MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody
research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the
facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

Features of Research

1. Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

2. Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
3. Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
4. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
5. Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation
6. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are
treated statistically.

Scientific Research
Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them. In this review,
classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomisation and bias are explained.
Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic collection, interpretation
and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned manner is called scientific research: a researcher is the one
who conducts this research. The results obtained from a small group through scientific studies are socialised,
and new information is revealed with respect to diagnosis, treatment and reliability of applications. The purpose
of this review is to provide information about the definition, classification and methodology of scientific
research. Before beginning the scientific research, the researcher should determine the subject, do planning and
specify the methodology.

Classification of Scientific Research

 According to data collection techniques:

 Observational

 Experimental

 According to causality relationships:

 Descriptive

 Analytical

 According to relationships with time:

 Retrospective

 Prospective
  Cross-sectional

 According to the medium through which they are applied:

 Clinical

 Laboratory

 Social descriptive research (3)

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When,
Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with
a number.

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy
scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't
repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an
explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is
important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one
factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an
accident.

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your
hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such
cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new hypothesis
and prediction based on the information they learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of
the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it
again in a new way.
6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a
display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a
scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science
fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

Applied vs. Fundamental (Basic) Research

Applied vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at
finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” 4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried
on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research
aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied
research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy
research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important
type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar
other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences
where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular
thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore,
while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
Role of Research in Economics and Management
8 stages in the research process are;
1. Identifying the problem.
2. Reviewing literature.
3. Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.
4. Choosing the study design.
5. Deciding on the sample design.
6. Collecting data.
7. Processing and analyzing data.
8. Writing the report.

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research problem.

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the research process,
starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.

But the core question is: whether all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus,
these do not need to be researched.

Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and a non-research problem.

Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher to formulate
his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been so far researched.

Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips him with
enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his
study and those of the others.

Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the
problem leading to research objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information that should be
collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research objective is a
well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data.
Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step -4: Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions.

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected
data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to conduct his or her study;

1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four designs depends primarily on four factors:

 The type of problem

 The objectives of the study,
 The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
 The resources are available for the study.

Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it involves
any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe (called
population) to conclude the whole population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference or generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical
procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population as a
whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined population.
There are many ways to collect data.

The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time,
money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection
also varies.
The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-
administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected.

Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration
records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, KII, and
observational studies.

Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure consistency
across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and
inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to
a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent opportunity in
data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries,
searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in the
light of the research questions.

Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated
hypotheses and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very complex
multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature of data
collected.

As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be
appropriate for another.

 Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing
Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or commitment from an
individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the research process. The proposal tells
us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study (the
research objectives) or a definition of the problem.
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures that will be utilized at
each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to administrators,
policymakers, and program managers for the intended purpose of making a decision.

There are various forms of research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles, papers for presentation
at professional conferences and seminars, books, and so on. The results of a research investigation prepared in
any form are of little utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media channels to reach
different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the occasion, and the
purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s perspectives.

Problems Encountered by Researchers in Nepal

Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in our country.
There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods.
Most of the work, which goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and
even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence
is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of research
methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all
the methodological aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide shortduration intensive courses for meeting this
requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and business establishments,
government departments and research institutions on the other side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential
nature remain untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop
satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what
needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied by them to researchers
will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept
of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable
barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information. This results in
duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular
intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given
toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the
industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite
common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over
this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including
computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made
in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University
Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers
are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and
other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or
the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach
our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies doing
this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite
significantly because of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
9. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data
collection and related things.

How do you overcome a research problem?

1. Develop a doable topic.

2. Read everything you can on the topic.
3. Find a theoretical basis to support your topic.
4. Make sure the topic will hold your interest.
5. Look for a niche in which you can make a difference
6. Let yourself shift gears.
7. Fine-tune your topic based on input from others.

Sources of the literature

Primary sources of information are those types of information that come first. Some examples of primary
sources are:

 original research, like data from an experiment with plankton.

 diaries, journals, photographs
 data from the census bureau or a survey you have done
 original documents, like the constitution or a birth certificate
 newspapers are primary sources when they report current events or current opinion
 speeches, interviews, email, letters
 religious books
 personal memoirs and autobiographies
 art work
 pottery or weavings

There are different types of primary sources for different disciplines.  In the discipline of history, for example, a
diary or transcript of a speech is a primary source.  In education and nursing, primary sources will generally be
original research, including data sets.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources to interpret or analyze them. They are a step or more
removed from the primary event or item. Some examples of secondary sources are:

 commentaries on speeches
 critiques of plays, journalism, or books
 a journal article that talks about a primary source such as an interpretation of Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath,
or the flower symbolism of Monet’s water garden paintings
 textbooks (can also be considered tertiary)
 biographies
 encyclopedias
 websites
Tertiary sources are further removed from the original material and are a distillation and collection of primary
and secondary sources. Some examples are:

 bibliography of critical works about an author

 textbooks (also considered secondary)
 factbooks
 guidebooks
 manuals

A comparison of information sources across disciplines:

SUBJECT PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

Journal article reporting on Handbook of afterschool

Article in Teacher Magazine about after school
Education quantitative study of after programming ERIC
programs
school programs database

Journal article reporting on a Systematic review of treatment or device, such

Encyclopedia of Nursing
Nursing Cclinical trial of a treatment or as those found in the Cochrane Database of
Research
device Systematic Reviews

Psychology Patient notes taken by clinical Magazine article about the patient’s Textbook on clinical
psychologist psychological condition psychology

Literature Review Steps

1. Define your topic. The first step is defining your task -- choosing a topic and noting the questions you have about the
topic. This will provide a focus that guides your strategy in step II and will provide potential words to use in searches in
step III.

2. Develop a strategy. Strategy involves figuring out where the information might be and identifying the best tools for
finding those types of sources. The strategy section identifies specific types of research databases to use for specific
purposes.

3. Locate the information. In this step, you implement the strategy developed in II in order to actually locate specific
articles, books, technical reports, etc.

4. Use and Evaluate the information. Having located relevant and useful material, in step IV you read and analyze the
items to determine whether they have value for your project and credibility as sources.

5. Synthesize. In step V, you will make sense of what you've learned and demonstrate your knowledge. You will
thoroughly understand, organize and integrate the information --become knowledgeable-- so that you are able to use your
own words to support and explain your research project and its relationship to existing research by others.

6. Evaluate your work. At every step along the way, you should evaluate your work. However, this final step is a last
check to make sure your work is complete and of high quality.

Presenting Literature Review

1. Introduce the topic.

2. Establish the significance of the study.
3. Provide an overview of the relevant literature.
4. Establish a context for the study using the literature.
5. Identify knowledge gaps.
6. Illustrate how the study will advance knowledge on the topic.
 Structure of literature review
 Introduction • Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central theme or
organizational pattern.
 Body • Contains your discussion of sources.•
 Conclusions/Recommendations • Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where
might the discussion proceed?

Data Analysis?

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful
information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful information from
data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

A simple example of Data analysis is whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by thinking about
what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular decision. This is nothing but analyzing
our past or future and making decisions based on it. For that, we gather memories of our past or dreams of our
future. So that is nothing but data analysis. Now same thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data
Analysis.

Why Data Analysis?

To grow your business even to grow in your life, sometimes all you need to do is Analysis!

If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and acknowledge your mistakes and make a plan
again without repeating those mistakes. And even if your business is growing, then you have to look forward to
making the business to grow more. All you need to do is analyze your business data and business processes.

Types of Data Analysis: Techniques and Methods

There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business and technology. However, the
major Data Analysis methods are:

 Text Analysis
 Statistical Analysis
 Diagnostic Analysis
 Predictive Analysis
 Prescriptive Analysis

Text Analysis

Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is one of the methods of data analysis to discover a pattern
in large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to transform raw data into business information.
Business Intelligence tools are present in the market which is used to take strategic business decisions. Overall
it offers a way to extract and examine data and deriving patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical Analysis shows “What happen?” by using past data in the form of dashboards. Statistical Analysis
includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modeling of data. It analyses a set of data or a
sample of data. There are two categories of this type of Analysis – Descriptive Analysis and Inferential
Analysis.
Descriptive Analysis

analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean and deviation for continuous
data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical data.

Inferential Analysis

analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different conclusions from the same
data by selecting different samples.

Data Analysis consists of the following phases:

 Data Requirement Gathering

 Data Collection
 Data Cleaning
 Data Analysis
 Data Interpretation
 Data Visualization

Data Requirement Gathering

First of all, you have to think about why do you want to do this data analysis? All you need to find out the
purpose or aim of doing the Analysis of data. You have to decide which type of data analysis you wanted to do!
In this phase, you have to decide what to analyze and how to measure it, you have to understand why you are
investigating and what measures you have to use to do this Analysis.

Data Collection

After requirement gathering, you will get a clear idea about what things you have to measure and what should
be your findings. Now it’s time to collect your data based on requirements. Once you collect your data,
remember that the collected data must be processed or organized for Analysis. As you collected data from
various sources, you must have to keep a log with a collection date and source of the data.

Data Cleaning

Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or irrelevant to your aim of Analysis, hence it should be
cleaned. The data which is collected may contain duplicate records, white spaces or errors. The data should be
cleaned and error free. This phase must be done before Analysis because based on data cleaning, your output of
Analysis will be closer to your expected outcome.

Data Analysis

Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for Analysis. As you manipulate data, you may
find you have the exact information you need, or you might need to collect more data. During this phase, you
can use data analysis tools and software which will help you to understand, interpret, and derive conclusions
based on the requirements.

Data Interpretation

After analyzing your data, it’s finally time to interpret your results. You can choose the way to express or
communicate your data analysis either you can use simply in words or maybe a table or chart. Then use the
results of your data analysis process to decide your best course of action.
Data Visualization

Data visualization is very common in your day to day life; they often appear in the form of charts and graphs. In
other words, data shown graphically so that it will be easier for the human brain to understand and process it.
Data visualization often used to discover unknown facts and trends. By observing relationships and comparing
datasets, you can find a way to find out meaningful information.

Data Analysis Tools

There are several data analysis tools available in the market, each with its own set of functions. The selection of
tools should always be based on the type of analysis performed and the type of data worked. Here is a list of a
few compelling tools for Data Analysis. 

. Excel

It has various compelling features, and with additional plugins installed, it can handle a massive amount of data.
So, if you have data that does not come near the significant data margin, Excel can be a versatile tool for data
analysis.

Looking to learn Excel? Data Analysis with Excel Pivot Tables course is the highest-rated Excel course on
udemy.

2. Tableau

It falls under the BI Tool category, made for the sole purpose of data analysis. The essence of Tableau is the
Pivot Table and Pivot Chart and works towards representing data in the most user-friendly way. It additionally
has a data cleaning feature along with brilliant analytical functions.

If you want to learn Tableau, udemy's online course Hands-On Tableau Training For Data Science can be a
great asset for you.

3. Power BI

It initially started as a plugin for Excel, but later on, detached from it to develop in one of the most data
analytics tools. It comes in three versions: Free, Pro, and Premium. Its PowerPivot and DAX language can
implement sophisticated advanced analytics similar to writing Excel formulas.

4. Fine Report

Fine Report comes with a straightforward drag and drops operation, which helps design various reports and
build a data decision analysis system. It can directly connect to all kinds of databases, and its format is similar
to that of Excel. Additionally, it also provides a variety of dashboard templates and several self-developed
visual plug-in libraries.

5. R & Python

These are programming languages that are very powerful and flexible. R is best at statistical analysis, such as
normal distribution, cluster classification algorithms, and regression analysis. It also performs individual
predictive analyses like customer behavior, spending, items preferred by him based on his browsing history, and
more. It also involves concepts of machine learning and artificial intelligence.
6. SAS

It is a programming language for data analytics and data manipulation, which can easily access data from any
source. SAS has introduced a broad set of customer profiling products for web, social media, and marketing
analytics. It can predict their behaviors, manage, and optimize communications.

