:
Data transformations
Data Examination
Descriptive Statistics
Contingency tables
Reliability tests
Correlation
T-tests
ANOVA
MANOVA
General Linear Model (Release 7.0 and higher)
Regression
Nonlinear Regression
Logistic Regression
Loglinear Regression
Discriminant Analysis
Factor Analysis
Cluster anlaysis
Multidimensional scaling
Probit analysis
Forecasting/Time Series
Survival analysis
Nonparametric analysis
Graphics and graphical interface.
Reliability and Robustness: Poor
SPSS has quite a few known bugs at this point. Bugs are corrected by applying an endless stream of
patches, which may or may not introduce new bugs, and will almost certainly break other software
installed on the system.
State of the Art: Excellent
SPSS Release 6.0 and higher are considered as one of the leading statistical software applications. The
integration of the graphics module to the Base with excellent interface is just one example of the state of
the art of the product.
User Friendliness: Good
SPSS has a very easy to learn command language. Explanation for keywords and subcommands are
available through online help. The University of Windsor supports SPSS for Windows, for Unix and for
MAC.
SPSS Help Resources:
Network-based help: Excellent
To join a national electronic mailing list, send email to listserv@uga.cc.uga.edu with the body of the
message:
subscribe spssx-l [yourfirstname] [yourlastname]
Program's Help System: Excellent
SPSS offers extensive online help in Manager Mode, and in prompted session on mainframe and
mini computers. SPSS on microcomputers also have extensive help utility.
1 What is GRETL?
2 GRETL Basics
3 Importing Data
4 Saving as GRETL File
5 Running a Script
6 Basic Commands
What is GRETL?
• GRETL denotes Gnu Regression Econometrics and Time-series Library.

• It is free econometrics software .
• It has an easy Graphical User Interface (GUI).
• It runs least-squares, maximum-likelihood, systems estimators...
• It outputs results to several formats
• It admits scripts (sequence of commands saved in a file)
How to get GRETL?
It can be downloaded from

http://gretl.sourceforge.net and installed on the personal computer.
It runs on Windows, Mac, Linux
How to work with GRETL?
• The easiest way for beginners is by using its graphical user interface.
• We can also use the “console” button of the toolbar:
from the prompt (?), we can execute GRETL commands one line at a time.
The most efficient way is by using scripts:
1. Create a script file.

Write GRETL commands - one every line - and save it.
2. Run the script using the GUI.
3. Inspect output
4. If needed, change script file, save it and go back to step 2.
Main Window
Across the top of the window we find the menu bar. From here you import and manipulate data,
analyze data, and manage output.
At the bottom of the window is the GRETL toolbar.

Among others:
Access to the GRETL web site from here.
Open the pdf version of the manual.
Open the operating system default calculator.
Opening a GRETL (.gdt) dataset
File/Open data/User file
Importing an Excel file

File/Open data/Import/Excel
Describing a variable in a dataset
After selecting one variable, Variable/Summary statistics
Editing a variable in a dataset

After selecting variable, Data/Edit Values
Saving as a new GRETL File
File > Save Data as > Standard format
Saving as a new GRETL File
Sometimes we can select a subset of the variables
Looking at the Session Script
Tools > Command log
Changing the script
Type the commands you want to execute in the box using one line for each command
To save the file, use the ”save" button at the top of the box.
To run the program, click your mouse on the “gear" button.
Basic commands for data management
Commands on the entire data

open: opens a data file replacing any data file already open
append: appends the content of a data to the current dataset
dataset: sorts/clears/transposes/compacts/expands the data...
setobs: declares the structure of the data (cross-section, time-series, panel)
smp l: resets the sample range
store: saves the data into a file
genr: creates a new variable

delete: removes variables
setinfo: sets attributes of a variable
rename: renames a variable
summary: shows summary statistics for variables
print: lists the values of variables
ols: computes ordinary least squares

$coeff: returns a column vector containing the estimated coefficients
$yhat: a function which computes predicted values in running sample
$uhat: a function which computes residuals in running sample
$sample: a function which identifies the observations used in estimation
omit/add: tests joint signicance
restrict: tests restrictions using the Wald test
Introduction to evolutionary algorithms

NEURAL NETWORK
⚫ What are Neural Networks?

⚫ Background
⚫ How the human brain works
⚫ A Neuron Model
⚫ A Simple Neuron
⚫ Pattern Recognition
⚫ A Complicated Perceptron
⚫ Different types of Neural Networks
⚫ Network Layers and Structure
⚫ Training a Neural Network
⚫ Learning process
⚫ Neural Networks in use
⚫ Disadvantage of Neural Network
What are Neural Networks?
• Neural networks are a new method of programming computers.

• They are exceptionally good at performing pattern recognition and other tasks that are very difficult to program
using conventional techniques.
• Programs that employ neural nets are also capable of learning on their own and adapting to changing conditions
Background
⚫ An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the biological
nervous systems, such as the human brain’s information processing mechanism.
⚫ The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a
large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurons) working in unison to solve specific
problems. NNs, like people, learn by example.
⚫ An NN is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a
learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist
between the neurons. This is true of NNs as well.
How the human brain works
⚫ In the human brain, a typical neuron collects signals from others through a host of fine structures called
dendrites.
⚫ The neuron sends out spikes of electrical activity through a long, thin stand known as an axon, which splits into
thousands of branches.
⚫ At the end of each branch, a structure called a synapse converts the activity from the axon into electrical effects
that inhibit or excite activity in the connected neurons.
A Neuron Model
⚫ When a neuron receives excitatory input that is sufficiently large compared with its inhibitory input, it sends a
spike of electrical activity down its axon. Learning occurs by changing the effectiveness of the synapses so that
the influence of one neuron on another changes.
⚫ We conduct these neural networks by first trying to deduce the essential features of neurons and their
interconnections.
⚫ We then typically program a computer to simulate these features.
A Simple Neuron
⚫ An artificial neuron is a device with many inputs and one output.

