MA 210

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Definitions of Research

 A scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes collection, presentation,

analysis, and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.
 A continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.
 A systematic study or investigation of something for the purposes of answering question
posed by the researcher.
 The process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in
a scientific manner.

What are the characteristics of research?

The following are the characteristics of research:

 Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
The collection of the data relies on practical experience without benefit of the
scientific knowledge or theory
 Logical. Research is always based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific
investigation is done in an orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on
the results.
 Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
 Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or case study.
 Replicable. The research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
 Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

What are the criteria of a good research?

Good research can be thought of as that which uses the scientific method. Emory
and Cooper (1993) suggest that good research should meet the following tests:

1. The problem and the purpose of the research should be clear and specific.
The objectives of the research or statement of the research problem should be clear and
specific. It should include analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations, and
precise specifications of the meanings of all words significant to the research.

2. The procedures used should be detailed to permit another researcher to repeat the
research.

The methodology of the research should be explained in detail.. It should reveal with
candor the sources of data and the means by which they were obtained.
 3. The research designs should be well planned to yield objective results.
A detailed proposal should be done to explain very well the procedures of research
design to be used, sampling techniques to indicate representativeness of the sample. Direct
observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event. Efforts
should be made to minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data

4. The researcher should be honest to report problems encountered in the use of the
design and its effect upon the findings.
A researcher should be honest enough to indicate the problems he encountered regarding
the choice of his research design and its effects on his findings.

5. Use of appropriate statistical tool is important to yield significance on the study.

The role of a statistician should not be overlooked to provide the appropriate
statistical tool to be used. The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully.
The data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher to reach pertinent
conclusions. When statistical methods are used, the probability of error should be
estimated and the criteria of statistical significance applied.

6 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
Researchers should not draw conclusions beyond the findings of his study. Personal
experiences and opinions should not be part of the conclusions..

Why is research important to man?

Research has become indispensable to man. The improvement that research has
done to people since the beginning is tremendous. Research is important for the following
reasons:
1. Research improves the quality of life. Researchers search for modern techniques to
improve the quality of life of the people. Research may be done along developing of
technologies to improve production to improve the income of the people.

2. Research improves instruction. In order to improve instruction, research should be

done. The output of research should be used in instruction. Several innovations,
methods or strategies have been tried through research to improve instruction.
Combinations of methods and strategies had already been tested

3. Research reduces the burden of work. Many works today has been reduced due to
the advancement in science and technology.

4. Research improves the quality of food products. Through research, the quality of
food products has improved.
What are the requirements of a good research?

A good research requires the following:

A. Systematic- a research proceeds through a series of steps and stages. It follows a logical
flow which must be understood by the researcher.
B. Accurate - a research emphasizes the importance of correspondence between what you
say, you have observed and what has actually occurred.
C. Precise- a research aims at estimating the exact amount of the event that has occurred
or may yet to occur.
Statistics is useful if you quantify the incidence of the event being observed.
Quantitative method is used if the researcher is interested in characterizing the event.
D. Record- observations must be recorded. It is necessary to document observations with
the aid of instruments like questionnaires, tape recorders for interviews.
E. Objective- one’s observations must not be influenced by personal preferences,
prejudices, biases, attitudes and feelings. Scientific research is undertaken through an
assessment of what is rather than what ought to be. Subjective influences may take
place especially when dealing with human behavior.
F. Controlled conditions- refer to aspiring, to eliminate other factors or variables that
might intrude into the observation of the major factors variables to be investigated.
Documentation ensures that other researchers of interested parties will be able to
check the validity of the method applied for a particular investigation and the quality of
the results obtained.

What Are The Major Steps In Research?

The steps in conducting research are:

1. Identification of Research Problem-Formulation of Research Problem and
Objectives
2. Development of the Theoretical Framework
3. Designing the Research Methodology
4. Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation of data
5. Presentation of Conclusions and recommendations
6. Taking Course of Action

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

How is a research problem formulated?