Conclusion

This is our complete beginner's guide on "What is Data Analysis". If you want to learn more about data
analysis, Complete Introduction to Business Data Analysis is a great introductory course.

Data Analysis is the key to any business, whether starting up a new venture, making marketing decisions,
continuing with a particular course of action, or going for a complete shut-down. The inferences and the
statistical probabilities calculated from data analysis help base the most critical decisions by ruling out all
human bias. Different analytical tools have overlapping functions and different limitations, but they are also
complementary tools. Before choosing a data analytical tool, it is essential to consider the scope of work,
infrastructure limitations, economic feasibility, and the final report to be prepared.

Summary:

 Data analysis means a process of cleaning, transforming and modeling data to discover useful information for
business decision-making
 Types of Data Analysis are Text, Statistical, Diagnostic, Predictive, Prescriptive Analysis
 Data Analysis consists of Data Requirement Gathering, Data Collection, Data Cleaning, Data Analysis, Data
Interpretation, Data Visualization

Research Problem
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly defining a research problem.*
A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a
researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we say that a research problem does
exist if the following conditions are met with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the problem can be attributed.
The individual or the organisation, as the case may be, occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of
the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of action is defined by one or
more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one
course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of which one should be
preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e.,
an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective, but they cannot provide the
same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj

b g b
will occur, if I select Cj in N, then P O1| I , C1, N P O1| I , C2 , Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices
must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes. We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as
under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This
means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a
problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that
research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. Thus, a research problem is one which requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can
be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the
problem complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or the
values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the
decision may be affected by it and react to it favourably or unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or
at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research problem.
DEFINING A PROBLEM
Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a problem to reach the core of the problem i.e. threadbare
analysis.”
(a) Need of defining a problem
The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher.
4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the investigation through a problem
involved into so many variables.
5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.
(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem
The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem.
1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning.
2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.
3. The assumptions are to be recognised for the study.
4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education.
5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.
(c) Steps in defining a problem
The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem:
1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The conceptual framework should be such that it
can be stated into verbal form.
2. Delimiting the elements of the problem.
3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group.
4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework.
5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem.
6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual framework of the problem.
7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.

Variables: Definition, Types of Variable in Research

Within the context of a research investigation, concepts are generally referred to as variables. A variable is, as
the name applies, something that varies. Age, sex, export, income and expenses, family size, country of birth,
capital expenditure, class grades, blood pressure readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye color, and vehicle
type are all examples of variables because each of these properties varies or differs from one individual to
another.

A variable is any property, a characteristic, a number, or a quantity that increases or decreases over time or can
take on different values (as opposed to constants, such as n, that do not vary) in different situations.

When conducting research, experiments often manipulate variables. For example, an experimenter might
compare the effectiveness of four types of fertilizers.

Dependent and Independent Variables

In many research settings, there are two specific classes of variables that need to be distinguished from one
another, independent variable and dependent variable.
Many research studies are aimed at unrevealing and understanding the causes of underlying phenomena or
problems with the ultimate goal of establishing a causal relationship between them.

In each of the above queries, we have two variables: one independent and one dependent. In the first example,
‘low intake of food’ is believed to have caused the ‘problem of underweight.’

Independent Variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that is assumed to cause or at least to influence the
problem or outcome is called an independent variable.

The definition implies that the experimenter uses the independent variable to describe or explain the influence
or effect of it on the dependent variable.

Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to depend on variability in the independent variable.

Depending on the context, an independent variable is sometimes called a predictor variable, regressor,
controlled variable, manipulated variable, explanatory variable, exposure variable (as used in reliability theory),
risk factor (as used in medical statistics), feature (as used in machine learning and pattern recognition) or input
variable.

The explanatory variable is preferred by some authors over the independent variable when the quantities treated
as independent variables may not be statistically independent or independently manipulable by the researcher.

If the independent variable is referred to as an explanatory variable, then the term response variable is preferred
by some authors for the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem or outcome under study is called a dependent
variable.

In a causal relationship, the cause is the independent variable, and the effect is the dependent variable. If we
hypothesize that smoking causes lung cancer, ‘smoking’ is the independent variable and cancer the dependent
variable.

A business researcher may find it useful to include the dividend in determining the share prices. Here dividend
is the independent variable, while the share price is the dependent variable.

The dependent variable usually is the variable the researcher is interested in understanding, explaining, or
predicting.

In lung cancer research, it is the carcinoma that is of real interest to the researcher, not smoking behavior per se.
The independent variable is the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence on the dependent variable.

Depending on the context, a dependent variable is sometimes called a response variable, regressand, predicted
variable, measured variable, explained variable, experimental variable, responding variable, outcome variable,
output variable, or label.

An explained variable is preferred by some authors over the dependent variable when the quantities treated as
dependent variables may not be statistically dependent.
If the dependent variable is referred to as an explained variable, then the term predictor variable is preferred by
some authors for the independent variable.

Hypotheses Formulation
The second step in the research process of social study is to formulate hypotheses. The hypothesis is a tentative solution of a
problem. The research activities are planned to verify the hypothesis and not to find out the solution of the problem or to seek an
answer of a question. It is very essential to a research worker to understand the meaning and nature of hypothesis. The
researcher always plan or formulate a hypothesis in the begining of the problem.
The scientist observes the man of special class of phenomena and broads over it until by a flash of insight he perceives an order
and intelligent harmony in it. This is often referred to as an ‘explanation’ of the facts he has observed. He has a ‘theory’ about
particular mass of fact. This theory when stated testable proposition formally and clearly subjected to empirical or experimental
verification is known as a hypothesis. The hypothesis furnishes the germinal basis of the whole investigation and remains to the
end its corner stone, for the whole research is directed to test it out by facts. At the start of investigation the hypothesis is a
stimulus to critical thoughts offers insights into the confusion of phenomena. At the end it comes to prominence as the
proposition to be accepted or rejected in the light of the findings.
The word hypothesis consists of two words:
Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a
solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale.
Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two words:
‘Hypo’ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified.
‘Thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.
This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some
specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual’
elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem.
“A hypothesis is defined as a statement for the tentative relationship of two or more variables. The relationship of the variables
may either be normative or causal relationship. It should be based on some rationale.”
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main features of a hypothesis:
1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a hypothesis.
2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts, it is not merely idea but in the
verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification.
3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates the tentative relationship between
two or more variables.
4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future verification not the past facts and
informations.
5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification. The nature of hypothesis can
be well understood by differentiating it with other terms like assumption and postulate.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main functions of hypothesis in the research process suggested by H.H. Mc.
Ashan :
1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an investigator to start his research work.
2. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible solutions to the problem.
3. Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively tested and accepted or rejected
and leads for interpreting results and drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.
The functions of a hypothesis may be condensed into three. The following are the threefold
functions of a hypothesis:
(a) To delimit the field of the investigation.
(b) To sensitize the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic approach to the problem.
(c) To offer the simple means for collecting evidences to the verification.
IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS
1. Hypothesis as the Investigator’s “Eyes”: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further investigation it
serves as the investigator’s “Eyes” in seeking answers to tentatively adopted generalization.
2. It Focuses Research: Without it, research is unfocussed research and remains like a random empirical wandering. It serves as
necessary link between theory and the investigation.
3. It Places Clear and Specific Goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis is that they place clear and specific goals before the
research worker and provide him with a basis for selecting sample and research procedure to meet these goals.
4. It Links Together: “It serves the important function of linking together related facts and information and organizing them into
wholes.”– Good Barr and Scates
5. It Prevents Blind Research: “The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data
which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.”
6. As a Sort of Guiding Light: A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon that lights the way for the research work.

Two Types of Errors

Type I error (a error) : When an alternative hypothesis H1 may be accepted and H0 is rejected. It shows that obtained difference
exists and not due chance or sampling errors.
Type II error (b error) : When null hypothesis H1 is accepted and alternative hypothesis H1 is rejected. It indicates that obtained
difference is due to chance or sampling error.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:
1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.
2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true. Foundation of Hypotheses
3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.
4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally called hunch.
6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the investigator.
7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of verification.
8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised for the purpose of verification.
9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.
11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law, facts, assumption and postulate.

FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
From any problem statement, it is generally possible to derive more than one hypothesis. There are three simple hypotheses
generated from this problem to determine, “the effect of ” massive, positive, verbal rewards on the reading achievement of
children.”
At first glance these three hypotheses might be offered :
(A) Reward Increases reading achievement.
(B) Reward decreases reading achievement.
(C) Reward has no effect on reading achievement.
Evidence has already been obtained in the laboratory to support the hypothesis (A) rewards
increase performance. However, upon closer examination, the primary purpose of this study is to
determine whether the enhancing effect of rewards can be incorporated into a class-room setting to
facilitate children’s learning to read. This theory is based on the assumption that the ‘law’ of learning
should apply in classroom. If perhaps more subtly than in a laboratory and on the laboratory findings
that support the assumed relationship between reward and performance, the logical conclusion would
be that rewards would have a demonstrable enhancing effect on classroom performance. This conclusion
is based on the first assumption arrived at deductively and the second arrived at inductively.
Both induction and deduction. are needed to choose among the possibilities. Many theories, both
psychological and educational deal with stabilization (and rigidifying) of behaviour patterns as a function
of their use.
Researchers formulate hypotheses using induction and deduction, one of the goals of researcher
is to produce that pieces for generalizable bodies of theory which will provide answers to practical
problems. Hypothesis construction and testing enable researchers to generalize their findings beyond
the specific conditions which they were obtained.
Since a hypothesis is a formulation of anticipated findings, students are advised to develop a
hypothesis as a means of demonstrating the basis for their study to themselves and their reader. The
task of introducing a study and discussing the findings are facilitated by existence of a hypothesis.

FORMULATION OF TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a guide in
the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. The hypothesis formulation is one
of the most difficult and most difficult step in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or poorly
worded hypothesis can prevent:
(a) the obtaining of enough pertinent data,
(b) the drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and
(c) the application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.
It is impossible to over-emphasize the role of the hypothesis in research. It is the central core of
study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the experimental design, the statistical
analysis, and the conclusions drawn from the study.
A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary hypotheses,
or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each should be stated
separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to definitely accept or reject
each hypothesis on its own merit. Regardless of the number or type of hypotheses used, it is extremely
important that each be specific testable, and based upon a logical foundation. Hildreth Hoke McAshan
says only one possible exception to the above statements, which is that when fact finding alone is the
primary aim of the study, it may not always be necessary to formulate an explicit hypothesis. However,
this need not be a concern of most scientific researchers.

FORMAL CONDITIONS FOR TESTING HYPOTHESES

There are two types of hypothesis statements:
(a) Null hypothesis, and
(b) Hypothesis prediction form.
Whether the experimenter chooses the hypothesis prediction or the null form, there are certain
formal conditions which must be met in order for the hypothesis to be considered testable. These are
listed below:
1. It must be stated so that deductions can be made from it and so that decisions can be
reached as to whether or not it explains the facts being considered.
2. It should be worded clearly and unequivocally in operational terms. This should leave no
doubt as to what action, what prediction, what quality or quantity, or who is involved ?
3. It must be capable of being refuted. There must be some comparisons possible which will
allow the researcher to give either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer to the hypothesis stated.
4. It should be specific and testable, with all predictions and operations to be tested spelled out.
5. It should have simplicity. If it is too complex, consideration should be given to dividing it into
sub-hypothesis.
6. It should be directly related to the empirical phenomena.
7. It must be stated in final form early in the experiment before any attempt at verification is
made.
8. It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to the original problem which
forms the primary purpose of the investigation.
9. It must be related to available techniques of design procedure, and statistical analysis.
10. It should be related to available knowledge or theory concerning the original problem area.

