HANDOUT 1

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
1. Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that uses a standardized
approach in answering questions or solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004).
2. Research plays an important role in tertiary education. Though many problems are
confronted by higher education, research realizes developments. After all, its main
purpose is to answer a question or to solve an issue (Palispis, 2004).
3. Research is a continuous undertaking of making known the unknown (Sanchez, 2002).
It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, methods,
or improvements. It is an attempt to widen one’s outlook in life. It always proceeds
from the known to the unknown. Thus, the end of research is to arrive at a new truth.
4. Research is an investigation following ordered steps leading to a discovery of new
information or concepts (Sanchez, 1999).
5. Research is a very careful investigation of something that purports the contribution of
additional or new knowledge and wisdom (Bassey, as cited by Coleman & Briggs, 2002).
6. Research is a tested approach of thinking and employing validated instruments and
steps to obtain an adequate solution to a problem that is otherwise impossible to
address under ordinary means (Crawford, as cited by Alcantara & Espina, 1995).

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. The research should be systematic. There is a system to follow in conducting research,
as there is a system for formulating each of its parts. There is a big system (macro) and
under it are small systems (micro). In research writing, what is referred to as the
“system” is composed of the chapters and their elements.
2. The research should be objective. Research involves the objective process of analyzing
phenomena of importance to any profession or to different fields or disciplines
(Nieswiadomy, 2005).
3. The research should be feasible. Any problem of extraordinary nature that directly or
indirectly affects any profession is a feasible problem to study.
4. The research should be empirical. There should be supporting pieces of evidence and
accompanying details for every variable used in the study.
5. The research should be clear. The choice of variables used in the study should be
explained by the researcher. This can be done by enriching the review of literature or
by discussing the different theories on which the selection of the variables is based.

Research paradigm is an outline that guides the researcher in conceptualizing and

conducting the research.

Research foundations refer to the fundamental components of research, such as the

research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed, and the conceptual
framework to be applied.
Research problem requires describing the undesirable situations related to the problem
and the needed knowledge or information in order to solve that problem.

Research questions may be either framed in a quantitative (how much, how often, to what
extent) or qualitative (what, why, how) manner.

Conceptual framework is an outline or paradigm that presents the topics to be studied,

the various variables and contexts, and how these relate to or influence each other.

Research methodology describes how the researcher will answer the research questions
in a credible manner. Research methods are employed to address the research purpose and
gain new information and insights to answer the problem. The research methodology
includes literature review, research approach and design, data collection, methods of
analysis, and conclusions.

Review of literature analyzes the existing knowledge regarding the research topic. It
identifies gaps in information that may be addressed by the research. It is also an
important basis of the conceptual framework of the study.

Research approach and design identifies what is the best means to collect and analyze
data in the study. The design is used to clarify and improve the research problem, purpose,
and questions.

Data collection gives the methods to determine who will be the participants in the study,
how the variables will be measured, and how data will be documented and collected.

Data analysis consists of the strategies and methods that makes sense of the data to
answer the research problem and questions.

ROLES OF THE RESEARCHER

According to Nieswiadomy (2005), the researcher serves different roles in a study. These
are as follows:
1. As principal investigator
2. As member of a research team
3. As identifier of researchable problems
4. As evaluator of research findings
5. As user of research findings
6. As patient or client advocate during study
7. As subject/respondent/participant

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
As such, following are the importance of research:
1. Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field or
discipline. This is important since an entire system or operation and all the
stakeholders of an institution or organization are at stake. Without scientific basis,
someone may be affected or may suffer.
2. Research is undertaken for the continuous development and further productivity in
any field. Any system that will be utilized in any organization must first be tried to
determine its value and it must be better than the previous system used.
3. Research helps develop tools for assessing effectiveness of any practice and
operation, such as psychological tests, intelligence quotient tests, psychological
assessments, among others.
4. Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered
in the different areas of work.
5. Research impacts decision-making. It is a common mistake for people to make
decisions without solid information to back them up. It requires time, effort, and
sometimes money to gather the evidence needed for making a sound decision.
6. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects
of any discipline. This enables the students to gain broad knowledge and specialized
skills for safe practice.
7. Research aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications of a
practitioner.

GOALS FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH

1. To produce evidence-based practice.
2. To establish credibility in the profession. A profession is defined by the body of
knowledge and discipline it employs. In line with this, research is essential for a
profession in producing new procedures, programs, and practices.
3. To observe accountability for the profession. Every action conducted by a
professional must have a rationale. There are principles that justify why a nurse has to
wash his or her hands regularly, why a teacher has to prepare a lesson plan, why a
manager needs to plan ahead, why a businessman needs to conduct feasibility studies,
and many more.
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation. The findings of research must
be shared with and utilized by the individuals, group, and community for which the
study is intended. They are useless if these results are not made known publicly.
Anybody who is in the same condition as the subject/s of the study may also utilize the
findings, thus saving on expenses for doing the same research again.

GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH

1. Scientific research is a research method that seeks to explain naturally occurring
phenomena in the natural world by generating credible theories. It is a systematic
process that involves formulating hypotheses, testing predictions using relevant data
and other scientific methods, and finally coming up with a theory. As such, this study
requires rational and statistical evidence to draw conclusions.
2. Research in the humanities seeks to define the purpose of human existence by
tapping into historical facts and future possibilities. While studies on natural and social
sciences required hard evidence to draw conclusions, this form of research derive
explanations from human experiences that cannot be simply measured by facts and
figures alone.
3. Artistic research provides alternative approaches to established concepts by
conducting practical methods as substitutes for fundamental and theoretical ones. The
 main purpose of this form of research is to expound on the current accepted concepts
and open them to further interpretation. As such, the word “artistic” does not solely
refer to the arts but rather to the kind of approach a researcher assumes in this type of
research. This research generates new knowledge through artistic practices such as
defining new concepts, creating new processes, and devising new methods.

RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design enables the researcher to organize the components of his or her
research in an orderly and coherent manner. This will ensure that the research or study
effectively addresses the research topic or problem. The research design is also a data
collection, measurement, and analysis template. The research problem determines the
research design used in the study.

Having a well-developed research design will enable the researcher to achieve the
following:
1. Clearly identify and describe the research problem or topic and justify the selection of
the appropriate design to be used.
2. Review and synthesize previous studies and literature related to the topic.
3. Clearly identify hypotheses that are significant to the problem.
4. Determine the data necessary to test the hypotheses and explain how the data will be
obtained.
5. Describe the methods of analysis that will be used on the data gathered to evaluate the
hypotheses of the study.

Examples of research designs

1. Action research. This research design follows a cyclical process. Action research is
pragmatic and solution-driven; any information gathered is used to identify and
implement a solution to the problem. This design is appropriate for community-based
situations. It requires the researcher to directly relate with his or her subjects and the
community.
2. Causal design. This research explores how a specific change impacts a certain situation.
This research design employs hypotheses to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables. Essentially, this research design seeks to determine whether
“variable X caused Y.”
3. Descriptive design. This design answers who, what, when, where, and how questions
related to a research problem. This design obtains information about the present
situation to understand a certain phenomenon.
4. Experimental design. In this design, the researcher controls the factors and variables
related to a certain phenomenon and tries to change or manipulate one or several
factors to determine the possible effects.
5. Exploratory design. This research focuses on topics or problems which have yet to
have had or no studies done about them. This design aims to gain information and
insight that can be used for later research. This design is often used to determine which
method or approach to use for a certain topic or problem.
6. Cohort design. This research identifies a group of people sharing common
characteristics who are then studied for a period of time. The researcher seeks to
 identify how these groups are affected by certain factors or changes and relates the
information gathered to the research topic or problem.
7. Cross-sectional design. This research design looks into a large group of people
composed of individuals with varied characteristics. The researcher seeks to determine
how these individuals are affected by a certain variable or change and gathers data at a
specific period of time.
8. Longitudinal design. This research follows a group of people over a long period of time.
Throughout the period of study, observations are made on the group to track changes
over time and identify factors that may have caused them. This design also explores
causal relationships over time and determines how long these relationships last and the
extent of their effects on the group being studied.
9. Sequential design. This research is carried out in stages to gather sufficient data to test
the hypothesis. This design is often combined with a cohort or cross-sectional study as
it identifies specific groups for each stage. At the end of each stage, the data is collected
and evaluated. If there is insufficient data, the researcher then proceeds to the next
stage with a new group of subjects.
10. Mixed-method design. This research combines aspects of various research designs and
methods. It primarily combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to gain a
complete picture of the research problem and gather data that will fully determine the
validity of the hypotheses.

Note: The above presented information were directly taken from the reference book. No
copyright infringement is intended.

Reference:
Cristobal, A. P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017) Enhanced Teacher’s Manual Practical
Research 1 for Senior High School. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City

Other Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study.
5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using
systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
 HANDOUT 2
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research
- is defined as “the traditional positivist scientific method which refers to a general set of
orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information.”
- It utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions tested in the real world.
- It is systematic since the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps
according to a prespecified plan of action.
- Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is within the realm of the
senses.
- The method used in the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature, and the resulting
information from the study is usually quantitative or measurable. Furthermore,
another criterion used in assessing the data in this kind of study is its capability to
generalize the effect of the results to individuals outside of the study participants.

Qualitative research
- is defined as the “naturalistic method of inquiry of research which deals with the issue
of human complexity by exploring it directly.” Unlike quantitative research, qualitative
research emphasizes human complexity and man’s ability to decide and create his or
her own experience.
- This type of research utilizes naturalistic methods of inquiry as the research places
great emphasis on the analysis of the experiences of the individual.
- This type of research attempts to explain the human experience with its dynamic,
holistic, and individualistic aspects through the individual's perspective. This type
makes use of qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective.
- Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an
individual’s perception and interpretation of events.
- This type of research collects data through interviews and participative observation.

COMPARISON BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitive Qualitative
Aims to characterize trends and patterns.
Usually starts with neither a theory nor
hypothesis about the relationship between two
or
more variables
Uses structured research instruments like
questionnaires or schedules
Uses large sample sizes that are representatives
of
the population
Has high output replicability
Used to gain a greater understanding of group
similarities
Involves processes, feelings, and motives (the
why’s and the how’s) and produces in-depth and
holistic data.
Usually concerned with generating hypothesis
from data rather than testing a hypothesis
Uses either unstructured or semi-structured
instruments
Uses small sample sizes chosen purposely
Has high validity
Used to gain greater understanding of individual
differences in terms of feelings, motives and

Uses structured processes
Methods include census, survey, experiments,
and
secondary analysis
There is one concrete reality that is governed by
unchanging natural laws that can explain any
given phenomenon.
There is one true reality regardless of context.
A phenomenon can be understood by studying its
component parts
The researcher is an objective observer.
Conditions must be carefully controlled to
prevent
unwanted influences.
experiences
Uses more flexible processes
Methods include field research, case study, and
secondary analysis
Reality is socially and experientially constructed,
resulting in multiple realities of a phenomenon.
Reality is context-specific.
A phenomenon can be understood only when
studied as a whole
The researcher is part of the context and
intrinsically linked to the findings.
Concerns of bias are not part because the
researcher is transparent about this

Category Quantitative Qualitative

Question Domains Who, what, when, where
Common Sample Size 150 to 200+ (based on the
computed sample size)
Contact Time 10 to 20 minutes
Validity Must be true of most of the data
or nomothetic (law- oriented)
Variables Defines relationships and
establish general case
Outliers Unique positions lost to the
weight of the average
Examples Surveys, numerical counts,
statistical analyses,
mathematical modeling
How, what, why
10 to 15
45 to 240 minutes each
Must be true of each case or
ideographc (case-oriented)
Describes relationships and
establishes meaning structures
and contexts
Valuable descriptive cases with
unique access to average cases
Interviews, literature content
reviews, real world
observations, case studies,
ethnographies