Problem formulation appears to be the most difficult aspect in doing research. In
fact many students and even teachers hate doing research because identifying problem is
very difficult. Not all questions are researchable and not all research questions are
answerable.
Edralin (2002) suggests that a student researcher may use the following as source of
problems or problem areas:
1. Literature. Before one can identify his problem, he should first read literature.
Literatures include books, journals, theses, dissertations, monographs, and similar
published and unpublished research publications. One has to read the
recommendations of previous studies or researches.
2. Professionals. Professionals in the business or such as managers and employees from
government agencies or even in the firms and other departments in the business sector
may be consulted to give problems.
3. Academicians. Teachers from higher education institutions are some of the most
reliable sources of problems. They may not be in the business but research in higher
education institutions is being strengthened. State colleges and universities are
mandated to do research. Professors of SUC s are required to do research, hence they
are experienced.
4. Conferences / Fora / Symposia. The issues and prospects which are being discussed by
leaders, mangers and other researchers pertaining to business can provide topics or
areas which are worth conducting.
5. Funding Agencies. Funding agencies provide their list of priority programs and projects.
If problems are anchored along their priorities for funding, chances are the proposals
submitted will be funded.

What are the considerations in selecting a problem?

1. Newness of Topic. Topic should be relatively new or has not been done before.
2. Availability of Data. Needed data, primary or secondary, can be acquired to answer the
problem
3. Time constraint. Research goal are achievable within the given timeframe.
4. Availability of Resources. Access to funds, facilities, computer technology, and human
resources exist for one to undertaken the study.
5. Significance of Topic. Research findings could comprise a valuable contribution to the
field.
6. Availability of Literature. Literatures are available to serve as basis in constructing
especially the methodology.
7. Timeliness of the research. Research problems formulated should answer he existing
problem.

2.1 Formulation of the Research Problem and Objectives

In formulating the problem statement, the following criteria should be considered:

1. The research problem is written in question form.
2. The research problem identifies a specific area.
3. It indicates a specific area
4. Topic is phrased in workable team
5. The scope is limited
6. The words used are unbiased
7. The topic is phrased in workable and manageable terms.
8. The scope is limited to realistic parameters that are not too narrow not too broad
9. The words used are unbiased, objective, and not emotion-laden.
10. The relationship between variables to be studied is clearly cited.
 11. The phrases and wordings are measurable and can be empirically proven.
12. The research problem identified the data and techniques needed to answer the
questions.
13. The research problem is stated clearly in grammatical terms

2.1.1 Formulation of Research Objectives

In some research, instead of statement of the problem, objectives are given.
The general objective is presented first followed by the specific objectives. Research
objectives are presented to what are to be attained in the study.
Given this nature, research objectives provide a detailed definition and
delimitation of the research problem. Moreover, objectives give particular and
specific reference to the question posed at the introduction by formulating
subordinate items that need to be investigated in order to answer the question.

Objectives should meet the following criteria:

1. Specific. The objective of the study is definite to a particular area.

2. Manageable. The study can be controlled.
3. Attainable .The objective of the study is doable.
4. Realistic. The study looks into available resources and is practical.
5. Time bound. The study should have duration

2.2 Review of Related Literature

The survey of related literature involves the comprehensive documentation of
published and unpublished materials relevant to the research problem.
The review of literature is primarily done by going through secondary sources in
various libraries and/or accessing the data through the computer.
In undertaking an adequate related literature survey, researches may follow these
guidelines:

1. Identify the relevant data sources. Data may be obtained from published and
unpublished works available in libraries and offices. One may refer to indexes or
catalogues that compile lists of journals, periodicals, books, articles, magazines,
newspaper, and monographs. Researchers should be able to access libraries in websites,
for collections that are relevant to the topic under review.
2. Develop a systematic procedure and note-taking skill in collecting literature survey
data. Researchers will always be faced with the problem of wanting to gather as much
information as possible within a period of time. In this case, familiarity with the location of
the materials in the library and possessing computer skills in accessing and downloading
database information will be helpful. One should start with the latest (preferably the last
10 years) bibliographies published locally and internationally. When going through the
material, the researcher should first read the abstract or executive summary, before going
through the entire text, to know if the work is relevant to one’s proposed study.
3. Write a concise review of related literature. The review of related literature should never
be an enumeration of annotated bibliography. Data should be presented by topic or
variable based on the objectives of the study. Information should not be too detailed or
 too brief to present the study overview. Text should be written in the past tense, citing
author and date of publication