⚫ The neuron has two modes of operation;
⚫ the training mode and
⚫ the using mode.
⚫ In the training mode, the neuron can be trained to fire (or not), for particular input patterns.
⚫ In the using mode, when a taught input pattern is detected at the input, its associated output becomes the
current output. If the input pattern does not belong in the taught list of input patterns, the firing rule is used to
determine whether to fire or not.
⚫ The firing rule is an important concept in neural networks and accounts for their high flexibility. A firing rule
determines how one calculates whether a neuron should fire for any input pattern. It relates to all the input
patterns, not only the ones on which the node was trained previously.
Pattern Recognition
⚫ An important application of neural networks is pattern recognition. Pattern recognition can be implemented by
using a feed-forward neural network that has been trained accordingly.
⚫ During training, the network is trained to associate outputs with input patterns.
⚫ When the network is used, it identifies the input pattern and tries to output the associated output pattern.
⚫ The power of neural networks comes to life when a pattern that has no output associated with it, is given as an
input.
⚫ In this case, the network gives the output that corresponds to a taught input pattern that is least different from
the given pattern.
⚫ Suppose a network is trained to recognize the patterns T and H. The associated patterns are all black and all
white respectively as shown above.
Since the input pattern looks more like a ‘T’, when the network classifies it, it sees the input closely resembling ‘T’ and
outputs the pattern that represents a ‘T’.
The input pattern here closely resembles ‘H’ with a slight difference. The network in this case classifies it as an ‘H’ and
outputs the pattern representing an ‘H’.
⚫ Here the top row is 2 errors away from a ‘T’ and 3 errors away from an H. So the top output is a black.
⚫ The middle row is 1 error away from both T and H, so the output is random.
⚫ The bottom row is 1 error away from T and 2 away from H. Therefore the output is black.
⚫ Since the input resembles a ‘T’ more than an ‘H’ the output of the network is in favor of a ‘T’.
A Complicated Perceptron
⚫ A more sophisticated Neuron is know as the McCulloch and Pitts model (MCP).
⚫ The difference is that in the MCP model, the inputs are weighted and the effect that each input has at decision
making, is dependent on the weight of the particular input.
⚫ The weight of the input is a number which is multiplied with the input to give the weighted input.
⚫ The weighted inputs are then added together and if they exceed a pre-set threshold value, the perceptron /
neuron fires.
⚫ Otherwise it will not fire and the inputs tied to that perceptron will not have any effect on the decision making.
⚫ In mathematical terms, the neuron fires if and only if;
X1W1 + X2W2 + X3W3 + ... > T
⚫ The MCP neuron has the ability to adapt to a particular situation by changing its weights and/or threshold.
⚫ Various algorithms exist that cause the neuron to 'adapt'; the most used ones are the Delta rule and the back
error propagation.
Different types of Neural Networks
Feed-forward networks
⚫ Feed-forward NNs allow signals to travel one way only; from input to output. There is no feedback
(loops) i.e. the output of any layer does not affect that same layer.
⚫ Feed-forward NNs tend to be straight forward networks that associate inputs with outputs. They are
extensively used in pattern recognition.
⚫ This type of organization is also referred to as bottom-up or top-down.
Feedback networks
⚫ Feedback networks can have signals traveling in both directions by introducing loops in the network.
⚫ Feedback networks are dynamic; their 'state' is changing continuously until they reach an equilibrium
point.
⚫ They remain at the equilibrium point until the input changes and a new equilibrium needs to be found.
⚫ Feedback architectures are also referred to as interactive or recurrent, although the latter term is often
used to denote feedback connections in single-layer organizations.
Diagram of an NN
Network Layers
⚫ Input Layer - The activity of the input units represents the raw information that is fed into the network.
⚫ Hidden Layer - The activity of each hidden unit is determined by the activities of the input units and the weights
on the connections between the input and the hidden units.
⚫ Output Layer - The behavior of the output units depends on the activity of the hidden units and the weights
between the hidden and output units.
⚫ This simple type of network is interesting because the hidden units are free to construct their own
representations of the input.
⚫ The weights between the input and hidden units determine when each hidden unit is active, and so by modifying
these weights, a hidden unit can choose what it represents.
Network Structure
⚫ The number of layers and of neurons depend on the specific task. In practice this issue is solved by trial and
error.
⚫ Two types of adaptive algorithms can be used:
– start from a large network and successively remove some neurons and links until network
performance degrades.
– begin with a small network and introduce new neurons until performance is satisfactory.
Network Parameters
⚫ How are the weights initialized?

⚫ How many hidden layers and how many neurons?
⚫ How many examples in the training set?
Weights
⚫ In general, initial weights are randomly chosen, with typical values between -1.0 and 1.0 or -0.5 and 0.5.
⚫ There are two types of NNs. The first type is known as
– Fixed Networks – where the weights are fixed
– Adaptive Networks – where the weights are changed to reduce prediction error.
Size of Training Data
⚫ Rule of thumb:
the number of training examples should be at least five to ten times the number of weights of the network
Other rule
|𝐖|
N > ( 𝟏 − 𝒂)
|W|= number of weights
a = expected accuracy on test set
Training Basics
⚫ The most basic method of training a neural network is trial and error.
⚫ If the network isn't behaving the way it should, change the weighting of a random link by a random amount. If
the accuracy of the network declines, undo the change and make a different one.
⚫ It takes time, but the trial and error method does produce results.
Training: Back propagation algorithm
⚫ The Backpropagation algorithm searches for weight values that minimize the total error of the network over the
set of training examples (training set).
⚫ Back propagation consists of the repeated application of the following two passes:
Forward pass:
In this step the network is activated on one example and the error of (each neuron of) the output layer is computed.
Backward pass:
In this step the network error is used for updating the weights. Starting at the output layer, the error is propagated
backwards through the network, layer by layer. This is done by recursively computing the local gradient of each neuron.
The Learning Process
⚫ The memorization of patterns and the subsequent response of the network can be categorized into two general
paradigms:
– Associative mapping
– Regularity detection
Associative Mapping
⚫ Associative mapping a type of NN in which the network learns to produce a particular pattern on the set of
input units whenever another particular pattern is applied on the set of input units.
⚫ This allows the network to complete a pattern given parts of a pattern that is similar to a previously learned
pattern.
Regularity Detection
⚫ Regularity detection is a type of NN in which units learn to respond to particular properties of the input
patterns. Whereas in associative mapping the network stores the relationships among patterns.
⚫ In regularity detection the response of each unit has a particular 'meaning'. This means that the activation of
each unit corresponds to different input attributes.
The Learning Process (cont.)
⚫ Every neural network possesses knowledge which is contained in the values of the connection weights.
⚫ Modifying the knowledge stored in the network as a function of experience implies a learning rule for changing
the values of the weights.
The learning methods can be classified in two categories:

⚫ Supervised Learning
⚫ Unsupervised Learning
Supervised Learning
⚫ Supervised learning which incorporates an external teacher, so that each output unit is told what its desired
response to input signals ought to be.
⚫ An important issue concerning supervised learning is the problem of error convergence, ie the minimization of
error between the desired and computed unit values.
⚫ The aim is to determine a set of weights which minimizes the error. One well-known method, which is common
to many learning paradigms is the least mean square (LMS) convergence.
⚫ In this sort of learning, the human teacher’s experience is used to tell the NN which outputs are correct and
which are not.
⚫ This does not mean that a human teacher needs to be present at all times, only the correct classifications
gathered from the human teacher on a domain needs to be present.
⚫ The network then learns from its error, that is, it changes its weight to reduce its prediction error.
Unsupervised Learning
⚫ Unsupervised learning uses no external teacher and is based upon only local information. It is also referred to as
self-organization, in the sense that it self-organizes data presented to the network and detects their emergent
collective properties.
⚫ The network is then used to construct clusters of similar patterns.
⚫ This is particularly useful is domains were a instances are checked to match previous scenarios. For example,
detecting credit card fraud.
Neural Network in Use
Since neural networks are best at identifying patterns or trends

in data, they are well suited for prediction or forecasting
needs including:
– sales forecasting
– industrial process control
– customer research
– data validation
– risk management
ANN are also used in the following specific paradigms:
recognition of speakers in communications;