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Qualitative research is conducted in a systematic and rigorous way. However, it is more
flexible than quantitative research.
2. It usually follows an iterative process, which means that data collection and analysis
occur simultaneously. Data already collected are updated by the ongoing data
collection.
3. It focuses on gathering information from people who can provide the richest insights
into the phenomenon or interest. As a result, small samples are commonly used in
qualitative research.
Study participants are usually selected in a purposive manner, using only those for
whom the topic under study is relevant.
4. Collection of data is continuous until saturation, or when it reaches the point where no
new information is revealed with respect to the key themes emerging from the data.
5. Qualitative data collection examines everyday life in its natural context or in an
uncontrolled naturalistic setting.

VALUE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative data provides context and meaning. Qualitative research can complete the
picture by delving into the why and the how. If quantitative research represents the
skeleton, the qualitative research represents the flesh. It can explore narrowly defined
issues in greater depth, explaining the setting in which behavior can take place. It gives the
complete picture of the issue being studied. The value of qualitative study comes from its
focus on the lived experience of the participants, which enabled development of a greater
understanding concerning the outcomes that are important, relevant, and meaningful to
the people involved.

COMMON TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Phenomenological study. This type of research seeks to find the essence or structure
of an experience by explaining how complex meanings are built out of simple units of
inner experience. It examines human experiences (lived experiences) through the
descriptions provided by subjects or respondents. The goal of this study is to describe
the meaning that experiences hold for each subject. Some of the areas of concern for
these studies are humanness, self-determination, uniqueness, wholeness, and
individualism.
2. Ethnographic study. This study involves the collection and analysis of data about
cultural groups or minorities. In this type of research, the researcher immerses with
the people and becomes a part of their culture. He or she becomes involved in the
everyday activities of the subjects and gets to empathize with the cultural groups
experiencing issues and problems in their everyday lives. During the immersion
process, the researcher talks to the key persons and personalities called key
informants who provide important information for the study. The main purpose of this
study is the development of cultural theories.
3. Historical study. This study is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation,
and synthesis of data from past events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from
the past, but it also involves relating their implications to the present and future time.

Some sources of data for a historical study are as follows:

a. Documents – printed materials that can be found in libraries, archives, or personal
collections
b. Relics and artifacts – physical remains or objects from a certain historical period
c. Oral reports – information that is passed on by word of mouth

The data sources are classified as follows:

a. Primary sources – materials providing first-hand information, e.g., oral histories,
written records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures, videos, and other physical
evidence
b. Secondary sources – second-hand information such as an account based on an
original source, or a material written as an abstract of the original materials
The validity of materials used in the study are assessed through the following processes:
a. Internal criticism. This involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the
materials by looking at the consistency of information. Motives and possible biases
of the author must be considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the
materials.
b. External criticism. This is based on the analysis of the material: the ink and the
type of paper used, the layout and physical appearance, and as well as the age and
texture of the material itself.

4. Case study. It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an

institution. Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-known problem,
provide background data for broader studies, and explain socio-psychological and
socio-cultural processes. A case study also involves a comprehensive and extensive
examination of a particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time. It
provides information on where to draw conclusions about the impact of
a significant event in a person’s life.
5. Grounded theory study. The method involves comparing collected units of data
against oneanother until categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations
between these categories and properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and
suggestive, and are not tested in the study.
6. Narrative analysis. The main sources of data for this type of research are the life
accounts of individuals based on their personal experiences. The purpose of the study
is to extract meaningful context from these experiences.

The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:

a. Psychological – This involves analyzing the story in terms of internal thoughts and
motivations. It also analyzes the written text or spoken words for its component
parts or patterns.
b. Biographical – This takes the individual’s society and factors like gender and class
into account.
c. Discourse analysis – This studies the approach in which language is used in text
and contexts.
7. Critical qualitative research. This type of research seeks to bring about change and
empower individuals by describing and critiquing the social, cultural, and
psychological perspectives on present-day contexts. As such, it ultimately challenges
the current norm, especially on power distributions, building upon the initial appraisal
of the said present day perspectives.
8. Postmodern research. As opposed to the traditional forms of qualitative analysis, the
approach of this type of research seeks to analyze the facts that have been established
as truths, the ability of research and science to discover truth, and all generalizations
and typologies.

The following are the three “crises” as a result of the questioning performed:
a. Whether the experience of another can be captured or whether it is created by the
researcher
b. Whether any study can be viewed as valid if traditional methodologies are flawed
 c. Whether it is possible to institute any real change

9. Basic interpretative qualitative study. This is used when a researcher is interested in

identifying how individuals give meaning to a situation or phenomenon. It uses an
inductive strategy which is a process of analyzing patterns or common themes to
produce a descriptive account that summarizes and analyzes the literature that defined
the study.

STRENGTHS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. The study requires a few cases or participants. Data collected are based on the
participants’ own categories of meaning.
2. It is useful for describing complex phenomena.
3. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
4. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided or redirected by
the researcher in real time.
5. Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects or topic are often missed by
more positivistic inquiries.
6. It provides individual case information.
7. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be conducted.
8. It provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of
phenomena (i.e., the emic or insider’s viewpoint).
9. It can describe in detail the phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local
contexts.
10. The researcher usually identifies contextual and setting factors as they relate to the
phenomenon of
interest.
11. The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e., documenting sequential patterns and
change).
12. The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory to
inductively generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon.
13. It can determine how participants interpret constructs (e.g., self-esteem and IQ).
14. Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research.
15. Qualitative approaches are especially responsive to local situations, conditions, and
stakeholders’
needs.
16. Qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves to
exploring how and why particular phenomena occur.
17. You can use an important case to vividly demonstrate a phenomenon to the readers.
18. It can determine idiographic causation (i.e., determination of causes of a particular
event).

WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. The knowledge produced might not be applicable to other people or other settings (i.e.,
findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the research study).
2. Inflexibility is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
3. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research within
the scientific community.
4. The researcher’s presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in
qualitative research, can affect the subjects’ responses.
5. Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting
findings.
6. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
7. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools.
8. It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of
programs.
9. It generally takes more time to collect the data compared to quantitative research.
10. Data analysis is often time-consuming.
11. The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and
idiosyncrasies.

Note: The above presented information were directly taken from the reference book. No
copyright infringement is intended.

Reference:
Cristobal, A. P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017) Enhanced Teacher’s Manual Practical
Research 1 for
Senior High School. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City
 HANDOUT 3
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH as per Resnik (2007)

1. Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility. It also fosters values
that are essential to collaborative work. Research often involves a great deal of
cooperation
2. and coordination among people in different fields or disciplines. The important values
include trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
3. Many of the ethical norms ensure that researchers are held accountable to the public.
4. Adherence to ethical principles helps build public support for research. People are
more likely to fund research studies that promote a variety of important moral and
social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and health
and safety.

ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH

1. Honesty. All communications must maintain this (e.g., when reporting data, results, and
procedures). Data should never be fabricated, falsified, or misrepresented.
2. Objectivity. Biases should be avoided in experimental design, data analysis,
interpretation, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
3. Integrity. Consistency of thought and action is the foundation of the credibility of any
research work. Promises and agreements should be kept, and all actions should be
made with a sincere purpose.
4. Care. Careless errors and negligence should be avoided. Your work and the works of
your peers should be critically examined. Records of research activities should be kept
in good order and condition.
5. Openness. The researcher should be open to criticism and new ideas. Research data,
results, ideas, and resources should also be shared with the public.
6. Respect for intellectual property. Proper acknowledgment should be given to all authors
cited and sources used in your research. Patents and copyrights should be recognized.
Any unpublished data, methods, or results should not be used without permission.
Credit should be given where it is due.
7. Confidentiality. Confidential communications or documents should be protected.
8. Responsible publication. The study should be done with the purpose of advancing
research and scholarship. The wasteful and duplicate publications should be avoided.
9. Responsible mentoring. The research should seek to educate, mentor, and advise
students.
10. Respect for colleagues. All peers should be treated fairly.
11. Social responsibility. Social good should be promoted, and social harm should be
avoided.
12. Non-discrimination. All those eligible to participate in research should be allowed to do
so.
13. Competence. Professional competence and expertise should be maintained and
improved with the research.
14. Legality. A researcher should know and obey relevant laws and institutional and
government policies.
15. Human subject protection. Harms and risks to human lives should be minimized.
Human dignity, privacy, and autonomy should be among the primary considerations of
the research.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

1. Voluntary participation. Any person should not be coerced to participate in any
research undertaking.
2. Informed consent. Prospective research participants must be fully informed about the
procedures and risks involved in the research. Their consent to participate must be
secured.
3. Risk of harm. Participants should be protected from physical, financial, or psychological
harm. The principle of non-maleficence states that it is the researcher’s duty to avoid,
prevent, or minimize harm to the participants of the study.
4. Confidentiality. Participants must be assured that their identity and other personal
information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the
study.
5. Anonymity. The participants must remain anonymous throughout the study, even to the
researchers themselves.

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WRITING

The following reminders must be taken into consideration for ethical research writing
(Logan University, 2016):
1. Findings should be reported with complete honesty.
2. Intentional misinterpretation, misinformation, and misleading claims must be avoided.
3. Appropriate credit should be given when using other people’s work.
4. Plagiarism should be avoided by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others.

Plagiarism and Intellectual Property

Plagiarism refers to the act of using another person’s ideas, words, processes, and results
without giving due credit.

The following are considered acts of plagiarism:

1. Claiming authorship of work or creation done by another person
2. Copying an entire written work or a portion of it – including words, sentences, and
ideas – without acknowledging the author
3. Failing to put quotation marks to distinguish a quotation taken directly from a source
4. Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
5. Merely changing the words but retaining the sentence structure so that the selection or
quotes still bears a resemblance to the original source
6. Using so many words and ideas from the original source that it makes up a large
portion of your work, even if you acknowledge the original author
Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions; literary and artistic works;
and symbols, names, and images used in commerce.

Two categories of Intellectual Property:

1. Industrial property, which includes patents, trademarks, and industrial designs; and
2. Copyright includes published works such as literary works, textbooks, reference books,
and other artistic works such as creative design, film, music, radio broadcasts, and
performance art.

Tips to avoid plagiarism:

1. Sufficient time should be allotted for writing.
2. Hard copies of all the relevant references should be collected.
3. All references should be read carefully, and their important parts should be
highlighted.
4. Sufficient attribution should be placed when using the ideas of others.
5. Lines with factual details are to be referenced.
6. The appropriateness of inserting references should be determined.
7. Written permission should be acquired for text and figures copied from other sources.
8. All the text should be paraphrased—written by the author in his or her own language.
9. Copying and pasting text from sources while writing should be avoided. If one needs to
improve at typing, he or she can request assistance from a typist.
10. Before submitting an article, all files, figures, and references should be prepared in
accordance with the prescribed standards.

Fair Use
The law, however, recognizes certain situations where the use of copyrighted content is
acceptable and constitutes “fair use” of intellectual property.

The Intellectual Property Code identifies the following as acceptable use of intellectual
property:
1. Use of works in the public domain. An intellectual property is considered to be in the
public domain once the rights of the author have lapsed after a period defined by law
(50 years after the death of the author)
2. Use of a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, classroom
use, scholarship and research, and other similar purposes
3. Reproduction of works as part of reports on current news which is broadcast to the
public
4. Use of works and material from the government and its various branches, departments,
and offices provided that permission for use is acquired.