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING HYPOTHESIS

Some hypotheses are considered more satisfactory than others. The following are the serious
considerations of a satisfactory hypothesis and these criteria may be helpful to make this judgement.
1. Plausibility of Explanation: Several criteria are involved in establishing the plausibility of
explanations. A satisfactory hypothesis should have relevant and logical possibility about the
relationship of variables included in them.
2. Testability of Explanation: The variables should be defined operationally and the predicted
relations among them can be tested empirically. The variables of the hypothesis should be
measurable or quantifiable. The suitable measuring instrument is available or it can be
considered easily.
3. Adequacy of Scope: The most useful hypotheses explain all the facts that are relevant to the
phenomena being explained and contradict none of them. The broader the scope of a theory,
the more valuable it is. The more consequences that a hypothesis yields, the greater is its
fruitfulness.
A hypothesis is of greater value if it establishes a generalization that can be applied in many
areas of education or in many fields.
The most satisfactory hypotheses not only explain all the known facts that gave rise to the
original problems but also enable scientists to make predictions about as yet unobserved
events and relationships.
4. Usefulness of False Hypotheses: Hypotheses need not be the correct answers to problems
to be useful. In almost every inquiry a scholar formulates several hypotheses and hopes that
one will provide a satisfactory solution to the problem. By eliminating the false hypotheses
one by one the investigator keeps narrowing the field in which the answer must lie. The
testing of false hypotheses is also of value if it directs the attention of scientists to unsuspected
facts or relations they eventually help in solving the problem.
5. Roots in Existing Theories: A useful educational hypothesis, therefore, adds something to
previously established knowledge by supporting, qualifying, refuting or enlarging upon existing
theories. A hypothesis that is compatible with well-attested theories is in a favourable position
to advance knowledge. If progress is to be made new hypotheses must fit into the framework
of existing theories and transform them into more perfect explanatory schemes. Thus, even
the more revolutionary theories are not completely different from the existing edifice of
knowledge.
6. Suitability for Intended Purpose: Each hypothesis that offers a satisfactory explanation
of what it intends to explain is useful for that purpose. Every hypothesis serves a specific
purpose and must be adequate for the purpose it claims to serve. Thus, suitability is also the
important criterion for an effective hypothesis.
7. Simplicity of Explanation: If two hypotheses are capable to explain the same facts, the
simpler one is the better hypothesis. Simplicity means that the hypothesis explains the
phenomena with the least complexes theoretical structure. The hypothesis that accounts for
all facts with the fewest independent or special assumptions and complexities is always
preferable.

THE ROLE OF HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses play significant role in the scientific studies. The following are some of the important
role of a hypothesis
• The purpose of stating hypothesis, like the purpose of theories that may be involved, is to
provide a framework for the research procedure and methodology. It directs the research
activities.
• A research project need to proceed from a statement of hypotheses. Such hypotheses are
not ends in themselves but rather aids to the research process.
• A hypothesis takes on some characteristics of a theory which is usually considered as a
larger set of generalization about a certain phenomenon.
• The verification. of a hypothesis does not prove or disprove it; it merely sustains or refutes
the hypotheses.
• The hypotheses may imply research procedures to be used and necessary data to be organized.
• Such hypotheses are not ends in themselves but rather aids to the research process.
• The conclusions of the research problem may also be stated in the context of the initial
hypotheses.
• The stating a hypotheses in experimental research provide the basis for designing the
experiment and collecting evidences empirically for its verification so as to formulate new
theory in field of education.
• The hypothesis orients the research process for its verification rather than finding out the
solution of the problem.

OBJECTIONS AGAINST STATING HYPOTHESES

The following objections are raised against stating hypotheses which are directional in nature
• One is that hypotheses bias the researcher in favour of certain conclusions or retain the
hypotheses.
• Another is that in his pursuit of the stating hypothesis the researcher may overlook other
possibly worthwhile hypotheses.
• The statement of hypotheses in some situations also may appear premature.
• A directional hypothesis needs some theoretical rationale but in some situations there is very
little background information about them.
• The researcher may decide to defer any hypothesis or theories until he has some empirical
evidence upon which is to base them.
• The hypotheses are stated in vacuum. These should be concerned with a situation in which
it can be experienced.
• The directional hypotheses should be so stated as to reveal the role of variables involved in
the investigation.
The overall consensus is in favour of stating hypotheses whenever they are feasible. In view of
the above objections. researchers prefer to formulate the non-directional hypotheses these days.

RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN
Research design is a choice of an investigator about the components of his project and development of
certain components of the design. A design of research does not consists of an ordered sequential stepby-
step procedure. It is a planning stage of research which is usually made logically visualizing its
practicability. The selection of research components is done keeping in view of the objectives of the
research. Research hypotheses also provide the basis for designing a research work. A research design
includes the following components :
(a) Research method or research strategy.
(b) Sampling design.
(c) Choice of research tools, and
(d) Choice of statistical techniques.
A design of research is good or not, it is judged by standards such as the degree of accuracy
attainable on the level of relevant evidence sought. A distinction should be drawn between statistical
significance and substantive significance and appropriately applied. Above all, a good research design
must be practical.

“research design is a mapping strategy. It is essentially a statement

of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for collecting the evidences, analysing the evidences and
reporting the findings.”
It should be made clear that the design components are in part mandatory and in part choices
made by the researcher. Just as the object of the inquiry often determines the class of inquiry or model
to be utilised, so too, does the model or class of inquiry determine the consideration and development
of certain of the design components. In fact, it is essentially the variation in some of the designcomponents
that differentiates among the classes of inquiry.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

In a general sense we could answer the question (what makes for good research design)? With such
statements as the design should be appropriate for the hypotheses or the design should be feasible
within the limits of available resources. The following are the specific characteristics of a good research
design:
1. It should be free from bias or learnings.
2. It should be free from confounding effect. A good research design eliminates confounding
of variables or kept it to a minimum so the results can be interpreted separately. There should
be a statistical precision. The hypotheses can be tested by employing most appropriate
statistical technique.
There should be enough scope to impose the control over the situation. There are basically four
ways by which control can be enhanced :
(a) Through the method of Randomization.
(b) Holding conditions or factors constant.
(c) Building conditions or factors into the design as independent variables.
(d) Statistical adjustment.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

There are several difficulties which make poor research design:
1. Inadequately stating and testing hypotheses.
2. Missing or unusable data.
3. Bias in sampling.
4. Inadequate measurement.
5. Lack of precision in statistical technique or inappropriate statistical devices.

Steps of Research Design

 Types of Research Design
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Developmental
 Explanatory
 Survey and Action Research

Exploratory Research
The major emphasis in exploratory research is on converting broad, vague problem statements into small, precise sub-
problem statements, which is done in order to formulate specific hypothesis. The hypothesis is a statement that specifies,
“how two
or more variables are related?”
In the early stages of research, we usually lack sufficient understanding of the problem to formulate a specific
hypothesis. Further, there are often several tentative explanations. For Example “Sales are down because our prices are
too high”, “our dealers or sales representatives are not doing a good job”, “our advertisement is weak” and so on. In this
scenario, very little information is available to point out, what is the actual cause of the problem. We can say that the
major purpose of exploratory research is to identify the problem more specifically. Therefore, exploratory study is used
in the initial stages of research.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

1. Exploratory research is flexible and very versatile.
2. For data collection structured forms are not used.
3. Experimentation is not a requirement.
4. Cost incurred to conduct study is low.
5. This type of research allows very wide exploration of views.
Research is interactive in nature and also it is open ended
Exploratory Research Methods
The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in exploratory research is by using any of the four
methods:
1. Literature search
2. Experience survey
3. Focus group
4. Analysis of selected cases
Under What Circumstances is Exploratory Study Ideal?
The following are the circumstances in which exploratory study would be ideally suited:
 To gain an insight into the problem
 To generate new product ideas
 To list all possibilities. Among the several possibilities, we need to prioritize
the possibilities which seem likely to occur
 To develop hypothesis occasionally
  Exploratory study is also used to increase the analyst’s familiarity with the problem. This is particularly true,
when the analyst is new to the problem area. For example, a market researcher working for (new entrant) a
company for the first time.
 To establish priorities so that further research can be conducted.
 Exploratory studies may be used to clarify concepts and help in formulating precise problems. For example, the
management is considering a change in the contract policy, which it hopes, will result in improved satisfaction
for channel members. An exploratory study can be used to clarify the present state of channel members’
satisfaction and to develop a method by which satisfaction level of channel members is measured.
 To pre-test a draft questionnaire.
 In general, exploratory research is appropriate to any problem about which very little is known. This research is
the foundation for any future study.
Descriptive Research

Meaning
 The name itself reveals that, it is essentially a research to describe something. For example, it can describe the
characteristics of a group such as—customers, organisations, markets, etc. Descriptive research provides
“association between two variables” like income and place of shopping, age and preferences.
Descriptive study informs us about the proportions of high and low income customers in a particular territory. What
descriptive research cannot indicate is that it cannot establish a cause and effect relationship between the
characteristics of interest. This is the distinct disadvantage of descriptive research.
 Descriptive study requires a clear specification of “Who, what, when, where, why and how” of the research,
for example, consider a situation of convenience stores (food world) planning to open a new outlet. The
company wants to determine, “How people come to patronize a new outlet?” Some of the questions that
need to be answered before data collection for this descriptive study are as follows:
 Who?—Who is regarded as a shopper responsible for the success of the
shop, whose demographic profile is required by the retailer?
 What?—What characteristics of the shopper should be measured? Is it the age of the shopper, sex,
income or residential address?
 When?—When shall we measure?
 Should the measurement be made while the shopper is shopping or at a later time?
 Where?—Where shall we measure the shoppers? Should it be outside the stores, soon after they visit
or should we contact them at their residence?
 Why?—Why do you want to measure them?
 What is the purpose of measurement?—Based on the information, are there many strategies which will
help the retailer to boost the sales? Does the retailer want to predict future sales based on the data
obtained?
 Answer to some of the above questions will help us in formulating the hypothesis.
 How to measure? Is it a ‘structured’ questionnaire, ‘disguised’ or ‘undisguised’ questionnaire?

When to use Descriptive Study.

1. To determine the characteristics of market such as:
(i) Size of the market
 (ii) Buying power of the consumer
(iii) Product usage pattern
(iv) To find out the market share for the product
(v) To track the performance of a brand.
2. To determine the association of the two variables such as Ad and sales.
3. To make a prediction. We might be interested in sales forecasting for the next three years, so that we can plan
for training of new sales representatives.
4. To estimate the proportion of people in a specific population, who behave in a particular way? Example:
What percentage of population in a particular geographical location would be shopping in a particular shop?
Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

Exploratory research Descriptive research

It is concerned with the “Why” aspect
of consumer behaviour, i.e., it tries to
understand the problem and not measure
the result.
This research does not require large
samples.
Sample need not to represent the
population.
Due to imprecise statement, data
collection is not easy.
Characteristics of interest to be measured Characteristics of interest to be measured
are not clear.
There is no need for a questionnaire for
collecting the data.
Data collection methods are:
It is concerned with the “What”, “When”
or “How often” on the consumer
behaving.
This needs large samples of respondents.
Sample must be representative of
population.
Statement is precise. Therefore, data
collection is easy.
are clear.
There should be a properly designed
questionnaire for data collection.
Use of panel data

Focus group Longitudinal

Literature Searching Cross-sectional studies.

Case study

Developmental Research
Research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design
dictates which methods are used and how. Developmental research designs are techniques used particularly in lifespan
development research. When we are trying to describe development and change, the research designs become
especially important because we are interested in what changes and what stays the same with age. These techniques
try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.
Survey research definition

Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that researchers send to survey
respondents. The data collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research
conclusions.