diagnosis of hepatitis;
undersea mine detection;
texture analysis;
three-dimensional object recognition;
hand-written word recognition;
facial recognition.
Disadvantage of Neural Network
⚫ The individual relations between the input variables and the output variables are not developed by engineering
judgment so that the model tends to be a black box or input/output table without analytical basis.
⚫ The sample size has to be large.
⚫ Requires lot of trial and error so training can be time consuming.
Fuzzy logic
• Computers can only understand either '0' or '1', and 'HIGH' or 'LOW'. Those data are called crisp
or classic data and can be processed by all machines.
• Is it possible to allow computers to handle those ambiguous data with the help of a human being?
• The answer is yes, but we need some fuzzy logic techniques and knowledge of fuzzy inference
system.
• The idea of fuzzy logic was invented by Professor L. A. Zadeh of the University of California at
Berkeley in 1965
TECHINIQUE
To implement fuzzy logic technique to a real application requires the following three steps:
• 1. Fuzzification – convert classical data or crisp data into fuzzy data or Membership Functions
(MFs)
• 2. Fuzzy Inference Process – combine membership functions with the control rules to derive the
fuzzy output
• 3. Defuzzification – use different methods to calculate each associated output and put them into a
table: the lookup table. Pick up the output from the lookup table based on the current input during
an application
Fuzzification
• In order to enable machines to handle vague language input such as 'Somehow Satisfied', the
crisp input and output must be converted to linguistic variables with fuzzy components.
• For instance, to control an air conditioner system, the input temperature and the output control
variables must be converted to the associated linguistic variables such as 'HIGH', 'MEDIUM',
'LOW' and 'FAST', 'MEDIUM' or 'SLOW'.
• The former is corresponding to the input temperature and the latter is associated with the rotation
speed of the operating motor.
• Combine the Membership Functions with the control rules to derive the control output, and
arrange those outputs into a table called the lookup table.
• The control rule is the core of the fuzzy inference process, and those rules are directly related to a
human being’s intuition and feeling.
• For example, in the air conditioner control system, if the temperature is too high, the heater
should be turned off, or the heat driving motor should be slowed down, which is a human being’s
intuition or common sense.
• Different methods such as Center of Gravity (COG) or Mean of Maximum (MOM) are utilized to
calculate the associated control output, and each control output should be arranged into a table
called lookup table.
Defuzzification
• During an actual application, a control output should be selected from the lookup table developed
from the last step based on the current input.
• Furthermore, that control output should be converted from the linguistic variable back to the crisp
variable and output to the control operator.
Crisp Set Vs Fuzzy Set

• Fuzzy Set has smooth boundaries. Crisp set has sharp boundary.
A fuzzy subset A with an element x has a membership function of A(x). When

the universe of discourse X is discrete and finite, this mapping can be expressed as
When the universe of discourse X is continuous and infinite, this mapping can be expressed as
Comparison between classical and fuzzy sets
Defuzzification
Genetic Algorithms
Genetic Algorithm‟ commonly abbreviated as „GA‟ is one of the prominent evolutionary approaches. The
general conception of „Genetic Algorithm‟ was proposed by John Holland. He is considered as the father of
„Genetic Algorithms‟. These are search algorithms specifically designed to simulate the principle of the
natural biological evolution process. „GA‟ borrows its essential features from natural genetics. In other
words, „Genetic Algorithms‟ are stochastic techniques that stipulate good-quality solution with low time
complexity. It permits a population composed of many individual chromosomes to evolve under delineated
selection rules to generate a state that optimize the objective function. These types of algorithms successfully
operate on a population of solutions rather than a single solution. It generally employs some heuristics like
„Selection‟, „Crossover‟, and „Mutation‟ to develop better solutions.
„Genetic Algorithms‟ are capable of being applied to an enormously wide range of problems. Some of the
major applications of these algorithms are as given below:
- Query Optimization
- Parallel Processing
- Software Engineering
- Game Theory
- Image Processing
- Data Mining
- Machine Learning
- Disease Diagnosis
- Agriculture
- Inventory Management etc.
2. Working of Genetic Algorithm In general, these types of algorithms aim for searching better solution from
a number of available solutions. As stated, GA starts its working from a set of solutions rather than a single
solution. The set of solutions is called population. The initial population is generated randomly. Each solution
of the problem is adequately represented by encoding a string (Chromosome) of bits or characters (Genes).
Every chromosome has a fitness value associated with it. The collection of chromosomes with their
corresponding fitness values is called population. The population at a particular instance is called generation.
Fitness function is one of the major decisive parameters of „Genetic Algorithm‟. It defines the objective of the
problem to be optimized. A pair of chromosomes based on their fitness values is used to reproduce offsprings.
The genetic properties of both the chromosomes are intermixed to generate better offspring, such a mechanism
is called crossover. After crossover operation, the genetic characteristics of the generated offspring are further
modified. Mutation is a procedure to modify the characteristics of the generated offspring to make it more
effective. The algorithm terminates when the required condition is fulfilled [
Start and end of „Genetic Algorithm‟ are very much analogous to all other optimization techniques. „GA‟
starts working with the assertions of optimization variables, their allied costs and end up with an optimum
solution. However, the complete process from beginning to ending is quite different from other optimization
techniques [Haupt&Haupt 2004]. One of the foremost objectives of „Genetic Algorithm‟ is to stipulate best
possible solution from fixed and finite sized population in a minimum amount of time. It works in two phases.
In the first phase, selection is performed from the population and in the second phase selected generation is
manipulated to create new generation. One of the outstanding advantages of these algorithms is that purely
non-heuristic search throughout the solution space is performed. Therefore, no specific knowledge of the
problem space is required in advance. These are flexible and robust in solving the complex problems. GA
Operators After initial population, the whole process of „GA‟ revolves around three operations called
„Selection‟, „Crossover‟ and „Mutation‟.
Figure 2: Operators of Genetic Algorithm
Selection: Selection is one of the important processes of „GA‟. It is used to select an individual on the
basis of its fitness value. The individual chromosomes that have higher fitness values are most
probable candidates to be selected for reproduction. The individuals having low values will get little
chance of their selection. In simple words
the probability of a chromosome to be selected for reproduction is proportional to its fitness value. Initial
Population: It is the first phase of „Genetic Algorithm‟. In general, initial population is generated arbitrarily.
The important aspect of initial population is that the design of initial chromosome must match with the design
of final chromosome. It is one of the important phases because the member of this population encodes the
optimal solution of the problem. While generating initial population, one has to focus on the search space of
solution, fitness function and number of individuals. The past research showed that the good initial population
always leads to better possible solution and vice versa. Crossover: It is a technique used to combine the
individual chromosomes which produces a new chromosome. The offspring generated by crossover is
supposed to have the features of both of the parent‟s chromosomes. The objective of crossover operation is to
find better solution from good solution. It is also called recombination operator. It selects a pair of individual
chromosomes (Parents) for mating. First of all, a location for crossover is selected, and then bits or characters
of the selected parents following marked location are swapped. Crossover operation is used to avoid
duplication of parents used in recombination. The offsprings generated by crossover operation may have either
higher fitness or in some cases lower fitness than their parents. However a high fitness offspring is desirable
from crossover operation. Crossover operator can be implemented by using several techniques. 3.
Characteristics of Genetic Algorithm: The various features of Genetic Algorithm are summarized as below
(Goldberg 1999):
- Genetic Algorithm is based on the concept of natural selection and natural genetics.
- These are easy to understand and implement.
- These are extensively used in optimization problems.
- These work on population of points rather than an individual point.
- These use probabilistic transition rule instead of deterministic rules.
- Genetic Algorithms can effectively deal with large number of variables.
- These algorithms do not require any derivative information.
- These are more effective for complex problems than simple problems.
These provide solution quickly as compared to other traditional optimization techniques.