KEY TAKEAWAYS:
1. Ethics in research promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and credibility; helps
ensure the researcher’s accountability; and builds public support for the study.
2. Some ethical codes are honesty, care, confidentiality, objectivity, openness, respect for
intellectual property, and responsible mentoring.
3. Participants in research have the right to voluntary participation, informed consent,
 freedom from risk of harm, confidentiality, and anonymity.
4. For writing to be considered ethical, the writing should be clear, accurate, fair, and
honest.
5. The purposes of the literature review are to assess the body of the literature, to
synthesize
6. previous works, and to locate gaps.
7. The following are reminders for ethical writing: honesty with professional colleagues,
8. protection from harm, and right to privacy.
9. Plagiarism is the claiming of other works as one’s own work.
10. The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines, or R.A. 8293, contains provisions
regarding published works and copyright ownership.
11. Some tips to avoid plagiarism are to collect hard copies of all the relevant references,
read all the references carefully and highlight important areas, and place sufficient
attribution while using the ideas of others.

Reference:
Cristobal, A. P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017) Enhanced Teacher’s Manual Practical Research 1 for
Senior High School. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City
 HANDOUT 4
ETHICS IN RESEARCH

RESEARCH TITLE
A research title prefaces the study by providing a summary of the main idea and is usually
short and concise. Writing it may seem to be a simple task, but it requires more
consideration on the researcher's part.

A research title should have the following characteristics:

1. It should summarize the main idea of the paper.
2. It should be a concise statement of the main topic.
3. It should include the major variables of the research study.
4. It should be self-explanatory.
5. It should describe or imply the participants of the study.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research problem states the area of concern of the research paper, whether it is a
circumstance needing development, a difficulty requiring attention, or an inquiry
necessitating an answer. This section sets the direction of the research study as it provides
the foundation for the research hypothesis and defines what kind of research study is
suitable to address the problem. However, it is important to note that this section should
only state the problem rather than preface it or suggest a solution for it.

Sources of Research Problems

1. It conveys a feeling of discomfort or difficulty.
2. It has a perceived difficulty in broad subjects such as family affairs, home
management, and leadership system.
3. It displays a gap between theory and practice: what is said by the elders and what the
students see and observes.
4. It utilizes a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment.
5. It involves the experience of any kind of individual.
6. It shows some kind of pattern or trend.
7. It makes use of literature reviews, continuous readings, and past studies. These
readings
8. can lead a student to a topic and its scope and clues for further studies. The repetition
of a prior research study in a different setting and time is called replication.
9. It relates to an individual’s curiosity and interest.

Criteria to be met to be considered a problem researchable:

1. Solutions are available but not yet tested and not yet known by the practitioner.
2. No solutions are available to answer the gap or the problem being assessed.
3. When the given answers or solutions, as well as the possible results, are seemingly
untested or factually contradictory.
4. A phenomenon requiring an explanation has occurred.
5. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence of an
undesirable condition.

CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. External Criteria
a. Novelty – This refers to the practical value of the problem due to its “newness” in
the field of inquiry.
b. The availability of subjects refers to the people with the desired capability and
willingness to participate in the study. The sample of the study participants must
be representative enough to ensure the reliability and validity of the results.
c. Support of the academic community – This refers to the assistance given by the
institution's members, like the principal, teachers, staff, students, and parents, in
gathering data and defraying the cost of the study. Permission of those concerned
for participation in the study of staff members, children, the aged, and the mentally
challenged should be secured.
d. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – Devices such as computers
and telephones used in undertaking the study must be considered.
e. Ethical considerations include avoiding research problems that pose unethical
demands on the part of the research participants.
2. Internal Criteria
a. Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher – These constitute the
researcher’s knowledge and expertise as a result of experience and study.
b. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher –
These are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in
completing research tasks.
c. Time factor – This considers the fact that studies must be pursued within a given
time frame.
d. Costs and returns – These factors matter in choosing a research problem. Research
is an expensive undertaking. After all, the amount of funding needed depends on
the size of the sample, the place where the research is to be conducted, the
treatment of data, and the kind of research design.
e. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps depend on the researcher’s physical and
intellectual capacity and moral judgment.

Researchers should also be aware of the following factors in determining their research
problem and topic:
1. The feasibility of the research study is a very important consideration in choosing the
problem. The time needed to conduct the study must be measured, and its setting
should be defined and located. The researcher must have ready access to the relevant
materials to study subjects. The entire cost of the study must be estimated—the travel
expenses when meeting with the respondents, purchase costs of the instruments to
be used, and expenses incurred in encoding the results.
2. External support is also an essential element to look into when determining whether
research is feasible or not. Is the teacher or adviser present when conflicts arise in
the conduct of research? Are experts in the field accommodating? Do they lend a hand
when requested for technical assistance in finishing the paper? These questions are
 also important concerns to be addressed.
3. The innovative quality of the topic should still be considered. A review of literature
and studies ensures that solutions are yet to be proposed for the problem, thus
showing the need to conduct the study.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. The research title should summarize the main idea and include the major variables
and the study participants.
2. The potential sources of problems in research can stem from circumstances that
convey a feeling of discomfort; have perceived difficulty; displays a gap between
theory and practice; involves experiences of oneself; shows some kind of pattern or
trend; makes use of a literature review; and involves a personal curiosity or interest.
2. The chosen topic or problem in research must pass different external and internal
criteria.
4. The external criteria include novelty, availability of subjects, support of the academic
community, availability and adequacy of resources, and ethical considerations.
5. The internal criteria consist of the researcher's experience, training, qualifications,
motivation, interest and curiosity, time factor, and cost and returns.
6. Special considerations for high school students in choosing research problems should
be considered, such as the relevance to the K-12 tracks, the feasibility of the study,
external support, and the innovative quality of the chosen study.
 HANDOUT 5
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Writing the General Problem in a Qualitative Study

Criteria in writing the purpose statement:
1. It should use single and not compound sentences.
2. It should clearly express the purpose of the study.
3. It should include the central phenomenon.
4. It should use qualitative words, e.g., explore, discover, and explain.
5. It should identify the participants in the study.
6. It should state the research site.