In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to understand what their customers think about their products or
services and make better business decisions. Researchers can conduct research in multiple ways, but surveys are
proven to be one of the most effective and trustworthy research methods. An online survey is a method for
extracting information about a significant business matter from an individual or a group of individuals. It
consists of structured survey questions that motivate the participants to respond,

Creditable survey research can give these businesses access to a vast information bank. Organizations in media,
other companies, and even governments rely on survey research to obtain accurate data.

The traditional definition of survey research is a quantitative method for collecting information from a pool of
respondents by asking multiple survey questions. This research type includes the recruitment of individuals,
collection, and analysis of data. It’s useful for researchers who aim at communicating new features or trends to
their respondents.

Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick information about mainstream topics and conducting
more rigorous and detailed quantitative research methods like surveys/polls or qualitative research methods like
focus groups/on-call interviews can follow. There are many situations where researchers can conduct research
using a blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey research methods

Survey research methods can be derived based on two critical factors: Survey research tool and time involved to
conduct research.

There are three main survey research methods, divided based on the medium of conducting survey research:

 Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the most popular survey research methods today. The cost
involved in online survey research is extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are highly accurate.
 Phone: Survey research conducted over the telephone (CATI) can be useful in collecting data from a more
extensive section of the target population. There are chances that the money invested in phone surveys will be
higher than other mediums, and the time required will be higher.
 Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews in situations where there is a complicated
problem to solve. The response rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly.

Process of implementing survey research methods:

 Decide survey questions: Brainstorm and put together valid survey questions that are grammatically
and logically appropriate. Understanding the objective and expected outcomes of the survey helps a lot.
There are many surveys where details of responses are not as important as gaining insights about what
customers prefer from the provided options. In such situations, a researcher can include multiple-choice
questions or closed-ended questions. Whereas, if researchers need to obtain details about specific issues,
they can consist of open-ended questions to the questionnaire. Ideally, the surveys should include a
smart balance of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Use survey questions like Likert Scale,
Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Score question, etc. to avoid fence-sitting.
 Finalize a target audience: Send out relevant surveys as per the target audience and filter out irrelevant
questions as per the requirement. The survey research will be instrumental in case the target population
decides a sample. This way, results can be according to the desired market and be generalized to the
entire population
  Send out surveys via decided mediums: Distribute the surveys to the target audience and patiently
wait for the feedback and comments- this is the most crucial step of the survey research. The survey
needs to be scheduled, keeping in mind the nature of the target audience and its regions. Surveys can be
conducted via email, embedded in a website, shared via social media, etc. to gain maximum responses.
 Analyze survey results: Analyze the feedback in real-time and identify patterns in the responses which
might lead to a much-needed breakthrough for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint analysis, Cross
tabulation, and many such survey feedback analysis methods can be used to spot and shed light on
respondent behavior. Researchers can use the results to implement corrective measures to improve
customer/employee satisfaction.

Benefits of survey research

In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is implemented properly, marketers can benefit by
gaining useful, trustworthy data that they can use to better the ROI of the organization.

Other benefits of survey research are:

 Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal finance invested per respondent. Even
with the gifts and other incentives provided to the people who participate in the study, online surveys are
extremely economical compared to the paper-based surveys.
 Versatile sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via various mediums like online and mobile
surveys. You can further classify them into qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, and quantitative
mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to the offline survey response collection option, researchers can
conduct surveys in remote areas with limited internet connectivity. This can make data collection and analysis
more convenient and extensive.
 Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent details and responses are kept
safeguarded. This anonymity makes respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute
honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit responses for its survey research must mention that it will
be confidential.

five stages of survey research design:

 Decide an aim of the research: There can be multiple reasons for a researcher to conduct a survey, but
they need to decide a purpose for research. This is the primary stage of survey research as it can mold
the entire path of a survey, impacting its results.
 Filter the sample from target population: Who to target? is an essential question that a researcher
should answer and keep in mind while conducting research. The precision of the results is driven by who
the members of a sample are and how useful their opinions are. The quality of respondents in a sample is
essential for the results received for research and not the quantity. If a researcher seeks to understand
whether a product feature will work well with their target market, he/she can conduct survey research
with a group of market experts for that product or technology.
 Zero-in on a survey method: Many qualitative and quantitative research methods can be discussed and
decided. Focus groups, online interviews, surveys, polls, questionnaires, etc. can be carried out with the
pre-decided sample of individuals.
 Design the questionnaire: What will the content of the survey be? A researcher is required to answer
this question to be able to design it effectively. What will the content of the cover letter be? Or what are
the survey questions of this questionnaire? Understand the target market thoroughly to create a
questionnaire that targets a sample to gain insights about a survey research topic.
 Send out surveys and analyze results: Once the researcher decides on which questions to include in a
study, they can send it across to the selected sample. Answers obtained for this survey can be analyzed
to make product-related or marketing-related decisions.
Action Research

Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the
diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis”[1]. In other words, one
of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to collaboration between researcher and member of
organisation in order to solve organizational problems.

Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both, researcher and research being one part of
that change.[2] Generally, action researches can be divided into three categories: positivist, interpretive and
critical.

Positivist approach to action research, also known as ‘classical action research’ perceives research as a social
experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real world
environment.

Interpretive action research, also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives business reality as
socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and organisational factors when conducting the
action research.

Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business
processes and aims for improvements.

The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its suitability for any
given study:

 It is applied in order to improve specific practices.  Action research is based on action, evaluation and critical
analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce improvements in relevant practices.
 This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of individuals with a common
purpose
 Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context

Advantages of Action Research

 High level of practical relevance of the business research;

 Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data;
 Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research

 Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research and ensure the application of both;
 Delays in completion of action research due to a wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences
 Lack of repeatability and rigour

It is important to make a clear distinction between action research and consulting. Specifically, action research
is greater than consulting in a way that action research includes both action and research, whereas business
activities of consulting are limited action without the research.

MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH
In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine weight, height, or
some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when we judge how well we like a song,
a painting or the personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical objects as well as abstract
concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, specially so when it concerns
qualitative or abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to
objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the
 numbers are assigned.
Technically speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other
aspects of a range according to some rule of correspondence. In measuring, we devise some form of
scale in the range (in terms of set theory, range may refer to some set) and then transform or map the
properties of objects from the domain (in terms of set theory, domain may refer to some other set)
onto this scale. For example, in case we are to find the male to female attendance ratio while
conducting a study of persons who attend some show, then we may tabulate those who come to the
show according to sex.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can be considered in
terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement scales
are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.
(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in
order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale
for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of
events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping
track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the numbers involved. For example,
one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players and come up with
a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the
numbers assigned to another. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic
operation when a nominal scale is employed.
(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale
equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research
relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an
ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about scores based on ordinal scales.
For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it cannot be said that
Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan.
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that
has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the
assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it
is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The
primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to
measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.
(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute
zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length
and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on a centimeter
scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute zero of temperature is
theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing only in the scientist’s mind.
Sources of Error in Measurement
(a) Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or
it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this
reluctance is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue, boredom,
anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition
which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport.
For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by being
present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain
feelings.
(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His
behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents. Careless
mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding,
faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.
(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex
words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate
space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument
defective and may result in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor
sampling of the universe of items of concern.
Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the
problems listed above. He must, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise deal
with all the possible sources of error so that the final results may not be contaminated.
1. Test of Validity*
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what
it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other words, validity is the
extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those
being tested. But the question arises: how can one determine validity without direct confirming
knowledge? The answer may be that we seek other relevant evidence that confirms the answers we
have found with our measuring tool. What is relevant, evidence often depends upon the nature of the
research problem and the judgement of the researcher. But one can certainly consider three types of
validity in this connection: (i) Content validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of
the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe, the content
validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental and intuitive. It can also be determined by
using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets the standards, but
there is no numerical way to express it.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the existence
of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of measures used for some
empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must possess the following qualities:
Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an equal
opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)
In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i) Predictive validity
and (ii) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some future
performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to other measures
of known validity. Criterion-related validity is expressed as the coefficient of correlation between
test scores and some measure of future performance or between test scores and scores on another
measure of known validity.
(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess construct
validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical propositions.
Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for by the explanatory
constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we associate a set of other propositions
with the results received from using our measurement instrument. If measurements on our devised
scale correlate in a predicted way with these other propositions, we can conclude that there is some
construct validity.
If the above stated criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring instrument
is valid and will result in correct measurement; otherwise we shall have to look for more information
and/or resort to exercise of judgement.
2. Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity, but
a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a scale that consistently overweighs
objects by five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give a valid measure of weight. But the other
way is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always reliable. Accordingly reliability is not as valuable as
validity, but it is easier to assess reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is
satisfied by an instrument, then while using it we can be confident that the transient and situational
factors are not interfering.
Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve special mention. The stability
aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person
and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree of stability by comparing the results
of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced
by different investigators or different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the
equivalence of measurements by two investigators is to compare their observations of the same
events. Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
(i) By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to
the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
(ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group,
by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the
sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.

Meaning of Scaling
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and
other concepts. This can be done in two ways viz., (i) making a judgement about some characteristic
of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that
characteristic and (ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s responses
assigns him a place on a scale. It may be stated here that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the
highest point (in terms of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the lowest
point along with several intermediate points between these two extreme points. These scale-point
positions are so related to each other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the
second point indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as compared to the third
Scale Classification Bases
The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified on one or
more of the following bases: (a) subject orientation; (b) response form; (c) degree of subjectivity;
(d) scale properties; (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale construction techniques. We take up
each of these separately.
(a) Subject orientation: Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent
who completes it or to judge the stimulus object which is presented to the respondent. In respect of
the former, we presume that the stimuli presented are sufficiently homogeneous so that the betweenstimuli
variation is small as compared to the variation among respondents. In the latter approach, we
ask the respondent to judge some specific object in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume
that the between-respondent variation will be small as compared to the variation among the different
stimuli presented to respondents for judging.
(b) Response form: Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and comparative.
Categorical scales are also known as rating scales. These scales are used when a respondent scores
some object without direct reference to other objects. Under comparative scales, which are also
known as ranking scales, the respondent is asked to compare two or more objects. In this sense the
respondent may state that one object is superior to the other or that three models of pen rank in order
1, 2 and 3. The essence of ranking is, in fact, a relative comparison of a certain property of two or
more objects.
(c) Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we measure
subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference judgements. In the former case, the
respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which solution he would like to see
employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in
some aspect or which solution will take fewer resources without reflecting any personal preference.
(d) Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio scales. Nominal scales merely classify without indicating order, distance or unique
origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude relationships of ‘more than’ or ‘less than’, but indicate no
distance or unique origin. Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin.
Ratio scales possess all these features.
(e) Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as ‘unidimensional’
and ‘multidimensional’ scales. Under the former we measure only one attribute of the respondent or
object, whereas multidimensional scaling recognizes that an object might be described better by using
the concept of an attribute space of ‘n’ dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.
(f) Scale construction techniques: Following are the five main techniques by which scales can
be developed.
(i) Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc basis. This is
the most widely used approach. It is presumed that such scales measure the concepts for
which they have been designed, although there is little evidence to support such an assumption.
(ii) Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for inclusion in
the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in
implication.
(iii) Item analysis approach: Under it a number of individual items are developed into a test
which is given to a group of respondents. After administering the test, the total scores are
calculated for every one. Individual items are then analysed to determine which items
discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and those with low scores.
(iv) Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some ranking of items
with ascending and descending discriminating power. For instance, in such a scale the
endorsement of an item representing an extreme position should also result in the
endorsement of all items indicating a less extreme position.
(v) Factor scales may be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate
that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. This relationship is
typically measured through factor analysis method.
Important Scaling Techniques
We now take up some of the important scaling techniques often used in the context of research
specially in context of social or business research.
Rating scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a
thing or of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical scales), we judge an object
in absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects without reference
to other similar objects. These ratings may be in such forms as “like-dislike”, “above average, average,
below average”, or other classifications with more categories such as “like very much—like some
what—neutral—dislike somewhat—dislike very much”; “excellent—good—average—below
average—poor”, “always—often—occasionally—rarely—never”, and so on. There is no specific
rule whether to use a two-points scale, three-points scale or scale with still more points. In practice,
three to seven points scales are generally used for the simple reason that more points on a scale
provide an opportunity for greater sensitivity of measurement.
Rating scale may be either a graphic rating scale or an itemized rating scale.
(i) The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is commonly used in practice. Under it the
various points are usually put along the line to form a continuum and the rater indicates his
rating by simply making a mark (such as ü) at the appropriate point on a line that runs from
one extreme to the other. Scale-points with brief descriptions may be indicated along the
line, their function being to assist the rater in performing his job. The following is an example
of five-points graphic rating scale when we wish to ascertain people’s liking or disliking any
product:

Reliability vs validity: what’s the difference?