4. Applications of Genetic Approach Query Optimization: Query is an indispensable component of a
distributed database system. In general, it is used to successfully accomplish different operations of the
database objects. Query optimization is a process that generates the different operation site allocation plans to
execute the query. Operation site allocation plan represents the mechanism of query execution. The objective
of operation site allocation problem is to select an optimal query execution plan which optimizes the Total
Costs of the distributed decision support system query. Number of researchers have optimizes the query using
genetic algorithm and its variation. They found that GA works better than other traditional techniques as it
gives the optimal solution very swiftly [1][2][3][4][5]. Parallel Processing: Parallel processing is an efficient
approach to meet the computational requirements of the large number of problems. Lots of researchers are
coming up with innovations and bringing new ideas for its development. In parallel processing, one of the
major problems is the scheduling of tasks to the different machines or nodes. Numbers of research have tried to
explore the usage of parallel processing to minimize the makespan of the task. Authors elucidated that the
processors and communication links are vital resources in parallel computing systems and their efficient
management through proper scheduling is essential for obtaining high performance. Parallel computing
algorithms are normally classified as UNC (unbounded number of clusters) scheduling, the BNP (bounded
number of processors) scheduling, the TDB (task duplication based) scheduling, and APN arbitrary processor
network) scheduling. To get the maximum benefit from the parallel processing some of the authors have used
the concept of clustering. It is observed that usage of genetic algorithm has significantly reduced the makespan
of the task as compared to above said algorithms.
Software Engineering: Software testing is one of the important phase of software engineering that is used to
reveal the error in the code. Software is examined by using different types of testing viz. White box, Black
box, stress, load etc. Genetic algorithm is best suited to test the complex software as in large and complex
software exhaustive testing is not possible. The research reveals that number of authors have used GA in
different types ofsoftware
testing. Different authors have varied the rate of crossover and mutation to get the better results. In
addition, authors also varied size of initial population, number of generations and encoding schemes
Game Theory: It is a formal study of decision making process used in multidisciplinary studies viz. Economics,
Political Science, Biology, Computer Science, Psychology etc. Several authors have solved game theory
problem by using genetic algorithm. Authors found that GA gives optimal strategy as compared to other
techniques viz. linear and integer programming
Image Segmentation: It is another important research areas of Computer Science. The objective of image
segmentation is to decompose an image into non overlapping segments. Lucia Ballerni and Cagnoni have
done an extensive research to analyze snake‟s algorithm using GA. In their study, authors focused on
optimizing the energy function of Snake‟s algorithm.GA is also effectively used in implementing the edge
detection in image processing. Edge detection is a two stage process. The first stage is responsible for edge
enhancement process. Second stage uses boundary detection and edge linking to select and combine edge
map pixels [10][11].
Data Mining: It is one of the important concepts which is used to explore some meaningful information or
pattern from the huge amount of data. GA is effectively used in classification and clustering of data in
different domains. It was found that number of authors have used genetic algorithm to predict the different
medical diseases like cancer, heart problems, tumor etc. [18][19][20]. In addition significant work has been
done in the field of sentiment analysis also known as opinion mining, text and web mining. In text and web
mining, the focus was given on reducing the effort to extract meaningful information from momentous
amount of text.
Machine Learning: It is a process in which a machine is made intelligence by incorporating some sort of
learning mechanism. GA is effectively used in solving the chess problem. In addition, it is used in solving the
POS Tagging problem, in which every word is assigned its grammatical information. The problem of phrase
chunking is also effectively solved by genetic algorithm. Phrase chunking is a process to extract certain
portion of text from a sentence
Simulated Annealing
Unit -_IV
Ethics in Research Methodology
Ethical Considerations can be specified as one of the most important parts of the research.
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it educates and
monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard.
10 Important Points
According to Bryman and Bell (2007) the following ten points of ethical considerations in a researh:
1. Research participants should not be subjected to any harm.
2. Respect for the dignity of research participants should have priority.
3. Full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the study.
4. The protection of the privacy of research participants has to be ensured.
5. Adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
6. Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research has to be ensured.
7. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be avoided.
8. Affiliations in any form, sources of funding and any possible conflict of interests have to be declared.
9. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and transparency.
10. Any type of misleading information and representation of primary data findings in a biased way must be
avoided.
Ethical principles in Research:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel
decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of
your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel
records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful
and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own
decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education,
and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors
that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and
learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or
poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect
human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
Research misconducts
(a) Fabrication
- making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
(b) Falsification
- manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not
accurately represented in the research record.
(c) Plagiarism
- the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate
credit.
(d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.
Measures to ensure ethics in the research:
1. Voluntary participation
Voluntary participation of respondents in the research is important. Moreover, participants have

rights to withdraw from the study at any stage if they wish to do so.
2. Informed consent
Respondents should participate on the basis of informed consent. The principle of informed consent
involves researchers providing sufficient information and assurances about taking part to allow
individuals to understand the implications of participation and to reach a fully informed, considered
and freely given decision about whether or not to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or
coercion.[2]
3. Non-offensive
The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language needs to be avoided in the
formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.
4. Non-invasion of privacy
Privacy and anonymity or respondents is of a paramount importance.
5. Non-deceptive
Deception occurs when the researcher provides misleading information or hiding information from
the respondents. The procedure adopted by the researcher dhould be non-deceptive.
6. Protection from harm
The respondents should not be subjected to any physical discomfort, emotional stress, humiliation,
embarrassment, etc.
7. Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement of works of other authors used in any part of the dissertation with the use of
Harvard/APA/Vancouver referencing system.
8. Objectivity and unbiasedness

Maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in discussions and analyses throughout the research.
9. Data Protection.
Adherence to Data Protection.
IPR- intellectual property rightsand patent law,
Discuss the Intellectual property law, patents, patent citation, patent prosecution, patent rights and
number, process of filing patents till the phase of trading
• Patents are a long-established means of encouraging innovation. This property right confers to the
holder the exclusive right of exploitation and enables them to exploit the invention by
manufacturing, using, or selling products or processes incorporating the technology covered by the
patent. The owner may also allow the invention to be exploited by others over a set period of time,
in return for fair remuneration to compensate them for the intellectual and material effort involved in
its conception and production
To be Patentable your invention must

Be New - Never been made public in any way, anywhere in the world, before the date on which the
application for a patent is filed. It should be patented subject matter. Novelty is a fundamental
requirement in any examination as to substance and is an undisputed condition of patentability.
Involve an inventive step - If when compared with what is already known, it would not be obvious to
someone with good knowledge and experience of the subject.
Be capable of industrial application - An invention must be capable of being made or used in some kind
of industry. This means that the invention must take the practical form of an apparatus or device, a
product such as some new material or an industrial process or method of operation
What are intellectual property rights?
Intellectual property rights are like any other property right. They allow creators, or owners, of
patents, trademarks or copyrighted works to benefit from their own work or investment in a creation.
These rights are outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which
provides for the right to benefit from the protection of moral and material interests resulting from
authorship of scientific, literary or artistic productions.
The importance of intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the
Protection of Industrial Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and
Artistic Works (1886). Both treaties are administered by the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO).
Patent protection Rights