A sample pattern for the purpose statement is provided below.

The purpose of this (narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic,
case) is to (understand, describe, develop, discover) the (central phenomenon of the study)
for (the participants) at (the site). At this stage in the research, the (central phenomenon)
will be generally defined as (a general definition of the central concept) (Creswell and Clark,
2014).

Examples of a general problem.

The overall objective of this phenomenological study is to describe the intrapersonal
and interpersonal competencies of school principals, and their relationship to the school
effectiveness in the Division of Bataan for the school year 2001-2002. The result is used as
a basis for an intervention program (Cristobal, 2003). Here, intrapersonal is the school
managers’ own self-concept and personality while interpersonal is their communication
and expressions in dealing with subordinates.

The general problem is followed by an enumeration of the specific problems. These

problems are usually stated as questions that the researcher seeks to answer. Therefore,
the specific problems must meet the following criteria:
1. They must be in question form.
2. They must define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
3. They must identify the variables being studied.

According to Creswell and Clark (2014), there are two types of research questions.
These are as follows:
1. Central questions – These are the most general questions that can be asked.
2. Sub-questions – These questions subdivide the central question into more specific
topical questions and are only limited in number.

Creswell and Clark (2014) also provide some guidelines in formulating the research
question:
1. The question should begin with words such as “how” or “what”.
2. The readers should be informed of the information that will be discovered,
 generated, explored, identified, or described in the study.
3. The question “What happened?” should be asked to help craft the description.
4. The question “What was the meaning to people of what happened?” should be
asked to understand the results.
5. The question “What happened over time?” should be asked to explore the process.

In addition, Cresswell and Clark (2004) also provide the following scripts as a guide
in designing qualitative central and sub-questions:
1. Central question script
a. “What is the meaning of/what does it mean to (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:
i. What is the meaning of intrapersonal competencies?
ii. What does it mean to differentiate the customs and traditions of Aetas to those
of the locals?
iii. What does it mean to characterize the study habits of the top 10 students of
the class?
b. “How would (participants) describe (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:
i. How would school managers describe intrapersonal competencies?
ii. How would the Aetas and locals of Zambales differentiate their customs and
traditions?
iii. How would the top ten high school students characterize their general study
habits?
2. Sub-question script
“What (aspect) does (participant) engage in as a (central phenomenon)?”
Examples:
a. What level of self-concept do the school managers engage in as a characteristic
of interpersonal competencies?
b. What nature of practices do the Aetas and locals of Zambales engage in as a
part of their customs and traditions?
c. What kind of preparation do the top 10 high school students engage in as an
indicator of their general study habits?

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In general, there are two types of questions formulated in research. These are as follows:
1. Non-researchable questions – These are questions of value and are answerable by yes
or no.
Examples:
a. Should all mothers breastfeed their babies?
b. Should high school teachers be watchful over their Grade 7 students?
c. Should the schools offering different majors in senior high schools require their
students to have a mandatory review before taking the National Assessment Exam?
d. Do all head teachers have a master’s degree?
e. Are family members helping their children in reviewing their lessons?
2. Researchable questions – These are questions of opinions, perceptions, or policy that
are raised to accumulate data. Formulating a clear, significant question prepares the
 researcher for subsequent decision-making on research design, data collection, and
data analysis.
Examples:
a. What are the common preparations done by Grade 7 students during their first
days in school?
b. How do senior high school students respond to their Math teacher?
c. What are the study habits of students who are poorly performing?
d. What is the relationship of the attitudes of the adviser to the classroom behavior of
Grade 9 students?
e. How do the officers of the Parent-Teacher Community Association assist in the
improvement of school facilities?

Dickoff et. al (as cited by Wilson, 1989) provide further classification to research questions.
These are as follows:
1. Factor-isolating questions – These ask the question “What is this?” These questions are
sometimes called factor-naming questions because they isolate, categorize, describe, or
name factors and situations.
Examples:
a. What is the profile of school principals in terms of the following?
i. Age
ii. Management experience
iii. Civil status
b. What are the levels of competencies of school principals as described by their
respective teachers and themselves in terms of the following?
i. Intrapersonal
ii. Interpersonal
2. Factor-relating questions – These ask the question “What is happening here?” The goal
of these questions is to determine the relationship among factors that have been
identified.
Examples:
a. What is the relationship of the level of performance of the senior high school
teachers to the OJT performance of the students enrolled in the business track
of Saint Paul School of Professional Studies?
b. How does the performance level of volleyball teams of boys differ to that of the
girls?
3. Situation-relating questions – These questions ask the question “What will happen
if...?”
These questions usually yield hypotheses testing or experimental study designs in
which the researcher manipulates the variables to see what will happen.
Examples:
a. What are the effects of computer-learning assisted methods of teaching to the
interest level of the sophomores to their history subjects?
b. How significantly different is the performance of the call center agents who are
well rested than those who are not?
4. Situation-producing questions – These ask the question “How can I make it happen?”
 These questions establish explicit goals for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to
achieve goals, and specify the conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
Examples:
a. Based on the findings, what human relation intervention program can be
adopted to enhance or improve effectiveness of existing teaching methods?
b. What faculty development activities can be sponsored by the PTCA to improve
the performance of graduating students in the UP College Admission Test
(UPCAT)?