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well a method,
technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the
accuracy of a measure.

It’s important to consider reliability and validity when you are creating your research design, planning your
methods, and writing up your results, especially in quantitative research.

Reliability vs validity

Reliability Validity

The extent to which the results can be

The extent to which the results really measure
What does it tell you? reproduced when the research is repeated
what they are supposed to measure.
under the same conditions.
 Reliability vs validity

Reliability Validity

By checking the consistency of results across By checking how well the results correspond to
How is it assessed? time, across different observers, and across established theories and other measures of the
parts of the test itself. same concept.

How do they relate? A reliable measurement is not always valid: the A valid measurement is generally reliable: if a
results might be reproducible, but they’re not test produces accurate results, they should be
necessarily correct. reproducible.

Understanding reliability vs validity

Reliability and validity are closely related, but they mean different things. A measurement can be reliable
without being valid. However, if a measurement is valid, it is usually also reliable.

What is reliability?

Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the same result can be consistently
achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable.

You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times under identical conditions. The thermometer displays the
same temperature every time, so the results are reliable.

A doctor uses a symptom questionnaire to diagnose a patient with a long-term medical condition. Several different
doctors use the same questionnaire with the same patient but give different diagnoses. This indicates that the
questionnaire has low reliability as a measure of the condition.

What is validity?

Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If research has high
validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the
physical or social world.

High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a method is not reliable, it probably isn’t valid.

If the thermometer shows different temperatures each time, even though you have carefully controlled
conditions to ensure the sample’s temperature stays the same, the thermometer is probably malfunctioning, and
therefore its measurements are not valid.

If a symptom questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis when answered at different times and with different doctors,
this indicates that it has high validity as a measurement of the medical condition.

However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity. Even if a test is reliable, it may not accurately
reflect the real situation.

The thermometer that you used to test the sample gives reliable results. However, the thermometer has not been
calibrated properly, so the result is 2 degrees lower than the true value. Therefore, the measurement is not valid.

A group of participants take a test designed to measure working memory. The results are reliable, but participants’
scores correlate strongly with their level of reading comprehension. This indicates that the method might have low
validity: the test may be measuring participants’ reading comprehension instead of their working memory.
Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important. To obtain useful results, the methods
you use to collect your data must be valid: the research must be measuring what it claims to measure. This
ensures that your discussion of the data and the conclusions you draw are also valid.

How are reliability and validity assessed?

Reliability can be estimated by comparing different versions of the same measurement. Validity is harder to
assess, but it can be estimated by comparing the results to other relevant data or theory. Methods of estimating
reliability and validity are usually split up into different types.

Types of reliability

Different types of reliability can be estimated through various statistical methods.

Types of reliability

Type of reliability What does it assess? Example

A group of participants complete a

questionnaire designed to measure personality
The consistency of a measure across time: do
traits. If they repeat the questionnaire days,
Test-retest you get the same results when you repeat the
weeks or months apart and give the same
measurement?
answers, this indicates high test-retest
reliability.

Based on an assessment criteria checklist, five

The consistency of a measure across raters or
observers: do you get the same results when
Interrater
different people conduct the same
measurement?
examiners submit substantially different results
for the same student project. This indicates that
the assessment checklist has low inter-rater
reliability (for example, because the criteria are
too subjective).

You design a questionnaire to measure self-

The consistency of the measurement itself: do
you get the same results from different parts of
Internal consistency
a test that are designed to measure the same
thing?
esteem. If you randomly split the results into
two halves, there should be a strong correlation
between the two sets of results. If the two
results are very different, this indicates low
internal consistency.

Types of validity

The validity of a measurement can be estimated based on three main types of evidence. Each type can be
evaluated through expert judgement or statistical methods.

Types of validity

Type of validity What does it assess? Example

Construct The adherence of a measure to existing theory A self-esteem questionnaire could be assessed
and knowledge of the concept being by measuring other traits known or assumed to
measured. be related to the concept of self-esteem (such
as social skills and optimism). Strong correlation
between the scores for self-esteem and
associated traits would indicate high construct
 Types of validity

Type of validity What does it assess? Example

validity.

A test that aims to measure a class of students’

The extent to which the measurement covers
Content
all aspects of the concept being measured.
level of Spanish contains reading, writing and
speaking components, but no listening
component.  Experts agree that listening
comprehension is an essential aspect of
language ability, so the test lacks content
validity for measuring the overall level of ability
in Spanish.

A survey is conducted to measure the political

The extent to which the result of a measure opinions of voters in a region. If the results
Criterion corresponds to other valid measures of the accurately predict the later outcome of an
same concept. election in that region, this indicates that the
survey has high criterion validity.

ROLE AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a strategic plan that sets out the broad outline and key features of the work to be undertaken
in a research study. It describes how the research strategy addresses the specific aims and objectives of the
study, and whether the research issues are theoretical or policy-oriented. It helps the researcher organize a
research study following established guidelines, rules and procedures. Researchers who are heavily oriented
towards experiments, especially in the biological and physical sciences, tend to insist that the term should only
apply to experimental studies. But because of the rapid growth in the field, research today goes beyond
experimental studies to include many types of studies. The concept of ‘study design’ is now used in a broader
sense to refer to the overall conception of the study, including description of all concepts, variables and
categories, the relational propositions and the methods of data collection and analyses. It also shows how the
research strategy will address the specific aims and objectives of the study, and whether the research issues are
theoretical or policy-oriented. Study design should therefore refer to the process that the investigator will
follow from the inception to completion of the .

SAMPLING
Sampling is indispensable technique of behavioural research, the research work cannot be undertaken
without use of sampling. The study of the total population is not possible and it is also impracticable.
The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors which are usually operative in the situation, stand
in the way of studying the total population. The concept of sampling has been introduced with a view
to making the research findings economical and accurate.
The research design is based on the sampling of the study. A good research design provides
information concerning with the selection of the sample population treatments and controls to be
imposed.
Generalizability of the research findings is, of course, dependent upon the sampling procedures
followed. An ideally either a representative or random sample would be desirable to provide maximum
information about the generalizability of research data.
Sampling is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioural and social research. Bad
sampling vitiates the data at the source and no amount of subsequent statistical findings will improve its
quality. In fact sampling is the part of the strategy of research and has by now acquired the status of
technical job.
Characteristics of Probability Sampling
The following are the main characteristics of probability sampling:
1. In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as the population.
2. In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal probability to be taken
into the sample.
3. Probability sample may be representative of the population.
4. The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the inferential purpose.
5. Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable.
6. Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability sample.
7. There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability sample.
8. The probability is comprehensive. Representativeness refers to characteristic.
Comprehensiveness refers to size and area.
Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling: The following are the main characteristics of nonprobability
sample:
1. There is no idea of population in non-probability sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting any individual.
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are not used for generalization purpose.
5. Non-parametric or non-inferential statistics are used in non probability sample.
6. There is no risk for drawing conclusions from non-probability sample.

Sampling Design
1. Types or Techniques Probability Sampling: There are a number of techniques of taking
probability sample. But here only six important techniques have been discussed as follows:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or Double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.
2. Types of Non-probability Sample: There are the following four types of non-probability
sample:
(1) Incidental or accidental sample.
(2) Purposive sample.
(3) Quota sample.
(4) Judgement sample.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent
chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as
simple-random sample and this technique is simple random-sampling. Aandomization is a method and
is done by using a number of techniques as :
(a) Tossing a coin.
(b) Throwing a dice.
(c) Lottery method.
(d) Blind folded method.
(e) By using random table of ‘Tippett’s Table’.
Advantages
(a) It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
(b) It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
(c) It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
(d) The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
(a) The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method.
(b) This method does not use the knowledge about the population.
(c) The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method requires the
complete information about the population. There should be a list of informations of all the individuals
of the population in any systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample.
Let sample size = n
and population size = N
Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have the desired size of sample
which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this technique of sampling population should be
arranged in any systematic way.
Advantages
(a) This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
(b) It reduces the field cost.
(c) Inferential statistics may be used.
(d) Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
(e) Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
Disadvantages
(a) This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list by different individuals.
Knowledge of population is essential.
(b) Information of each individual is essential.
(c) This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
(d) There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
It is an improvement over the earlier method. When employing this technique, the researcher divides
his population in strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogeneous
groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that
characteristic or criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work.
Stratified sampling may be of three types:
1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.
Advantages
(a) It is (more precisely third way) a good representative of the population.
(b) It is an improvement over the earlier.
(c) It is an objective method of sampling.
(d) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
(a) Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide therelevant criterion for stratification.
(b) Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification.
(c) It is costly and time consuming method.
(d) Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the other.
(e) There is a risk in generalization.
4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling
Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings we discussed above.
This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double
sampling is sometimes used to obtain a ‘more representative sample. This is done
because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously,
the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the’ query differ in some
fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomena being studied. To eliminate this bias, a
second sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to
obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling.
This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from
the first sample. Thus, double sampling, wherein one sample is analysed, and information obtained is
used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further.
Advantages
(a) This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a number of observations.
(b) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
(c) This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample.
Disadvantages
(a) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small sample.
(b) This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition.
(c) Its planning and administration is more complicated.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling
This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of sampling
primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate
units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a population are usually available
within a group or population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The Individuals are
selected from different stages for constituting the multi-stage sampling.
Advantages
(a) It is a good representative of the population.
(b) Multi-stage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods.
(c) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
(d) The observations from multi-stage sample may be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
(a) It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.
(b) It involves errors when we consider the primary and secondary stages.
(c) It is again a subjective phenomenon.
6. Cluster Sampling
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a Cluster sampling. In Cluster sampling the sample
units contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual members or items in the population.
Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting 15 per cent of
these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at
random 15 per cent of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the
sample.
Advantages
(a) It may be a good representative of the population.
(b) It is an easy method.
(c) It is an economical method.
(d) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
(e) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
(a) Cluster sampling is not free from error.
(b) It is not comprehensive.
All these above are techniques of probability sampling.
7. Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability is also known as non-parametric sampling which ate used for certain purpose.
1. Incidental or Accidental Assignment
The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are most
frequently available, i.e. this refers to groups which are used as samples of a population because they
are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods.
Advantages
(a) It is very easy method of sampling.
(b) It is frequently used in behavioural sciences.
(c) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Disadvantages
(a) It is not a representative of the population.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) Parametric statistics cannot be used.
2. Judgement Sampling
This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information
thought. It is to be representative of the total population. Or the selection of a group by intuition on the
basis of criterion deemed to be self-evident. Generally investigator should take the judgement sample so
this sampling is highly risky.
Advantages
(a) Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling.
(b) This technique of sampling is also economical.
Disadvantages
(a) This technique is objective.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) It includes uncontrolled variation.
(d) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observations of this sampling, so generalization is
not possible.
3. Purposive Sampling
The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be
representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The Idea
is to pick out the sample in relation to some criterion, which are considered important for the particular
study. This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control of certain
specific variables.
Advantages
(a) Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.
(b) Better control of significant variables.
(c) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
(d) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Disadvantages
(a) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
(b) Knowledge of population is essential.
(c) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
(d) Inability to utilise the inferential parametric statistics.
(e) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
4. Quota Sampling
This combined both judgement sampling and probability sampling. The population is classified
into several categories: on the basis of judgement or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion
of population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and
the observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in
Municipal surveys.
Advantages
(a) It is an improvement over the judgement sampling.
(b) It is an easy sampling technique.
(c) It is most frequently used in social surveys.
Disadvantages
(a) It is not a representative sample.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.
Since research design is a plan by which research samples may be selected from a population and
under which experimental treatments are administered and controlled so that their effect upon the
sample may be measured. Therefore, a second step in the establishment of an experimental design is to
select the treatments that will be used to control sources of learning change in the sample subjects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE
The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate
of the universe.
2. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not permit prejudices the learning and preconception,
imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
3. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
5. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a sample is closely linked with
true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by
specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
6. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and money point of view.
7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The research tools can be administered
on them and data can be collected easily.
8. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate results. The probability of error
can be estimated.
9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
10. A good sample has the practicability for research situation.
Advantages of Sampling Technique according to R.A. Fisher
Fisher has enumerated the following four advantages of sampling technique:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. It has a greater precision and accuracy in the observation.
Advantages of Sampling Technique according to W.G. Cocharan. He has given the following four
advantages of sampling technique:
1. This technique has great accuracy.
2. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
3. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
4. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.
Types of Errors in Sampling
The samples of behavioural research are not representative and suffer from two types of errors:
(1) Random error, and (2) Systematic error.
These errors can be classified further as :
(a) Sampling errors and (b) Error of measurement.
Sampling Process
Sampling process consists of seven steps. They are:
1. Define the population.
2. Identify the sampling frame.
3. Specify the sampling unit.
4. Selection of sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specify sampling plan.
7. Selection of sample.
1. Define the Population: Population is defined in terms of:
(i) Elements
(ii) Sampling units
(iii) Extent
(iv) Time.
Example: If we are monitoring the sale of a new product recently introduced by a company, say (shampoo sachet)
the population will be:
(i) Element—Company’s product
(ii) Sampling unit—Retail outlet, super market
(iii) Extent—Hyderabad and Secunderabad
(iv) Time—April 10 to May 10, 2006
2. Identify the Sampling Frame: Sampling frame could be (a) Telephone Directory
(b) Localities of a city using the municipal corporation listing (c) Any other list consisting of all sampling units.
Example: You want to learn about scooter owners in a city. The RTO will be the frame, which provides you
names, addresses and the types of vehicles possessed.
3. Specify the Sampling Unit: Individuals who are to be contacted are the sampling units. If retailers are to be
contacted in a locality, they are the sampling units. Sampling unit may be husband or wife in a family. The
selection of sampling unit is very important. If interviews are to be held during office timings, when the heads of
families and other employed persons are away, interviewing would under- represent employed persons, and
over-represent elderly persons, housewives and the unemployed.
4. Selection of Sampling Method: This refers to whether (a) probability or (b) non- probability methods are used.
5. Determine the Sample Size: This means we need to decide “how many elements of the target population are to
be chosen?” The sample size depends upon the type of study that is being conducted. For example, if it is an
exploratory research, the sample size will be generally small. For conclusive research, such as descriptive
research, the sample size will be large. The sample size also depends upon the resources available with the
company. It depends on the accuracy required in the study and the permissible errors allowed.
6. Specify the Sampling Plan: A sampling plan should clearly specify the target population. Improper defining
 would lead to wrong data collection. Example: This means that, if a survey of a household is to be conducted, a
sampling plan should define a “household” i.e., “Does the household consist of husband or wife or both”,
minors, etc., “Who should be included or excluded.” Instructions to the interviewer should include “How he
should obtain a systematic sample of households, probability sampling non-probability sampling”. Advise him on
what he should do to the household, if no one is available.
7. Select the Sample: This is the final step in the sampling process.