Patent protection provides the owner of the right with the means to prevent unauthorised use of the
protected technology, to defend their rights in law and to initiate legal proceedings against any persons
fraudulently using the patented invention.
Exclusive right of exploitation is only applicable in the countries where the patent has been registered as
the rights granted under a patent can only be enforced in the territory governed by state that issues the
patent. Another limitation to the rights granted by a patent is the duration. In general the protection is
limited to 20 years, depending on the country.
Patents are a judicious compromise between ensuring free access to information and protecting the
interests of inventors. In return for granting a monopoly right of exploitation to a patent holder for a set
period of time, a state obliges an inventor to disclose their invention, by publishing the patent application
approximately 18 months after its registration.
What rights does a patent give?
A patent gives the right to stop others from using your inventions. Alternatively you can choose to let
others use it under agreed terms.
A patent also brings the right to take legal action against others who might be infringing and to claim
damages.
An inventor is not required to get a patent in order to put an invention into practice, but once the invention
is made public, there will be no protection against others using the invention and you would be unable to
obtain a patent.
The Intellectual Property Office does not ensure that others do not copy a patented invention. It is up to
the owner to take any necessary action to ensure an idea is not infringed.
Patent Application
A patent application is a request pending at a patent office for the grant of a patent for the invention
described and claimed by that application. An application consists of a description of the invention (the
patent specification), together with official forms and correspondence relating to the application. The
term patent application is also used to refer to the process of applying for a patent, or to the patent
specification itself (i.e. the content of the document filed with a view to initiating the process of applying
for a patent [1]).
To obtain the grant of a patent, a person, either legal or natural, must file an application at a patent office
with the jurisdiction to grant a patent in the geographic area over which coverage is required.
The process of "negotiating" or "arguing" with a patent office for the grant of a patent, and interaction
with a patent office with regard to a patent after its grant, is known as patent prosecution
Drafting and Filing the patent
1. There is a requirement that the application should relate to one invention only, or to a group of
inventions so linked as to form a single general inventive concept. This requirement, referred to
as “unity of invention”, is particularly important when claims are being drafted.
2. The description should disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for the
invention to be evaluated, and to be carried out by a person having ordinary skill in the art.
3. For the application to proceed, it must contain claims which determine the scope of the
protection. The claims must be clear and concise and fully supported by the description. The
series of claims drafted by the patent agent generally commences with a broad main claim
followed by a number of claims of narrower scope. The broad claim is drafted so as to just avoid
the prior art known at the time of preparing the application. The stronger claims could withstand
any anticipation by more relevant prior art which might be produced by a Patent Office during
examination, or by third parties during any opposition or invalidation proceeding.
Examination of Patent application

examination as to form;
examination ass to search; and
examination as to substance
The application is checked to ensure that all the requirements necessary to accord the application a filing
date
Patent Office checks its documentation collection to ascertain whether any documents exist which
describe a solution which is the same as or similar to that described in the application.
Examination as to substance ensures that the application satisfies certain conditions of patentability.
If and when the examination process has reached a conclusion favorable to the applicant, that is to say all
the necessary requirements as to form and substance have been fulfilled, and assuming no opposition has
been filed or that any opposition has been unsuccessful, the PatentOffice will grant a patent on the
application
When the patent is granted,
The details of the patent are entered into the Patent Register. The Register usually contains
bibliographic data such as the patent number, the name and address of the applicant/patentee, the name of
the inventor, the original application number, the filing date, certain priority application details and the
title of the invention. Maintenance fee payment will also be mentioned in the register.
The Patent Office publishes the grant of patent in an Official Gazette. Patent Office generally
publishes the patent document itself in printed form
Patent Citation
Patent citation analysis is a widely used technique in the evaluation of science and technology.
The basic premise behind its use is that papers or patents cited as prior art by many later patents
tend to contain important ideas upon which numerous inventors have built.
Economists speak of citations as “knowledge spillovers” through which knowledge is
accumulated over time, and new technologies are created by building and improving upon earlier
findings.
Patent prosecution
Patent prosecution is the process of writing and filing a patent application and pursuing protection
for the patent application with the patent office.
Patent prosecution describes the interaction between applicants and their representatives, and a
patent office with regard to a patent, or an application for a patent. Broadly, patent prosecution
can be split into pre-grant prosecution, which involves negotiation with a patent office for the
grant of a patent, and post-grant prosecution, which involves issues such as post-grant
amendment and opposition.
Commercializing
Commercializing scientific research or a breakthrough idea is really no different, in principle, from
commercializing anything, except perhaps that it's more difficult in practice because of the steps required
to turn basic research into something practical and because you are looking for a market for a product,
rather than designing a product to fit an established, or obvious market.
Commercialization is different to starting and running a company, a broader endeavour and the subject of
a previous Ten Simple Rules article [1]. Even so, commercialization can be a broad endeavour. For
example, at one extreme, you could hand over your monoclonal antibody to Sigma to supply it on your
behalf to other researchers who might find it useful while the company pays you a small royalty; on the
other, you could be involved in developing Herceptin (anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody) from its origins
as a mouse-specific antibody through to its use as an effective anti-breast cancer drug, in a process that
took more than decade. Here we assume the former—others are carrying out that commercialization,
which has its pluses and minuses—less work for you, but typically less control of the commercialization
process.
Commercialization is a much studied subject, both by academics [2] and the business community [3]. All
larger academic institutions generally have offices to promote and help scientists get research to market.
Consequently, in this Ten Simple Rules article we won't deal with the details, but instead will concentrate
on some of the key issues to consider when working with, or before and after working with, a specialized
office.
Rule 1: What Drives Science Does Not Drive Business
Rule 2: There Is No Single Path To Commercialization
Rule 3: You Must Know Your Rights And Those Of Colleagues
Rule 4: Consider The Implications Of Going From Public To Private
Rule 5: Decide How Much Of Yourself You Want To Give
Rule 6: Separate The R And The D And Be Realistic
Rule 7: The Market May Not Exist At The Outset
Rule 8: Consider The “Want” Versus The “Need”
Rule 9: Make It Comprehensible
Rule 10: Customers Are The Ultimate Peer Review

Copyright?
Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the
creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited
time. The exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law,
including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the original expression
of ideas, and not the underlying ideas themselves.[1][2]
Copyright is a form of intellectual property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not
all jurisdictions require "fixing" copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple
authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to
as rights holders.[3][4][5][6] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works,
distribution, public performance, and moral rights such as attribution. [7]
Copyrights are considered "territorial rights", which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of
a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of national copyright laws have been standardized
through international copyright agreements, copyright laws vary by country. [8]
Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the author's life plus 50 to 100 years (that is, copyright
typically expires 50 to 100 years after the author dies, depending on the jurisdiction). Some countries
require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any
completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a civil matter, though
some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions.
Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing "fair" exceptions to the creator's exclusivity
of copyright and giving users certain rights. The development of digital media and computer network
technologies have prompted reinterpretation of these exceptions, introduced new difficulties in enforcing
copyright, and inspired additional challenges to the philosophical basis of copyright law. Simultaneously,
businesses with great economic dependence upon copyright, such as those in the music business, have
advocated the extension and expansion of copyright and sought additional legal and technological
enforcement
Copyrights and Related Assets