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. In writing a good qualitative general problem or central question, the following criteria
should be considered:
a. It should be written in a single sentence.
b. It should include the purpose of the study.
c. It should include the central phenomenon.
d. It should use qualitative words.
e. It should identify the participants in the study.
f. It should specify the research site.
2. The general problem can be followed by specific problems or sub-questions which
must satisfy the following criteria:
a. They must be in question form.
b. They should define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
c. They should identify the variables being studied.
3. Questions in qualitative research usually ask how or what questions.
4. The two general types of research questions are researchable and non-researchable
questions. These are further classified into four (4) types: factor

Reference:
Cristobal, A. P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017) Enhanced Teacher’s Manual Practical Research 1 for
Senior High School. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City
 HANDOUT 6
The Scope and Delimitation and the Significance of the Study

SETTING THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study is determined primarily by the selection of variables that the
research study will focus on. Defining the scope of the research requires the careful
selection of variables that will be investigated, as well as the attributes that will define and
measure these variables.

A variable refers to any characteristic that can have different values or traits that
may vary across research participants. Variables are measured, controlled, and
manipulated by the researcher.

Attributes are important elements of a variable. It refers to the value assigned to a

specific variable.

Important characteristics of variables:

1. Dependence refers to how the variable is considered in a cause-and-effect
relationship.
2. Mutually exclusive – means that a participant or respondent cannot possess two
attributes of a variable. For instance, a person cannot be both male and female.
3. Exhaustive –means that the researcher should consider all possible attributes of a
certain variable. Selecting the most relevant attributes for each variable is part of
setting the scope of the study.

Kinds of Variables
1. Independent variables are characteristics that the researcher changes, manipulates,
or selects.
2. Dependent variables change because of changes to the independent variable.
3. Continuous variables – variables that may have an infinite number of values and may
vary widely among the research participants. Examples include age and weight.
4. Discrete variables – variables that have specific limits to their value. Examples
include income, number of children, or years of employment.
5. Categorical variables – these cannot be expressed in numbers but are given in
nonquantitative, descriptive terms. Examples include civil status (single, married,
widowed), and educational achievement (high school graduate, college graduate,
postgraduate).

Delimitation of the study

The delimitation of the study describes the various limitations that arose during the design
and conduct of the study. The limitations of the study are defined primarily by the scope of
the study. While the scope of the study defines the variables that are the focus of the
research, the delimitation of the study identifies the other variables that were not
considered for the study.
Limitations of the study: It pertains to the things that you do not include in your study.
Delimitations of the study: these refer to the things that you include in your study.

Possible limitations that may arise from the research design and methodology:
1. Sample size. The sample size will determine the data quality and the relationships
identified among the variables.
2. Lack of available and/or reliable data. Missing and unreliable data will limit the
scope of analysis and the ability of the researcher to determine meaningful trends and
relationships among the data.
3. Lack of prior studies. This will limit the effectiveness of the literature review and may
limit the initial understanding of the research problem. This, however, can be a basis
for identifying avenues for further research.
4. Chosen data collection method. Limitations in the data collection instrument may
affect the data quality. Unclear or vague questions in a questionnaire will result in
unclear or erroneous answers from the respondents. The method employed in data
collection may also affect the quality of the data.
5. Nature of the information collected. Relying on preexisting data may impose limits on
the researcher as he or she can no longer clarify certain data. Self-reported data have
the risk of being false and cannot be easily verified.

Possible limitations that may arise from the characteristics of the researcher and his/her
experiences:
1. Access. The amount and quality of data will depend on the ability of the researcher to
access people, organizations, libraries, and documents that can provide him or her with
the best available data.
2. Time period. The length of time devoted to the study will affect almost all aspects of
the research. Selecting a research problem and design that gives way to a more
manageable time period is advisable.
3. Bias. This refers to a way of viewing a certain thing, issue, or idea and may be
influenced by the researcher’s background. The researcher, therefore, should be aware
of his or her personal biases and how these affect the conduct of the research.
4. Language. This may have an effect on data collection, especially if the researcher is
involved with respondents that speak a variety of languages. This is especially a
challenge in studies involving documents written in different languages.

TIPS FOR WRITING A SCOPE & LIMITATIONS

State the Scope of your study to define the Coverage and set the Limitation or Boundary of
the research.
▰ It should include the following discussions:
§ Test Subjects
§ Intervention or Treatment
§ Sampling Method
§ Schedule or time frame

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study discusses the benefits of the study to society in general
and to its beneficiaries in particular. This section describes the contribution of the study to
the existing body of knowledge. It could be in the form of new knowledge in the field,
confirmation of the major findings of other studies, verification of the validity of findings in
a different population, analysis of trends over time, and validation of other findings using
different methodologies.

The researcher also has to identify the beneficiaries who will directly gain from the
results of the study. In identifying the beneficiaries, the researcher should be specific in
mentioning them in the paper. The specific benefits must also be enumerated and
explained if necessary. It is also important that the beneficiaries should be listed according
to the significance of the study’s results to them.

How to write significance of the study;

1. Discuss the methodological, substantive, and/or theoretical contribution.
2. State the practical and/or theoretical importance of your study's problem and/or
objectives.
3. Explain the usefulness or benefits of the study to both the outside world and the
research community.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature review is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a topic. It can be a partial component of a research
undertaking, but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writing on a subject.

Literature Review serves the following purposes:

1. It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context.
2. It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken.
3. It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light on various gaps based on previous
research.
4. It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
5. It identifies the areas that are subject to a prior study to prevent duplication of efforts.
6. It points to another research undertaking.

Types of Reading
1. Elementary reading. This is the most common kind of reading. It consists merely of
the recognition of letters and basic sounds and the literal comprehension of sentences.
It is primarily useful that an individual can recognize letters and sounds correctly, but
it is better if he or she comprehends the ideas presented in each sentence after reading.
2. Systematic skimming. Research demands a lot of reading. Hence, the reader must
establish a system through which he or she can maximize time in searching for
pertinent or relevant literature.
3. Analytic reading. The reader asks questions to understand the article such as, “What is
the book or article all about?”, “What is being said in detail and how?”, and “What of it?”
He or she takes time to understand every detail of the piece.
4. Comparative reading. This is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to
 place what he or she is currently reading in relation to other materials he or she has
previously read. This type of reading helps the reader identify the similarities and
differences between two or more articles in terms of their variables and propositions.