2.4 Significance of the Study

One of the primary considerations in undertaking research is the immediate or long-

term benefit accruing to the end-user. It is, therefore, vital that the researcher is able to
cogently articulate the value of the investigation to various individuals, groups, or sectors.
Study-derived benefits may accrue to all or any of the following:

2.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The statement of the research problem requires a detailed explanation of the study’s
parameters and limitations. The section on scope and limitation should indicate study
coverage with concrete reference to (1) variables, (2) source of data, (3) method(s) to be
employed in data collection and analysis, (4) timeframe, and (5) constraints that might be
encountered in the conduct of investigation, such as non-availability of data,
uncooperativeness of respondents, inability of respondents to recall accurate responses,
and confidentiality of some relevant information.

FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a supposition of an occurrence of an event that can be tested. It is an
educated guess which can be proven empirical. One advantage of hypothesis is that it
enables researcher to formulate a provisional explanation of outcome that can serve as a
guide in the investigation. One good source of hypothesis is the results of previous
investigations on the same line of topic to be studied.

Two types of hypothesis:

1. Null hypothesis expresses a no relationship or no difference between two variables, or an
assertion that is it hoped to be rejected.
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha). This hypothesis expresses that there is a relationship or a
difference between two variables or the conjecture to be accepted.
The statement of the hypothesis is usually written in the null form (Ho).. Statistically, it
is the null hypothesis that is tested or proven. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the
alternative hypothesis is accepted.

The Variable

A variable is defined as a quantity or a “characteristic that has two or more mutually

exclusive values of properties.” Numerical values or categories represent these quantities or
characteristics.

Types of Variable
There are five types of variables. These are the (1) independent variable, (2)
dependent variable, (3) moderate variable, (4) control variable, and (5) interning variable.
1. Independent variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the
researcher to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon.
2. Dependent variable. This is the response variable which is observed and
measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.
3. Moderate variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent
variable chosen by the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship
between the independent and dependent Variables.
4. Control variable. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the
effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.
5. Intervening variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent
and dependent variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken the
independent and dependent variables.

Components of the Research Process

 The Research Process involves several stages. The order of the stages should be
followed, particularly by the beginner in research, because the succeeding stage is
defined or determined by the preceding stage.
 Basically the research process begins with the identification of the research problem.
 With an identified research problem, the researcher reviews literature which are
related to the problem to familiarize himself with the concepts, procedures and
findings which have bearings on his problem and to help him in formulating the
refining his research objectives, hypothesis, framework and procedures.
 Then formulate the objectives or goal of the study.
 Using the study objectives as bases, he formulates hypothesis if the study so
requires.
 He formulates assumption on which to anchor his study.
 Then adopts or constructs a theoretical or conceptual framework or paradigm,
bearing in mind the nature of the problem and the objectives of the study.
 The next task is for him to decide which research design is most appropriate to
study.
 This is followed by the collection of data with the use of strategy and instrument
which befit the nature of the problem and in consideration of the target population
and respondents and the resources involved.
 Having collected the needed data, the researcher then proceed to processing the
data, either manually or with the used of machine, from their raw form to that which
facilities and expedites analyses.
 He then moves on to analyzing and interpreting the results which are usually
statistics presented in tabular form.
 Finally, he writes the research report remembering to remain faithful to the process
undergone and to be objective in reporting what the data tell and imply.

Figure 1: Presents the schematic diagram of the research process.