Copyrights are available for:
• Literary works
• Musical works
• Dramatic works
• Pantomimes and choreographed works
• Pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works
• Motion pictures and audiovisual works
• Sound recordings
• Architectural works
Royalty
Royalty rate data are commonly used in the following types of intellectual property analyses:
• Valuation
• Economic damages analysis
• Transfer price analysis
Royalty rate data and valuation
• Used in the market approach—relief from royalty rate method
• To estimate a defined value for the intellectual property
• Also used in fairness opinion analysis
- Fairness of proposed intellectual property sale price
- Fairness of a proposed license royalty rate
Royalty rate data and damages analysis
• As a reasonable royalty rate damages measure
• May be used for tort or breach of contract damages
Royalty rate data and transfer price analysis
• Used in comparable uncontrolled transaction (CUT) method
• International transfers of intangible property
• Interstate transfers of intangible property
• Intercompany transfers between controlled entities with minority
ownership interests
Uses of Royalty Rate Date in Intellectual Property Analyses

Transactions
• Sale of an intellectual property
• License of an intellectual property
• Transfer of an intellectual property within a controlled entity
• Transfer between a for-profit entity and a not-for-profit entity
Financings
• Sale/licenseback financing
• DIP or other secured financing collateral
TRADE RELATED ASPECTS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

RIGHTS
The Agreement on Trade related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights of the WTO is commonly known
as the TRIPS Agreement or simply TRIPS. TRIPS is one of the main agreements comprising the World
Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement. This Agreement was negotiated as part of the eighth round of
multilateral trade negotiations in the period 1986-94 under General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) commonly referred to as the Uruguay Round extending from 1986 to 1994. It appears as Annex 1
C of the Marrakesh Agreement which is the name for the main WTO Agreement. The Uruguay Round
introduced intellectual property rights into the multilateral trading system for the first time through a
set of comprehensive disciplines. The TRIPS Agreement is part of the “single undertaking” resulting from
the Uruguay Round negotiations. This implies that the TRIPS Agreement applies to all WTO members,
mandatorily. It also means that the provisions
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international
legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets down
minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of many forms of intellectual
property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. [3] TRIPS was negotiated at the end of
the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994 and is administered
by the WTO.
The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international trading system for the
first time and remains the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property to date. In
2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow
reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is
a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be
interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all."
Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering content producers
including performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations; geographical
indications, including appellations of origin; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout-
designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade dress; and undisclosed or confidential information.
TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. Protection
and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion
of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage
of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic
welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.
The Agreement consists of seven parts:
I. General provisions and basic principles (such as national treatment and most-favoured-nation
treatment, and exhaustion of IPRs);
II. Substantive standards of intellectual property protection;
III. Enforcement;
IV. Procedures for the acquisition and maintenance of IPRs;
V. Dispute prevention and settlement;
VI. Transitional arrangements;
VII. Institutional arrangements.
SCHOLARLY PUBLISHING- IMRAD CONCEPT AND DESIGN OF RESEARCH

PAPER
What is the IMRaD Format?

The IMRaD (often pronounced “im-rad”) format is a scientific writing structure that includes four or five
major sections: introduction (I); research methods (M); results (R); analysis (a); and discussion (D). The
IMRaD format is the most commonly used format in scientific article and journal writing and is used
widely across most scientific and research fields.
When Do I Use the IMRaD Format?
If you are writing a paper where you are conducting objective research in order answer a specific
question, the IMRaD format will most likely serve your purposes best. The IMRaD format is especially
useful if you are conducting primary research (such as experimentation, questionnaires, focus groups,
observations, interviews, and so forth), but it can be applied even if you only conduct secondary research
(which is research you gather from reading sources like books, magazines, journal articles, and so forth.)
The goal of using the IMRaD format is to present facts objectively, demonstrating a genuine interest and
care in developing new understanding about a topic; when using this format, you don’t explicitly state an
argument or opinion, but rather, you rely on collected data and previously researched information in order
to make a claim.
While there are nuances and adjustments that would be made to the following document types, the
IMRaD format is the foundational structure many research-driven documents:
▪ Grants
▪ Proposals
▪ Recommendation reports
▪ Plans (such as an integrated marketing plan or project management plan)
How Does the IMRaD Format Work?
As mentioned above, the IMRaD format includes four or five major sections. The little “a” has had
multiple interpretations over the years; some would suggest it means nothing other than “and,” as in
“Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion,” but others have argued that the “a” should be viewed
as “Analysis” in papers where the “Results” section may not be immediately clear and a section that
analyzes the results is important for reader comprehension. Either way, the “a” often remains in lower-
case to indicate that, while it’s often important, it isn’t always necessary. Below, we’ll review the five
major sections, with “a” given equal weight to the other sections.
Note that these five sections should always go in the order listed below:
1. Introduction: The introduction states the research problem or the question(s) you intend to address
through research. Your introduction would typically include some variation of the following:
1. Statement of the topic you are about to address
2. Current state of the field of understanding (often, we call this a literature review and it may even merit
having its own section)
3. Problem or gap in knowledge (what don’t we know yet or need to know? what does the field still need to
understand? what’s been left out of previous research? is this a new issue that needs some direction?)
4. Forecast statement that explains, very briefly, what the rest of the paper will entail, including a possible
quick explanation of the type of research that needs to be conducted
2. Methods: The research methods section can go any number of different directions, depending on the type
of research you conducted. Regardless of what you did for your research, though, this section needs to be
very clear, very specific, very detailed, and only focused on research. Avoid explaining what the research
means–this is for the next sections, Analysis and Discussion.While the research section is often
considered the most boring section for someone to read, it is also considered the most important section to
build your credibility. If your research methods are sound, your paper holds a lot more weight. A few tips
to make your methods section work well:
1. Separate each type of research you conducted (interviews, focus groups, experiments, etc.) into sub-
sections and only discuss one research method in each sub-section (for clarity and organization, it’s
important to not talk about multiple methods at once)
2. Be very detailed about your process. If you interviewed people, for example, we need to know how
many people you interviewed, what you asked them, what you hoped to learn by interviewing them, why
chose to interview over other methods, why you interviewed those people specifically (including
providing they demographic information if it’s relevant), and so forth. For other types of data collection,
we need to know what your methods were–how long you observed; how frequently you tested; how you
coded qualitative data; and so forth.
3. Don’t discuss what the research means. You’ll use the next two sections–Analysis and Discussion–to
talk about what the research means. To stay organized, simply discuss your research methods. This is the
single biggest mistake when writing research papers, so don’t fall into that trap.
3. Results: The results section is critical for your audience to understand what the research showed. Use this
section to show tables, charts, graphs, quotes, etc. from your research. At this point, you are building your
reader towards drawn conclusions, but you are not yet providing a full analysis. You’re simply showing
what the data says. Follow the same order as the Methods section–if you put interviews first, then focus
groups second, do the same in this section. Be sure, when you include graphics and images, that you label
and title every table or graphic (“Table 3: Interview Results“) and that you introduce them in the body
of your text (“As you can see in Figure 1, seventy-nine percent of respondents…”)
4. Analysis: The analysis section details what you and others may learn from the data. While some
researchers like to combine this section with the Discussion section, many writers and researchers find it
useful to analyze the data separately. In the analysis section, spend time connecting the dots for the
reader. What do the interviews say about the way employers think about their employees? What do the
observations say about how employees respond to workplace criticism? Can any connections be made
between the two research types? It’s important in the Analysis section that you don’t draw conclusions
that the research findings don’t suggest. Always stick to what the research says.
5. Discussion: Finally, you conclude this paper by suggesting what new knowledge this provides to the
field. You’ll often want to note the limitations of your study and what further research still needs to be
done. If something alarming or important was discovered, this is where you highlight that information. If
you use the IMRaD format to write other types of papers (like a recommendation report or a plan), this is
where you put the recommendations or the detailed plan.
CITATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A "citation" is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from
another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source again,
including:
• information about the author