CONDUCTING A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Steps in Reviewing Literature
1. Finding relevant materials. The researcher’s priority is to enrich his or her work by
reading literature containing important data relative to his or her problem to fully
comprehend the variables being studied.
2. Actual reading. After the preselection process, the researcher must thoroughly
critique the contents of the materials. Critiquing involves asking questions that, at this
stage, should focus on the variables.
3. Note-taking. One of the characteristics of a good researcher is being systematic. He or
she must establish a system of note-taking to save time and effort. The researcher must
take notes, putting only the important data in his or her own words. It is suggested that
the researcher prepare index cards on which he or she can take notes before gathering
or searching for reference materials to review the literature. The note-taking process is
useful, especially when the researcher is already synthesizing and compiling ideas from
different references. Note-taking also facilitates the consolidation of the literature
gathered.

Strategies in Reading Literature

1. Previewing. It is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for in
the text. Systematic skimming is done here.
2. Highlighting. It is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and to note
the relationships among ideas.
3. Annotating. It is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes. In these
notes, one defines new words, identifies allusions and patterns of language or imagery,
summarizes plot relationships, lists a work’s possible themes, suggests a character’s
motivation, examines the possible significance of particular images or symbols, or
records questions that occur in reading. Ideally, annotations will help one find ideas to
write about.

1. Review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other
researchers have written on a certain topic.
2. The purposes of reviewing literature are to help place the work being reviewed in its
context; describe the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken;
identify new ways to interpret various gaps based on previous research; solve conflicts
among seemingly contradictory previous studies; identify the topic that are subjects of
previous studies; and point out new topics for a study.
3. The levels of reading are elementary reading, systematic skimming, critical reading,
and comparative reading.
4. The three steps in conducting the review of literature are finding relevant literatures,
actual reading, and note-taking.
5. The three strategies in reviewing literature are previewing, highlighting, and
annotating.
Formatting a Paper Using the APA Style
by Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott
1. Abbreviations. Avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you need to use an
abbreviation or acronym that is recognized in your language and you can find it in the
dictionary, then you can use it.
2. Hyphenations. Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Rather, leave
one line slightly short and put the complete word on the next line; otherwise, proceed a
couple of characters past the right margin to adjust the complete word on the line.
3. Indentions. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one-half inch if
using a word processing program or indent five to seven spaces in if typing on a
typewriter. However, do not indent in these unique circumstances: the abstract, block
quotations, figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or
headings.
4. Margins. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: top, bottom, right, and left.
Old rules required 1.5-inch margins, but these rules are now obsolete.
5. Page numbering. Number nearly every page in the paper, including the title page. Put
the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numbers. Put “1”
on the title page and “2” on the abstract page. Begin the main body of the text on page
number “3.” Do not number pages that consist of only statistics or illustrations.
6. Paper type. Use regular white, 20-pound bond paper that has measurements of 8.5 by
11 inches. If printing from a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper;
if you must use a tractor-feed printer, make sure to tear off the pinhole borders from
the sides of the paper.
7. Parentheses. Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide structurally independent
items, such as listing a number or illustration associated with a sentence. If you are
enclosing a full sentence in parentheses, position the punctuation inside the
parentheses. If you are enclosing only a piece of a sentence inside parentheses, then
place the punctuation outside the parentheses.
8. Punctuation. In most cases, use a single space after all common punctuation marks,
such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. There are three exceptions to this
norm: (1) do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when writing
the U.S. for the United States; (2) do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 4:7;
and (3) some professors like the outdated rule of using two spaces after periods that
end sentences. If you use Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style permits two
spaces between sentences, although one space is recommended.
9. Short title. A short title is a two- or three-word introduction of the main title. Put it on
every page in the top right corner, except for pages that consist of only numbers or
illustrations. The short title should appear slightly to the left of the page number.
10. Slash mark. Do not use slash marks in your paper. For instance, rather than writing
“blue and/or purple,” it is better to write, “blue, purple, or both.”
11. Spacing. Use double spacing throughout the whole paper, unless your professor
expressly asks for single spacing in specific situations, such as with block quotations.
12. Text alignment. Always format the text flush left. Do not use the “full justify” feature on
your word processor’s toolbar because this will spread the text fully across the paper
and align sentences both left and right.
13. Title. Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase and
lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to warrant a second line, double space
between the lines. After the title, include your name, followed by the college that you
attend. If you do not
belong to a college, you can substitute the city and state. Double space between each
line on the title page. Put the number “1” in the upper right corner of the title page.
14. Typeface. If using a word processor like MS-Word, opt for a Serif font, such as
Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.

Reference:
Cristobal, A. P. & De La Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017) Enhanced Teacher’s Manual Practical Research 1 for
Senior High School. C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City

An Effective Literature Review should:

1. Flesh out the background of your study.
2. Critically assess important research trends or areas of interest.
3. Identify potential gaps in knowledge.
4. Establish a need for current and/or future research projects.

TIPS on drafting a literature review:

1. Categorize the literature into a recognizable topic clusters:
Ø stake out the various positions that are relevant to your project,
Ø build on conclusions that lead to your project, or
Ø demonstrate the places where the literature is lacking.
2. Avoid “Smith says X, Jones says Y” literature reviews.
3. Avoid including all the studies on the subject.
4. Avoid polemics, praise, and blame.

Writing Literature Reviews: Key Points

q You are entering a scholarly conversation already in progress. The literature
review shows that you’ve been listening and that you have something valuable to
say.
q After assessing the literature in your field, you should be able to answer the
following questions:
o Why should we study (further) this research topic/problem?
o What contributions will my study make to the existing literature?