Sample size determination

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a
statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make
inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is usually determined
based on the cost, time, or convenience of collecting the data, and the need for it to offer sufficient statistical
power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes: for example, in a stratified survey
there would be different sizes for each stratum. In a census, data is sought for an entire population, hence the
intended sample size is equal to the population. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into
different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each group.

determine the sample size using a sample calculation formula known as the Andrew Fisher’s Formula.

1. Determine the population size (if known).

2. Determine the confidence interval.
3. Determine the confidence level.
4. Determine the standard deviation (a standard deviation of 0.5 is a safe choice where the figure is unknown)
5. Convert the confidence level into a Z-Score.

 Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following
points:
(i) Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature. If
the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But if the
items are heteogenous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can be termed
as the dispersion factor.
(ii) Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be
formed, a large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give
a reasonable number of items in each class-group.
(iii) Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample should
be small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.
(iv) Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of the
sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly selected
sample.

(v) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of acuracy or
the level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample. For
doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance level, the sample size has to be increased
fourfold.
(vi) Availability of finance: In prctice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of money
available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while determining the
size of sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates.
(vii) Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire, availability
of trained investigators, the conditions under which the sample is being conducted, the time
available for completion of the study are a few other considerations to which a researcher
must pay attention while selecting the size of the sample.
There are two alternative approaches for determining the size of the sample. The first approach
is “to specify the precision of estimation desired and then to determine the sample size necessary to
insure it” and the second approach “uses Bayesian statistics to weigh the cost of additional information
against the expected value of the additional information.” 7 The first approach is capable of giving a
mathematical solution, and as such is a frequently used technique of determining ‘n’. The limitation
of this technique is that it does not analyse the cost of gathering information vis-a-vis the expected
value of information. The second approach is theoretically optimal, but it is seldom used because of
the difficulty involved in measuring the value of information. Hence, we shall mainly concentrate here on the first
approach.
 These methods also used for sample size determination:-
(a) Sample size when estimating a mean
(b) Sample size when estimating a percentage or proportion:
(i) Find the expected value of the sample information (EVSI) * for every possible n;
(ii) Also workout reasonably approximated cost of taking a sample of every possible n;
(iii) Compare the EVSI and the cost of the sample for every possible n. In other words,
workout the expected net gain (ENG) for every possible n as stated below:
For a given sample size (n):
(EVSI) – (Cost of sample) = (ENG)
(iv) Form (iii) above the optimal sample size, that value of n which maximises the difference
(a) between the EVSI and the cost of the sample, can be determined.

Definition of Sampling Error

Sampling Error denotes a statistical error arising out of a certain sample selected being unrepresentative of the
population of interest. In simple terms, it is an error which occurs when the sample selected does not contain the
true characteristics, qualities or figures of the whole population.

The main reason behind sampling error is that the sampler draws various sampling units from the same
population but, the units may have individual variances. Moreover, they can also arise out of defective sample
design, faulty demarcation of units, wrong choice of statistic, substitution of sampling unit done by the
enumerator for their convenience. Therefore, it is considered as the deviation between true mean value for the
original sample and the population.

There are two types of non-sampling error:

 Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by respondents, or their answer is
misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It consists of researcher error, respondent error and interviewer
error which are further classified as under.
o Researcher Error
 Surrogate Error
 Sampling Error
 Measurement Error
 Data Analysis Error
 Population Definition Error
o Respondent Error
 Inability Error
 Unwillingness Error
o Interviewer Error
 Questioning Error
 Recording Erro
 Respondent Selection Error
 Cheating Error
 Non-Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a part of the sample do not
respond.
Comparison Chart
Basis for Non-Sampling Error
Sampling Error
Comparison

Sampling error is a type of error, occurs due to the An error occurs due to sources other than
Meaning sample selected does not perfectly represents the sampling, while conducting survey activities is
population of interest. known as non sampling error.

Deviation between sample mean and population

Cause Deficiency and analysis of data
mean

Type Random Random or Non-random

Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census.

Sample size Possibility of error reduced with the increase in

It has nothing to do with the sample size.
sample size.
Data Collection

Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing accurate insights for research
using standard validated techniques. A researcher can evaluate their hypothesis on the basis of collected data. In
most cases, data collection is the primary and most important step for research, irrespective of the field of
research. The approach of data collection is different for different fields of study, depending on the required
information.

The most critical objective of data collection is ensuring that information-rich and reliable data is collected for
statistical analysis so that data-driven decisions can be made for research.

PRIMARY DATA
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data. Primary data has
not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not been
changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.
Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary
sources and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a
country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources. A research can be
conducted without secondary data but a research based on only secondary data is least reliable and
may have biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by human beings. One of such
sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and
biased.
Sources of Primary Data:
Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to
obtain data from primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation.
Following are some of the sources of primary data.
Experiments:
Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical study
to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies, nutrition and for
other scientific studies. In experiments the experimenter has to keep control over the influence of
any extraneous variable on the results.
Survey:
Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing and
psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
Questionnaire:
It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of
questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire
can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic mail
or through fax and other methods.
Interview:
Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the main
problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in depth
source of information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee speaks
Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page
205
Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir
but he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions to the questions too. This
enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.
Observations:
Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that s/he is being
observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural settings as well as in
artificially created environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data

The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).

If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.
Disadvantages of Using Primary Data
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-

deciding why, what, how, when to collect;

getting the data collected (personally or through others);

getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;

ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-

all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;

there is no fake/ cooked up data;

unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.
3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.
SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary
data. The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is collected by someone
else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for another purpose). For
examples, Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and earning.
Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational records and
data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research. Secondary data is
essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change
and/or developments.
Sources of Secondary Data:
The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –

Books

Records

Biographies

Newspapers

Published censuses or other statistical data

Data archives

Internet articles

Research articles by other researchers (journals)

Databases, etc.
Importance of Secondary Data:
Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there.
Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information from secondary
sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to
confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are
not willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is
on the psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may
not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books or
other published sources.
A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background
work needed has already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have
been carried out, published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media
promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized.
This wealth of background work means that
secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be
re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data.
Furthermore, secondary data can also be
helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which
the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any
research activity with a review of the secondary data.
Advantages of Using Secondary Data

No hassles of data collection.

It is less expensive.

The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and accuracy
of data go down.

Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable environmental
factor.

With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.

Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data a
special care is required to amend or modify for use.

Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.
Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research
study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have been selected.
These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for
the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for
statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys
in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. As a type of
survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and
wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.
Types: A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate
variables, and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index.
Questionnaires within the former category are commonly part of surveys, whereas questionnaires in
the latter category are commonly part of tests.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are -

Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations
of the population of interest.

Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers.

Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.

Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.

Do not make assumptions about the respondent.

Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels.

Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and
potatoes?).

Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.
Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -

Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally.

Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper.

Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer.

Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on
the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items
optimized for the testee’s estimated ability or trait.
Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in which questions are
presented. Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should
be put at the end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking
questions that might embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine questions,
such as age, gender, and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Double-barreled questions,
which ask two questions in one, should never be used in a survey. An example of a double barreled
question is, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement - ‘I feel
good about my work on the job, and I get along well with others at work’. This question is
problematic because survey respondents are asked to give one response for two questions.
Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases.
Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are -

Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period
of time and in a relatively cost effective way.

Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its
validity and reliability.

The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a
researcher or through the use of a software package.

Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.

When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may
be used to measure change.

Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test
existing hypotheses.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -

To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior,
feelings etc.

Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the
researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation.

There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.

There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.

The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.

People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else,
therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -

To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior,
feelings etc.

Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the
researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation.

There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.

There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.

The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.

People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else,
therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged.

Main Considerations in Designing a Questionnaire

Once the decision has been made to use a particular format, the following questions should be considered before
designing the questionnaire:

 What exactly do we want to measure according to the objectives formulated and the variables identified?
 To whom will we ask questions?
 Will the respondent willingly answer this question, as asked?
 Are the respondents mainly illiterate?
 Are ethical issues involved in this question?
 How large is the sample that will be interviewed?