• the title of the work
• the name and location of the company that published your copy of the source
• the date your copy was published
• the page numbers of the material you are borrowing
Why should I cite sources?
Giving credit to the original author by citing sources is the only way to use other people's work
without plagiarizing. But there are a number of other reasons to cite sources:
• citations are extremely helpful to anyone who wants to find out more about your ideas and where
they came from
• not all sources are good or right -- your own ideas may often be more accurate or interesting than
those of your sources. Proper citation will keep you from taking the rap for someone else's bad
ideas
• citing sources shows the amount of research you've done
• citing sources strengthens your work by lending outside support to your ideas
Doesn't citing make my work seem less original?
Not at all. On the contrary, citing sources actually helps your reader distinguish your ideas from
those of your sources. This will actually emphasize the originality of your own work.
When do I need to cite?
Whenever you borrow words or ideas, you need to acknowledge their source. The following
situations almost always require citation:
• whenever you use quotes

• whenever you paraphrase
• whenever you use an idea that someone else has already expressed
• whenever you make specific reference to the work of another
• whenever someone else's work has been critical in developing your own ideas.
Acknowledgments
This usually follows the Discussion and Conclusions sections. Its purpose is to thank all of the people
who helped with the research but did not qualify for authorship (check the target journal’s Instructions for
Authors for authorship guidelines). Acknowledge anyone who provided intellectual assistance, technical
help (including with writing and editing), or special equipment or materials.
TIP: The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors has detailed guidelines on who to list as an
author and who to include in the Acknowledgments that are useful for scientists in all fields.
Some journals request that you use this section to provide information about funding by including specific
grant numbers and titles. Check your target journal’s instruction for authors for specific instructions. If
you need to include funding information, list the name(s) of the funding organization(s) in full, and
identify which authors received funding for what.
Unit _5
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION :
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of
research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., the effort to establish continuity
in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and the establishment of
some explaflat concepts. “I n one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected
data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to inch the
results of other research, theory and hypotheses . ”
Why Interpretation? :
Why Interpretation? It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory
concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual
adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real significance
of his research findings.
Technique of Interpretation :
Technique of Interpretation Interpretation often involves the following steps: ( i ) Researcher must give
reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship
in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the
surface layer of his diversified research findings . (ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the
study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a
key factor in understanding the problem under consideration. (iii) consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results. (iv) Researcher must accomplish the
task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization.
Precautions in Interpretation :
Precautions in Interpretation Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct
interpretation: ( i ) (a ) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the
data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods. (ii)
The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting
results. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for
drawing inferences concerning his study.
Characteristics of an Effective Research Report An effective research report has—at least—the following
four characteristics:
• Focus: an effective report emphasizes the important information.
• Accuracy: an effective report does not mislead the reader.
• Clarity: an effective report does not confuse the reader.
• Conciseness: an effective report does not waste the reader’s time.
Working Ahead
You can begin writing the report of your study before you have actually done the study. Working ahead
on your report allows you to use your time more efficiently, but there is an even better reason for doing
it. Working ahead on the report helps you plan and conduct the study, because it forces you to think
systematically about what you want the study to accomplish. You can begin writing the introductory
section of the report as soon as you have decided on the general approach your study will follow. You
don’t have to wait until you have determined all the details of the method.
LayoutofResearchReport
(1) PreliminaryPages:–Itincludesatitleanddate,followedbyacknowledgementinthe form of 'Preface'.
Then there should be table of contents followed by the list of tables and illustrations so that decision-
maker interested in reading the report can easily locatetherequiredinformationinthereport.
(2) MainText:–Themaintextprovidesthecompleteoutlineoftheresearchreportalong with all details. Title of
research study is repeated at the top of first page of main text and then follows the other details on pages
numbered consecutively, beginning with the secondpage The
maintextofreportshouldhavefollowingsections:-
(i) Introduction:–Inthisintroductionoftheresearchprojectisthere. Itcontainsa
clearstatementoftheobjectivesofresearchi.e.backgroundshouldbegivento
makecleartothereadthatwhytheproblemwasconsideredworthinvestigation. A priet summary of other
relevant research may also be stated so that the presentstudycanbeseeninthatcontext.
(ii) Statement of Findings and Recommendations :– After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily
understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in
standardizedform.
(iii) Results :– A detailed presentation of findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables
and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report. This
generally comprises the main body of report.
(iv) Implications of the Results :– The end of main text, the researcher should again put down the
research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implication for understanding the human behavior
.Such implications are-
a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which maybe expected to apply in similar
circumstances. b) Theconditionsofthepresentstudywhichmaylimittheextentoflegitimate generalizations of
the inferences drawn from the study.
c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new question raised by the study along with
suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers to then.
(v) It has become customary to conclude the research report with a brief summary, resting in the brief the
research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the
research results.
(3) End Matter :– At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data
such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topical along
with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they or discussed) should invariably be given
at the end of the report. The value of INDEX lies in thef act that it works as a guide to the reader for the
contents is there port.
Different Steps in Writing Report