Problem Identification

Review of Related Literature

Objective Formulation

Formulation of Hypotheses and Assumption

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Construction

Research Design Selection

Data Collection

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

Analysis and Interpretation

Report Writing
Validity, Reliability and Usability of Research Instrument

The qualities of a good research instrument are:

1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Usability

Validity
It is the degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.
The validity of a measuring instrument:
 Soundness
 Effectiveness
 Application
Kinds of validity

1. Content Validity
It is the extent to which the content is truly representative of the content of the
course.
2. Concurrent Validity
It is the degree in which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an
acceptable measure.
3. Predictive Validity
This is determined by showing how well predictions are made from the test are
confirmed by the valid information gathered.
4. Construct Validity
It is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
Examples are intelligence and mechanical aptitude tests

Reliability

It is the extent to which a test is dependable, self-consistent and stable.

Methods of estimating the Reliability of Good Research Instrument
1. Test-retest Method
The same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of
subjects and the correlation coefficient is determined.
2. Parallel-forms Method
Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of
subjects, and the paired observations correlated.
“In estimating reliability by the administration of parallel or equivalent forms of a
test criteria parallelism is required.”
3. Split-half Method
It is administered once, but the test items are divided into two halves. The common
procedure is to divide a test into odd and even items.
4. Internal-consistency Method
It is used with psychological tests which consist of dichotomously scored items. The
examinee either passes or fails in an item. A rating of 1 is assigned for a pass and 0 for a
failure.
 Usability

It is the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used by teachers,
researchers, supervisors and school managers without undue expenditure of time, money,
and effort.
It can also mean practicability.

Factors that determine Usability

1. Ease of administration
2. Ease of scoring
3. Ease of interpretation and application
4. Low cost
5. Proper mechanical make-up

What are the methods of data collection?

 Primary data collection- it involves the gathering of data from the respondents
through the use of different techniques such as survey, observation, tests and
scales and experimentation.

 Secondary data collection – it involves the acquisition of data from second hand
sources like census reports, financial statements, annual reports, brochures,
catalogues and other documents and reports.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Analysis of data and interpretation of results are difficult tasks for the researcher,
especially if he is not expert in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to answer the
research problems/objectives.
Analysis should be done first before interpretation. An analysis is useless without
interpretation while interpretation is impossible without analysis. In analyzing the data,
statistical techniques are used to give meaning to the data gathered from the subjects. A set
of raw data per se is meaningless but has meaning once it is interpreted. For instance, a
correlation value of 0.95is meaningful only if it is verbally interpreted as having a high
relationship. Generally speaking, analyzing and interpreting the raw data should go hand in
order to give meaningful results. Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning of
the research findings.

WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

1. PREPARING
- Identify the purpose/ the aims of the research question
- Identify the audience – lecturer/ supervisor/ contemporary/ organization
management/ staff. The amount of the background included will vary
depending on the knowledge of the “audience”.
2. COLLECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
There are two main sources of information depending on the research task:
1. Reading – theory and other research
2. Research – experiments, data collection – questionnaires, surveys,
observation, interviews.
Organize and collect the information in a logical order. Make sure you record
the bibliographic information of your reading as you go along.

3. PLANNING
Before writing the report, prepare a detailed plan in outline form. Consider the
ffg.
a. Logical organization – information in a report must be organized logically.
Communicate the main ideas followed by supporting details and examples.
Start with the more important or significant information and move on to
the least important information.
b. Headings – use headings and suitable sub headings to clearly show the
different sections. In longer reports, the sections should be numbered.

4. WRITING THE REPORT

1. Draft the report from your detailed plan.
2. Do not worry too much about the final form and language, but rather on
presenting the ideas coherently and logically.
3. Redraft and edit. Check that sections contain the required information and
use suitable headings, check ideas flow in a logical order and remove any
unnecessary information.
4. Write in an academic style and tone.
- Use a formal objective style
- Generally avoid personal pronouns; however, some reports based on
your field experience or work placement can be reflective, the first
person can be used. For example, “I observed”.