WHAT IS A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE?

A good questionnaire should be valid, reliable, clear, interesting and succinct.

Valid

A valid questionnaire should ask what it intends to ask, i.e. the questions should be phrased in such a way that
the respondent understands the objective of the question. To achieve this, the questionnaire should be reviewed
by the “content expert” during the pilot test (e.g. if the target respondent is a diabetic patient, then a diabetic
patient should comment whether he understands the questionnaire). Any uncertainties and queries should be
clarified till the question is clearly understood.

Reliable

A reliable questionnaire should yield the same answer if the same question is posed to the respondent repeatedly
in a short span of time. This can be achieved by performing a “test-retest”, i.e. administer the same
questionnaire to the respondent a second time and check for consistency of the answer. Any discrepancy in the
answers could be due to lack of clarity of the questions and this should be reviewed and rephrased.

Interesting

An interesting questionnaire is more likely to be completed by the respondent and hence yields a better response
rate. This requires the researcher to put some thoughts into asking questions that are relevant to the respondent
and in a logical sequence.
Succinct

A succinct questionnaire asks questions that aim to answer only the research objectives. Any questions beyond
the scope of the research should be excluded. It is common for researchers to “cast the net wider” so that they
will collect more data, regardless of whether these data are important or not. This usually happens when the
researcher has not properly thought through the research objectives. It runs the risk of asking too many
questions and the questionnaire runs into many pages.

research interview

A research interview is useful for researchers to gather information on a certain topic. You may interview a
group of people, and you'll have a range of choices to ask specific questions. Research interviews allow an
interviewee to elaborate on their responses to render a clear context to you.

A research interview is typically a two-person interview conducted to increase knowledge on a given topic for
an organization. Your company may select you to interview people in search of the best possible answers to
inform you and your team in ways to improve the company. For instance, you may interview a group of people
and compare their results in hopes of confirming results shown by market research.

(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the
interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the
form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct
personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.
This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may not be
possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive
scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used. In such cases an
indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the
information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government
to carry on investigations make use of this method.
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve

the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of recording.

Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and weaknesses of personal
interviews can be enumerated in a general way. The chief merits of the interview method are as
follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not
possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be

held.

(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous
reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the
person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important weaknesses,
mention may be made of the following:
(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample
is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and recalls
upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes
even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising
the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free

and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents
on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these may be
highlighted.
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to
exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.

6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.

Direct observation

Direct observation, also known as observational study, is a method of collecting evaluative information in
which the evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment without altering that environment.
Direct observation is used when other data collection procedures, such as surveys, questionnaires, etc., are not
effective; when the goal is to evaluate an ongoing behavior process, event, or situation; or when there are
physical outcomes that can be readily seen.

Why choose direct observation to collect data?

Direct observation is the collection of information using your senses. By observing, you can document activities, behavior, and
physical aspects of a situation without having to depend on peoples’ willingness or ability to respond accurately to questions.
Observation is useful when:
(1) You are trying to understand an ongoing process or behavior, or an unfolding situation or event.
(2) There is physical evidence, or products or outcomes that can be seen.
(3) Written or other data collection methods seem inappropriate.

Observation can occur in public situations, such as observing peoples’ participation in a training or documenting how people use a
community garden. Observation can also occur in more private settings like observing a patient visit in a clinic.

Direct observation can be overt, when the subject and individuals in the environment know the purpose of the
observation, or covert, when the subject and individuals in the environment are unaware of the purpose of the
observation.

Online research
Online research is a research method that involves the collection of information from the internet. With the
advent of the internet, the traditional pen-and-paper research techniques have taken a backseat and made room
for online research.

Online survey research is much more impactful than the traditional means, considering the ease of access and
cost savings they come with. The response rates received for online research are much higher than the others as
the respondents are assured that their identity will be protected.

There’s a constant progress in the field of online survey research with the progress that’s happening in the field
of internet and social media. Social media has been a catalyst in the entire process of online research in terms of
the access to the database and the experiments that can be conducted on this platform.

Online surveys, polls, questionnaires, forms, focus groups, are various tools of online research that are vital in
gathering information essential for market research. The internet has created amazing avenues for small and
large businesses for conducting market research with zero to minimum investment. Online research can be
carried out for product testing, the targeting of an audience, database mining, customer satisfaction et al.

Online Research Advantages:

 Access to data across the globe: Internet is an elaborate platform for researchers to invest their time in
retrieving crucial information that would otherwise consume a lot of their time. It is very easy for them to
conduct research even if they’re lazing on their couch and have a deadline coming up.   
 Minimum investment of time and resources: The online mediums have become the numero uno resort for
individuals to look up for information to broaden their horizon of knowledge. There’s information being updated
day in and day out and researchers latch onto this information for their benefits. It has eased the process of
publishing and collecting information and thus, saves a lot of time and money.  
 Central pool of facts and figures: Researchers and statisticians keep searching for updated information on
various important topics, students search the internet for academic purposes and this is the greatest edge the
internet offers.
 Capable tool for collecting information: Surveys, questionnaires, and polls are being conducted via online
mediums like emails or QR codes or embedded on the website etc. to gather or spread vital information.
Field Research

Field Research is a method of collecting qualitative data with the aim to understand, observe, and interact with
people in their natural setting. It requires specialized market research tools. The goal is to understand how a
subject behaves in a specific setting to identify how different variables in this setting may be interacting with
the subject. Field research is used most in the field of social science, such as anthropology and health care
professions, as in these fields it is vital to create a bridge between theory and practice.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful
information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis is to extract useful information from
data and taking the decision based upon the data analysis.

A simple example of Data analysis is whenever we take any decision in our day-to-day life is by thinking about
what happened last time or what will happen by choosing that particular decision. This is nothing but analyzing
our past or future and making decisions based on it. For that, we gather memories of our past or dreams of our
future. So that is nothing but data analysis. Now same thing analyst does for business purposes, is called Data
Analysis.

PRESENTATION OF DATA
The presentation of data is an important aspect of analysing of data. The purpose of presentation of
data is to highlight the results and to make data or results more illustrative. The visual presentation of
data or results is simple and easy to understand. The graphical and pictorial presentation provide the
geometrical image of data. It enables us to comprehend the essential features of the frequency distribution.
It also helps in observing the assumptions of the statistical analysis applied for the treatment of data.

The presentation of data serves the following functions

1. Visual or pictorial presentation of data

2. Makes the data to comprehend easily
3. Helps in understanding the nature of the distribution of data
4. The assumptions of statistical analysis can also be observed.
Generally the following types graphical presentation are attempted in behavioural researches:
(a) Bar diagrams and Histogram
(b) Graphical presentation
(c) Polygons and curve or Cumulative frequency curve

(d) Pie diagrams.

Data Preparation Steps for Analytics

The data preparation pipeline consists of the following steps

1. Access the data.

2. Ingest (or fetch) the data.
3. Cleanse the data.
4. Format the data.
5. Combine the data.
6. And finally, analyze the data.

Parametric Tests
The parametric tests are the tests of the most powerful type and should be used if their basic assumptions
are based upon the nature of the population values and the way that sample have been selected:
1. The observations are independent. The selection of one case is in no way dependent upon
the selection of any other case,
2. The population values are normally distributed or, if not, the nature of their distribution is
known.
3. The population values have equal variances or the ratio of their variances is known.
4. The variables measured are expressed in interval or ratio scales. Nominal or ordinal do not
qualify.
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
Non-parametric, or distribution free tests are used when the nature of the population distribution is not
known or when the data are expressed as nominal or ordinal measures. The variables in a non-parametric
Analysis of Data 239
tests are usually presented in rank order or discrete values. Discrete data could represent such
classifications as high, medium or low, urban or rural or male or female, counting number in each
category.
Non-parametric Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences Sidney Siegel
There are many types of non-parametric tests which are most frequently used in the educational research studies.

Definition of Parametric and Nonparametric Test

Parametric Test Definition

In Statistics, a parametric test is a kind of the hypothesis test which gives generalizations for generating records
regarding the mean of the primary/original population. The t-test is carried out based on the students t-statistic,
which is often used in that value.

The t-statistic test holds on the underlying hypothesis which includes the normal distribution of a variable. In
this case, the mean is known, or it is considered to be known. For finding the sample from the population,
population variance is identified. It is hypothesized that the variables of concern in the population are estimated
on an interval scale.

Non-Parametric Test Definition

The non-parametric test does not require any population distribution, which is meant by distinct parameters. It is
also a kind of hypothesis test, which is not based on the underlying hypothesis. In the case of the non-
parametric test, the test is based on the differences in the median. So, this kind of test is also called a
distribution-free test. The test variables are determined on the nominal or ordinal level. If the independent
variables are non-metric, the non-parametric test is usually performed.

What is the Difference Between Parametric And Non-parametric?

The key differences between nonparametric and parametric tests are listed below based on certain parameters or
properties.

Properties Parametric Non-parametric

Assumptions Yes No

central tendency Value Mean value Median value

Correlation Pearson Spearman

Probabilistic distribution Normal Arbitrary

Population knowledge Requires Does not require

Used for Interval data Nominal data

Applicability Variables Attributes & Variables

Examples z-test, t-test, etc. Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of patterns and themes in textual
data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand. ... Likely to change
and adapt as the study evolves and the data emerges.
Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of patterns and themes in textual
data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand.

It is important to note that qualitative data analysis is an ongoing, fluid, and cyclical process that happens
throughout the data collection stage of your evaluation project and carries over to the data entry and analysis
stages. Although the steps listed below are somewhat sequential they do not always (and sometimes should not)
happen in isolation of each other.

As you move between and within the steps of analysis it is important to always keep some guiding questions in
mind that will help you reflect back on the study’s purpose, research questions, and potential.

Qualitative data analysis requires a 5-step process:

1. Prepare and organize your data.

Print out your transcripts, gather your notes, documents, or other materials. Mark the source, any demographics
you may have collected, or any other information that will help you analyze your data.

2. Review and explore the data.

This will require you to read your data, probably several times, to get a sense of what it contains. You may want
to keep notes about your thoughts, ideas, or any questions you have.

3. Create initial codes.

Use highlighters, notes in the margins, sticky pads, concept maps, or anything else that helps you to connect
with your data. See the attached document that demonstrates how one might highlight key words and phrases as
well as make notes in the margins to categorize the data:

4. Review those codes and revise or combine into themes.

Identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.

5. Present themes in a cohesive manner.

Consider your audience, the purpose of the study, and what content should be included to best tell the story of
your data.

Research Proposal

A research proposal deals with problem or topic that is to be investigated. It has a variety of
formats which vary in their length. Writing a research proposal or synopsis includes an introductory
section: problem hypotheses objectives, assumptions, method of study tools, justification and implications
of the study. It is written in present or future tense. It covers four to ten pages. It is submitted for the
final approval before starting the actual research work. The preparation of research proposal is significant
in the development and pursuit of a research project. It is planning phase of a research work which is

produced in the written form to judge its worth.