(1) Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter : It is the first step which is primarilyconcerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(i) Logically: The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis Logical treatment often consists in developing
the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
(ii) Chronologically : Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence.
(2) Preparation of the Final Outline : It is the next step in writing the research report "outlines are the frame work
upon which long written works are constructed.
(3) Preparation of the Rough Draft : This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final
outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the
context of his research study.Hewillwritedowntheprocedureadoptedbyhimincollectingthematerialforhis study
along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
(4) Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough Draft :This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
roughdraft.Thecarefulrevisionmakesthedifferencebetweenamediocreandagood piece of writing. (5) Preparation of
the Final Bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography
which is generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which
has beendone.Itshouldcontainallthoseworkswhichtheresearcherhasconsulted. Introduction : Anybody, who is
reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in its
general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the
findings one to be taken. And for this, there is need of proper layout of Report.
Types of Report
Types of Report:
(1) Technical Report : In the technical report the main emphasisison
The method employed Assumptions made in the course of the study The detailed presentation of the
findings including their limitations and supporting data.
A technical report consists of the following aspects:
i. Major FindingsandContents:Atechnicalreportwillcontainthemainfindingsjustin twoorthreepages. ii.
NatureoftheResearchWork:Thisdescribes Thegeneralobjectivesofthestudy
Formulationoftheprobleminoperationalitems Theworkinghypothesis Thetypeofanalysis
Datarequired,etc. iii. Research Methodology : This explains the various methods used in the study
and theirlimitations.Forinstance: SampleSize SampleSelectionetc. iv. Data Analysis : The report
analyses the data and their sources, characteristics and limitation. If secondary data are used, their
suitability to the problem at hand is fully
assessed.Incaseofasurvey,themannerinwhichdatawerecollectedshouldbefully described.
v. Presentation of Findings : The researcher presents his main findings of the study
withsupportingdataintheformoftablesandcharts. vi. Main Conclusion : Here, the main findings of the
research are presented and the mainbodyofthereport,usuallyextendingoverseveralchapters. vii.
Bibliography:Thiscontainsthemainsourcesofsecondarydata. viii. Technical appendices : This contain all
technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematicalderivationetc. Conclusion : The above format
provides a general idea of the nature of a technical report;
theorderofpresentationmaynotnecessarilybethesameinalltechnicalreports.Therefore,
thepresentationmaydiffer. (2) Popular Report : The popular report is one which gives emphasis on
simplicity and attractiveness.Thesimplificationshouldbesoughtthrough Clearwriting
Minimizationoftechnical Particularlymathematical Detailandliberaluseofchartsanddiagrams.
Thefollowingisthegeneraloutlineofapopularreport: (i) Major Findings and Conclusions : The report
will have findings of practical interest andtheirimplications. (ii) Follow-up Action : It will suggest
follow-up action on the basis of the findings of the studyinthissection. (iii) Objectives of the Study: Here
the problem is presented, along with the specific objectivesofthestudy. (iv) Methodology : Here, a
description of the methods and techniques used, including a
shortreviewofthedataonwhichthestudyisbasedisprovided.
(v) Results : This is the main body of the report, presented in clear and non-technical
termswiththeliberaluseofallsortsofillustrationssuchas Charts Diagramsandthelike. (vi) Appendices
: This consists of detailed information on the methods used, forms, etc.
Appendicesaregenerallynotincludedifthereportismeantforthegeneralpublic. (3) Oral Reports : An oral
report is a piece of face to face communication about something seen or observed.An oral report is a
simple and easy to present.This type of reporting is required, when the researchers is asked to make an
oral presentation. Making oral presentation is somewhat difficult compared to written report. This is
because; the reporter has to interact directly with the audience. Any faltering during oral presentation can
leave a negative impression on the audience. In oral presentation, communication plays a big role. Lot of
planning and thinking is required todecide Whattosay Howtosay Howmuchtosay (4)
WrittenReport:Awrittenreportenjoysseveraladvantagesovertheoralone: An oral report can be denied
at any time. But a written report is a permanent record.Thereportercannotdenywhathehasreportedonce.
Awrittenreportcanbereferredtoagainandagain A written report can change hands without any
danger of distortion during transmission. (5) Informal Reports : An informal report is usually in the
form of a person to person communication. An informal report is usually submitted in the form of a letter,
or a memorandum. (6) Formal Report : Aformal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and
is presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority. Formal
reportcanbestatutoryornonstatutory.
(7) RoutineReports:Theseareoftwotypes: (i) Progress Reports: When government departments give work
on contract they insist on such reports from contractors. These enable the government to know
whethertheworkisprogressingaccordingtoschedule. (ii) Annual Confidential reports on employees: Most
organizations make a periodic evaluation of the performance and general conduct of their employees.
Periodical reports are prepared at regular intervals to indicate the working of a
sectionoradepartment.Thesereportsareusuallypreparedbyfilinginaprinted
formsincetheinformationrequiredisofaroutinenatureandcanbetabulated. (8) Special Reports : These
reports cannot be prepared by filling in forms; they require special skills in collecting facts and
presentation. The people who prepare these reports are responsible and senior persons. Special reports
may be categorized into followingcategories: (i) Inventory Report : Inventory report is customary for
every organization to take stock of equipment, furniture and stationery etc., at regular intervals. The
person,whochecksthestock,fillsinhisfindingsinaprescribedform. (ii)
SurveyReport:Surveyreportiswrittenwhenaparticularareaorfieldhastobe
surveyedanditsconditionobservedandrecorded. (iii) Project Report : Project report is prepared after a
proposal takes shape and usuallyafterthepreliminarysurveyhasbeencompleted. (iv)
InspectionReport:Inspectionreportiswrittenwhenaninspectionisassigned
toaperson;anauditor,anofficerfromtheHead-office,oranyseniorofficermay
beassignedthetaskofmakinganinspectionofabranchorasection. (v) Investigation Report : Investigation
report is prepared after an investigation
hasbeenmadewhenaproblemcannotbeeasilysolved;thecauseneedcareful
searching,analysisandconsideration.Whentherearelosses,labourproblems,
poorsales,customercomplaints,fallingsales,aseniorpersonoracommitteeof senior persons is appointed to
investigate the causes. It is difficult to make an investigation and the task requires collection of facts
which are not easy to get. Thecollecteddatahavetobeanalysedandinterpreted;conclusionshavetobe
drawnfromtheanalysisandsolutionstotheproblemhavetoberecommended.
Oral Presentation
Oral Reports : An oral report is a piece of face to face communication about something seen or observed.An oral
report is a simple and easy to present.This type of reporting is required, when the researchers is asked to make an
oral presentation. Making oral presentation is somewhat difficult compared to written report. This is because; the
reporter has to interact directly with the audience. Any faltering during oral presentation can leave a negative
impression on the audience. In oral presentation, communication plays a big role. Lot of planning and thinking is
required todecide
➢ Whattosay
➢ Howtosay
➢ Howmuchtosay

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Research Methodology

➢ Used in the beginning stages of research.

• Descriptive versus Analytical Research

Basic Research Process

1. Selection of Research Problem

Selection of Research Problem

Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey

Preparing the Research Design

Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following.

Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.

Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-categories.

Generalization and Interpretation

Report Design in Primary Stages

Main Text of the Report

Closing the Report

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH TOPIC

Formulating the research problem

Defining and formulating the research problem

1. The problem reflects felt needs

Selecting a Research Problem

Necessity of Defining a Research Problem ?

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING A PROBLEM,

The Literature Review The literature review is important because:

6.1 What is a literature review and why is it necessary?

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources.

• Literary criticism such as Journal articles;

Invention may be either for a product or process.

• Website content is not necessarily checked by an expert.

Guidelines for the Critical Literature Review

Key steps in composing a Critical Literature Review:

Steps for identifying research gaps in the literature

Step 2: Read, Read, and then Read Some More

Step 3: Map out the Literature:

The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection

Consequences from improperly collected data include

• inability to answer research questions accurately

Methods OF COLLECTING DATA IN RESEARCH

Technique Key Facts Example

Results of a satisfaction survey or

• Allows for the study of the

• A facilitated group interview with

• Involves studying a single

• Consists of examining existing data

31.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

4. Sample Size Determination

UNIT III – SOFT COMPUTING

Use of statistical software SPSS & GRETL

SPSS Program Functionality:

• GRETL denotes Gnu Regression Econometrics and Time-series Library.

How to get GRETL?

It can be downloaded from

How to work with GRETL?

The most efficient way is by using scripts:

1. Create a script file.

At the bottom of the window is the GRETL toolbar.

Opening a GRETL (.gdt) dataset

File/Open data/User file

Importing an Excel file

Describing a variable in a dataset

After selecting one variable, Variable/Summary statistics

Editing a variable in a dataset

Saving as a new GRETL File

File > Save Data as > Standard format

Saving as a new GRETL File