A research proposal or research synopsis or an outline of proposed works required by many universities
and institutions, serves as a useful basis for the evaluation of a project as well as a guide line for the
researcher. The synopsis contains a clear and concise statement of the problem, the hypothesis involved,
a recognition of the significance of the problem, definitions of the important terms, assumptions and
limitations, a resume of related literature, an analysis of proposed research producers, and a time
schedule. This proposal or synopsis is placed before the research degree committee to examine its
worth. The final approval is given by this committee at university level. It is like a blue print of research
project.
The preparation of a research proposal or synopsis is an important step in the research process.
A worthwhile research work is likely to result only from a well-prepared and well-designed proposal or
research synopsis. A research proposal includes. the following essential parts:
1. The Problem and statement of the problem.
2. The Review of literature or theoretical framework of the study.
3. The Hypotheses and objectives.
4. The Methodology and procedure of the study.
5. Educational implications or significance of the problem.
6. Definitions, assumptions and delimitations.
7. A tentative structure of the report.
8. Bibliography.
1. The Statement of the Problem
This attempt to focus on a stated goal gives direction to the research process. It must be limited enough
in scope to make a definite conclusion possible. A problem suggests a specific answer or conclusion.
The statement of the problem should be written in specific clear-cut words.
2. The Review of Related Literature
A brief summary of previous research should be given so that the researcher and reader may be
familiar with what is already known and with what is still unknown and untested. The effective research
is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate replication of what has been done and
provides useful basis for the formulation of hypotheses and deciding the methodology of the study. A
review of related literature should conclude with a comment of area of agreement and disagreement in findings.
3. The Hypotheses
A scientific study is based on hypotheses. It may be appropriate here to formulate a major hypotheses
and several hypotheses. This approach clearly establishes the nature of the problem and the logic
underlying the investigation. The hypothesis indicates the expected outcomes the investigation. The
formulation of the hypotheses in advance of the data- gathering process is necessary for an unbiased
investigation. The hypotheses should be first stated in positive or substantive form.
In every investigation hypotheses can not be formulated but objectives of the study can be
written to indicate the direction of the research work.
4. Methodology and Procedure of the Study
This part of the proposal outlines the entire research plan. Under this part of the synopsis method,
sample, population, tools and statistical analysis techniques are described in view of testing the formulated
hypotheses. It describes just what must be done, how it will be done, what data will be needed, what
data-gathering devices will be employed, how sources of data will be selected, and how the data will be
analysed and conclusions be drawn.
5. Educational Implication or the Significance of the Problem
It is important part of research synopsis in which research points out the answer to the question or the
solution to the problem may influence educational theory or practice. The implication of the finding of
the study helps to give the project an urgency, justifying its worth. Social Studies Research study must
have its implication to educational practices.
6. Definitions, Assumptions and Limitations
The statement of the problem or topic of the study includes some terms. These terms or variables
should be defined clearly. At this stage operational definitions of terms are usually given in research
proposal so that statement of the problem must convey the specific meaning. The variables of the
study should be defined clearly and unambiguously in operational terms.
A study involves several variables which play different roles in the investigation. The role of the
variable depends on the assumptions of the study. The sample of the study will be representative of the
population. The assumptions of the study vary study to study.
The feasibility of an investigation depends on the delimitations of the study. A study is delimited to
its variables, sample, method, tools and statistical techniques of the study. These delimitations should
be clearly mentioned in the synopsis of the study.
7. Structure of the Report
A tentative structure of the report is also written. It includes the list of chapters which will be included
in the report of the thesis. These may be: Introductory or a theoretical framework. Review of literature,
Methodology and procedure of the study. Data collection and Analysis of data, conclusions of the
study.
8. Bibliography
The last part of the proposal provides the list of references in the form of bibliography which includes
books of research, or conceptual framework, hand-books encyclopaedia, journals and unpublished and
published thesis on the related area of the study.
DESIGN FORMAT FOR A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Title
I. Problem Statement and its clarifying components.
(A) Statement of the problem.
(B) Clarification of the problem statement:
1. Definitions.
2. Delimitations.
3. Assumptions.
4. Theory base.
II. Group Components for Operation
(A) Hypothesis/Question design.
(B) Sample population-sample or group at hand design:
1. Population delineated, delimited and defined.
2. Sample delineated, delimited and defined.
3. Group at hand delineated, delimited and defined.
(C) Observation Design:
1. Data (evidences) Collection
2. Instrumentation:
(a) Questionnaire.
(b) Schedule.
(c) Sources
(d) Standard measures.
(D) Statistical Designs:
1. Descriptive statistical design
2. Inferential statistics for generalization design.
3. Statistical randomization procedures for control design.
4. Computer assistance design.
(E) Organizational Design.
III. Significance and Review Sections:
(A) Significance of the objectives of the Inquiry.
(B) Review of the Related Literature and Research Reports.

Basic Components 1. Title 2. Abstract 3. Introduction 7. Methodology 8. Plan for Analysis of Results Sreeraj S R 3.
Introduction 4. Review of Literature 5. Aims 6. Objectives 7. Questions and/ or hypotheses 9. Bibliographic References
10. Gantt chart/Timetable 11. Budget 12. Annexes

Purpose of the Research Proposal

1. To inform the reader of nature of your proposed research. What is the problem? What is its extent?

2. To convince the reader of the value of your proposed research. Is this project worth the time and money? Will
it make a difference to the world?
3. To demonstrate your expertise and competency in a particular area of study. Do you have the qualifications to
conduct this research? Have you informed yourself of the existing theory and data relevant to your topic? Do
you have the necessary skills to conduct the research?

4. To plan the research project and provide a step-by- step guide to the tasks necessary for its completion.

Evaluation criteria for Research Proposal

The following factors will be taken into consideration when evaluating proposals:

 Does the proposal adequately contextualise the proposed project?

 Does the proposal address a topic that is relevant to the theme of this year's round?
 Does the proposal clearly outline the aims of the project?
 Does the proposal offer a clearly stated rationale for the study?
 Does the proposal clearly outline the methodology (design, participants, instruments, procedures)?
 Are the details of the methodology sufficiently well defined to allow for a meaningful judgment on
their value?
 Is the methodology likely to be feasible (e.g. number of participants, accessibility of participants etc.).
 Are the research questions clearly stated?
 Is the assistance required likely to be reasonable and deliverable?
 Have the authors considered ethical approval?
 Is there a detailed budget breakdown provided?
 Does the budget represent good value for money?
 Does the project offer a noteworthy contribution to the validation of Aptis?
 Does the project offer a unique contribution to validation methodology?
 Is the project likely to result in a paper of publishable (web or book chapter) quality?
 Is the project likely to add value to Aptis? 

Research Report

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic
investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is
typically considered as an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights
findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide
you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a
research report. 

 It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
 It is written in a formal language.
 A research report is usually written in the third person.
 It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
 It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
 It always includes recommendations for future actions. 
Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on 2 things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

 Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research. It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a
qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an
opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative
research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the
research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

 Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative
research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find
answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and
findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works
with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

 Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research.
This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals
with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research
process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and
filled with jargon. 

Examples of a technical research report include legal and medical research reports. 

 Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any
knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations.
Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

 Knowledge Transfer

As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of
knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively
communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
  Identification of Knowledge Gaps

With a research report, you'd be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows
what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 

 In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a
glance. 
 A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
 It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the
findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders
look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would
help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which
allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure of a Research Report

 Title

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives,
and findings of a research report. 

 Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

 Abstract

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method,
data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that
presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research
abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

 Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem
which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to
indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of
the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are
contained in the research.  

 Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the
section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your
systematic investigation. 
It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has
sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the
existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

 An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects.
Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and
analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you'd need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other
quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to
describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

 Findings

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

 Discussion

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a
justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research
studies have come up with similar results.

 Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

 References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

 Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a
detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss
out on anything. 

 Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you're writing for a
general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized
audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

 Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In
your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

 Include Illustrations
Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie
charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

 Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a
clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the
title. 

 Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you
can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing
software. 

Report Format:

. First Part (Formality Part):

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(i) Cover page

(ii) Title page

(iii) Certificate or statement

(iv) Index (brief contents)

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(v) Table of contents (detailed index)

(vi) Acknowledgement

(vii) List of tables and figures used

(viii) Preface/forwarding/introduction

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(ix) Summary report

II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):

(i) Statement of objectives

(ii) Methodology and research design

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(iii) Types of data and its sources

(iv) Sampling decisions

(v) Data collection methods

(vi) Data collection tools

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(vii) Fieldwork

(viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, etc.)

(ix) Findings

(x) Limitations

(xi) Conclusions and recommendations

(xii) Any other relevant detail

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III. Appendix (Additional Details):

(i) Copies of forms used

(ii) Tables not included in findings

(iii) A copy of questionnaire

(iv) Detail of sampling and rate of response

(v) Statement of expenses

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(vi) Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other reports

(vii) Any other relevant information

What is Citation?
A “citation” is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another source. It also
gives your readers the information necessary to find the location details of that source on the reference or Works
Cited page.

A citation must include a set of parentheses. Without a set of parenthesis, one does not have a proper in-text citation
and can risk being charged with plagiarism.

In the citation, the author cites or refer to the source in the text to represent that the information is derived from
an external source and to mention that source, in brief. Basically, it is an abbreviated reference, which you can
find in the main body of the article or assignment, addressing the source of a quote, image, video, paraphrase,
chart, table, etc. Due to this very reason, it is also called as “in-text citation”, which includes a set of
parenthesis.

Simply put, it is a short notation, within the intellectual work, which points out to a complete notation, at the
end of the page, providing full details of the source i.e. all the authors or publications which have been cited, are
to be mentioned in the list of references.

Citation is like a credit to the author, editor or publisher, for their work and to help the readers in consulting the
same source when they want more information in this regard. While citing the source of information in the
document, you indicate the last name of author and year of publication.

Why should you cite sources?

 To give credit to the source authors
 To help your audience/reader find out more about your research/arguments/ideas/topic
 To strengthen your work be providing outside support to your ideas
 To keep you from failing a paper, a course or being sued in the real world

Doesn’t citing sources make my work seem less original?

No. Citing sources actually helps your reader distinguish your ideas from those of your sources. This will actually
emphasize the originality of your own work.
Doesn’t having too many citations make my paper look weird?
No, it does not make your paper look weird. It makes your paper accurate. You must cite anything quoted OR
paraphrased. It is okay to have a lot of citations.
When do I need to cite?
 When you use words, thoughts, ideas, etc. of someone else
 When you direct quote
 When you paraphrase
 When you use or reference an idea or thought that has already been expressed
 When you make any reference to another source
 When another’s ideas, words or thoughts have influenced your writing and research

When in doubt, cite! It is better to cite too much than not enough or not at all. The only thing you do not need to cite
is your opinion; however, be sure that it is, indeed, truly your opinion.

Referencing
Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and researchers in your work. Any
university assignments that draw on the ideas, words or research of other writers must contain citations.

Referencing is also a way to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words and ideas. By
citing the work of a particular scholar, you acknowledge and respect the intellectual property rights of that
researcher. As a student or academic, you can draw on any of the millions of ideas, insights and arguments
published by other writers, many of whom have spent years researching and writing. All you need to do is
acknowledge their contribution to your assignment.

Referencing is a way to provide evidence to support the assertions and claims in your own assignments. By
citing experts in your field, you are showing your marker that you are aware of the field in which you are
operating. Your citations map the space of your discipline and allow you to navigate your way through your
chosen field of study, in the same way that sailors steer by the stars.

References should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the sources of information you have used.
The best way to make sure you reference accurately is to keep a record of all the sources you used when reading
and researching for an assignment.

Why reference?

Referencing correctly:

 helps you to avoid plagiarism by making it clear which ideas are your own and which are someone else’s
 shows your understanding of the topic
 gives supporting evidence for your ideas, arguments and opinions
 allows others to identify the sources you have used.

When to reference

Whenever you use an idea from someone else's work, for example from a journal article, textbook or website,
you should cite the original author to make it clear where that idea came from. This is the case regardless of
whether you have paraphrased, summarised or directly quoted their work. This is a key part of good practice in
academic writing.

Comparison Chart
Basis for
Citation Reference
Comparison

Citation is a way of disclosing within the main body, Reference is a list which contains all the sources
Meaning that the quote, image, chart, statistics, etc. are taken which have been sought or cited while writing the
from an outside source. article or assignment.

It informs the readers, the basic source of It informs the reader, the complete source of
Use
information. information.

Purpose To indicate the source of the material taken. To support or criticize an argument or point.

Placement Presented in the bracket. Presented as endnote or end of the document.

It contains information like publication year and last It contains information like publication date, title
Information
name of the author. of book/journal, author's name, page number.